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ELEMENTS 

OF 

GENERAL   HISTORY, 

AHtnZOrT  AHD  MOBBUI. 

BY  ALBXANDER  FRAg^EUJl  J'YTLEE,  F.  R.  8.  B- 


WTTB  A 

CONTINUATION, 

vs&mjvATnco  Ar 

THE  DEMISE  OF  KING  GEORGE  m.,  IjBSM. 

BY  RBV.  EDWARD  NARES,  D.  D. 
ProfeMor  of  Biodern  History  in  the  UntversUy  of  Oiftid 

TO  imiCH  ARC  ADDXD,  A  SUCCIIICT 

HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES ; 
ADDITIGNS  AND  ALTERATIONS. 

BY  AN  AMERICAN  GENTLEMAN. 

tOrPLTIlfO  IMPORTANT  OMISSIOITS.  BRIKOING  DOWN  THS  HABBATIOa 

or  XTENTS  -CO  79E.BEXSIKNIVe^?r  yHJB^V^lBS^t  TKAR. 

AND  COamc'^Vb^  W^^  PX^AiGrnS^RftLATlNO 

TO  THB 

'.  : :       •"!,.:'?   :   *.*   •*•  •  •    • 

F"»  A?  1VFRQ.VU..  .      . 

A  C0MPARATI7JS  TIKIf  OF 

ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  GEOGRAPHY; 

0  AND 

QUESTIONS  ON  EACH  SECTION. 

A9APTSD  FOR  TRB  UtS  OF  SCHOOLS  AND  ACAOUIXBS, 
BT  AN  EXPERIENCED  TEACHER. 


^KSEOTTPCD  BT  T.  U.  CARTER  k,  CO.  BOSTONS 

'  — ■     ^     ..  ■  .  -I  ^1.  .1  ■■      I 

Concotv,  V.  m. 

pmtmm  and  fvbusbsd  bt  rohatio   bill  It  co. 

sun:::: 

1881. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQK 


H  :■''.  :.l.i8 


DISTRICT  Or  NEW-HAHFBHIRE,  toiHit 

District  CUrk's^gUe. 

BE  IT  REMEMBERED,  that  on  the  nxth  day  of  NoTtmber,  A.  D ' 

1,824,  and  in  the  forty-ninth  year  of  the  Independence  of  the  United  Sutae 

of  America,  ISAAC  HILL,  of  the  said  District,  has  deposited  in  this  office 

^  the  title  of  a  book,  the  right  whereof  he  claims  as  proprietor,  id  the  words  fbl- 

'  lowing,  to  tsil  .*— 

**  Elements  of  General  History,  ancient  and  modem.  Br  Alexander  Era- 
ser Tytler,  F.  R  S.  £.  Professor  of  History  in  the  University  of  Edinbanh. 
With  a  continoation,  terminating  at  the  demise  of  Kin^  George  III.,  IJSSo. 
By  Rev.  Edward  Narae,  D.  D.  pTofeaaor  of  ModerA  history  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Oxford.  To  which  are  added,  a  succinct  Hi^ry  of  the  United 
States ',  with  additions  and  alterations,  by  on  American  gentleman.  Supply- 
ing important  omissions,  bringing  down  the  narration  of  events  to  the  begin- 
ning or  the  present  year,  and  correctingmany  passages  relating  to  the  history 
of  mis  country.  With  an  improved  Table  of  Chronology ;  a  oomparative 
view  of  Ancient  and  Modem  Geography ;  and  ^estions  on  each  section. 
Adapted  for  the  use  of  Schools  ana  Academies,  by  an  experienced 
Teacher.** 

In  conlbrmity  to  the  act  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  entitled, 
**  An  act  for  the  encouragement  of  learning,  by  eecnrinc  the  copies  of  maps, 
charts,  and  botflu,*td  )hcC authors  und3>PpprieCorB  ef<6uch  copies,  during  the 
times  therein  m^tioifed^^yidid  a{so^  at^*  mjijli^  "lAn  act  supplementa- 
iT  to  an  act,  entitled  ^mictror  the^encouragement  ef  learning,  by  secorinff 
»e  copies  of  maps^hi^  andbpqlD^tp.thf  uithc^^.an^  proprietors  of  each 
copies  dnrin^  Ae^onestlter^  jnetttfOnctfi  "97  ext|ndhi^the  benefits  there- 
of to  the  am  of  designtog*,  ^gQAr^9a{n;etchijk*.{tfktorical  and  other 
prinn.' 

.  .••/?    /-  MflLLIAM  CLAGGETT,  CUrk 

Atl«e«opjof«Mord.'     •*•    • ^      ^     ^^ 

AttMl WILLIAM  CLAGGETT,  Cleik. 


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ADVERTISEMENT. 


Ih  prapaiing  this  edition,  the  original  text  of  Tjtler  and 
Naree  has  been  carefolly  revised  and  corrected.  Part  IV., 
whiell  contains  the  History  of  South  America,  New  Spain,  and 
the  West  Indies,  has  been  added.  These  countries  are  scarcely 
noticed  in  former  editions ;  but  they  have  acquired  a  rank  and 
importance  which  make  their  history  equally  important  to  the 
plan  of  this  work,  and  equally  interesting,  with  that  of  most 
ooontriet  in  Europe.  Additions  have  also  been  made  to  many 
charters  in  Part  III.,  by  which  the  history  is  continued  to  tha 
eommencement  of  1,624.  The  Questions  for  Examination  in 
tlM  edition  of  1,823,  have  been  ^rrected,  and  new  Questions 
are  added,  adapted  to  the  additions  made  to  the  text* 

Hiepablisher  has  been  at  considerable  expense  in  obtaining 
tfacae  inqnovements,  but  he  trusts  that  they  make  thb  edition 
decidedly  superior  to  any  that  has  been  hitherto  published. 


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PREFACE. 


THE  following  work  containB  the  Outlines  of  a  Course  of  iieetures  on 
General  History,  delivered  for  many  years  in  the  University  of  Edin- 
bmig^h,  and  received  with  a  portion  of  the  public  approbation  amply 
sufficient  to  compensate  the  labours  of  ^he  author.  He  beg^an  to  compose 
these  Elements  principally  *with  the  view  of  fumjshin^r  an  aid  to  students 
attendini^  his  Lectures ;  but  soon  conceived,  that,  by  gfiving^  a  little  more 
amplitude  to  their  composition,  he  mi^^ht  render  the  work  of  more  general 
utility.  As  now  given  to  the  public,  he  would  willingly  flatter  himself 
that  it*may  be  not  only  servicei&le  to  youth,  in  furni^hiiig  a  regular  plan 
for  the  prosecution  of  this  important  study,  but  useful  even  to  those  who 
have  acquired  a  competent  knowledge  of  general  history  from  the  peru- 
sal of  the  works  of  detached  historians,  and  who  wish  to  methodize  that 
knowledge,  or  even  to  refresh  their  memory  on  material  facts  and  the 
order  of  events. 

In  the  composition  of  these  Elements  the  author  has  endeavoured  to 
unite  with  the  detail  of  facts,  so  much  of  reflection  as  to  aid  the  mind 
in  the  formation  of  rational  views  of  the  causes  and  consequences  of 
events,  as  well  as  of  the  policy  of  the  actors ;  but  he  has  anxiously 
gruarded  against  that  speculative  refinement  which  has  sometimes  entered 
into  works  of  this  nature.  Sudi  works  profess  to  exhibit  the  philosophy 
or  the  spirit  of  history,  but  are  more  adapted  to  display  the  writer^! 
ingenuity  as  a  theorist,  or  talents  as  a.  rhetorician,  than  to  instruct  the 
reader  in  the  more  usefid  knowledge  of  historical  facts. 

As  the  progress  of  the  human  mind  forms  a  capital  object  in  the  study 
of  history,  the  state  of  the  arts  and  sciences,  the  religion,  laws,  govern- 
ment, and  manaersof  nations,  are  mateKal part*!  even  in  an  elementary 
work  of  tiiis  nature.  The  histoiy  of  literature  is  a  most  important  arti- 
cle in  this  study.  The  authdr  has  therefoie  endeavoured  to  "^ive  to  each  of 
these  topics  its  due  ihare  of  attention ;  and  ia  that  view  mey  are  sepa- 
rately treated,  iu  distinct  sections,  at  particular  periods  of  time. 

ALEX*  FRAdER  TTTLER. 

JBMnkmgJ^Jtfrn  180L 


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CONTENTS. 


■  <lO»ti» 


INTRODUCTION. 

Advmatagw  mruipg  from  the  Study  of  History,  and  moro  partieiilarlj 

from  proMcotiag  it  according  to  a  regular  Plan     -       -       •       -       II ' 
VKaM  of  TBS  COVRiX  ••...•..  13 


PART  FIRST 

ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


fleet.  1.  Eerlieft  authentic  Accounts  of  the  Histoiy  of  the  World  17 
fleet    9L  Omsiderations  on  the  Nature  of  the  First  Gorenimenti^  and 

on  the  Laws,  Customs,  Arts,  end  Scienees  of  the  first 

Am  18 

flee?.    3.  Of  the  Egyptians 20 

fleet    4.  Of  the  PhceniciaBS  2S 

fleet    b.  The  History  of  Greece '   •  ih. 

fleet    6.  Reflections  on  the  first  and  rudest  Periods  of  the  Greeian 

History '--  23 

fleet.    7.  $arly  .period  of  Grecian  Histoiy*    Argooautic  Expedition. 

Wars  of  Thebes  and  Troy  -        -        «       •     ..  24 

fleet    8.  Estahlfshment  of  the  Greek  Colonies        ...  25 

fleet    9.  The  Republic  of  Sparta 26 

fleet  10.  The  Republic  of  Athens 28 

fleet  11.  Of  the  state  of  the  Persian  Empixey  and  its  CDstoiy  down  to 

the  War  with  Greece         ......  29 

Sect  IS.  The  War  between  Greece  and  Persia       -       •       •       -  81 

fleet  13.  Age  of  Pericles i     •        .  33 

fleet  14.  TheRepobUoofThebos 35 

Sect  15.  Philip  of  Macedon         .••.•..  fj^^ 

fleet  16.  Alexander  the  Groat         • 36 

fleet  17.  Successors  of  Alexander       ......  38 

Sect  18.  Fan  and  con^oest  of  Greece  .        •        .        .        *  39 

fleet  IS.  Politioel  Reflections  arising  from  the  Hiitoiy  of  the  Stalee  of 

Greece      ..'•-.•••  40 

fleet  90  flute  ofthe  Alts  in  Greece       • 41 

fleet  21    Ofthe  Greek  Poets •  43 

fleet  291  Ofthe  Greek  Historians 45 

fleet  2BL  Ofthe  Greek  Philosophers  4T 

.fli.' The  History  of  Rome 49 

Reflections  on  the  GoTemment  and  State  of  Rome  onder  the 

Kij«s .  Bt 

At 


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6  r  ■         .  CONTENTS. 

Sect  S5.  Rome  under  the  Cowuls  -  ....     ^^ 

Sect  26.  The  Law  of  Volero 56 

Sect  27.  The  DeoemTU-ate 67 

Sect  28.  Increase  of  nopnlar  Power     .*....  58 

Sect  29.  Conquest  or  Italjr  by  the  Romans 59 

Sect.  30.  History  of  CartKage 60 

Sect.  31.  History  of  Sicily 61 

Sect  32.  The  Punic  Wars  ...,,...  e2 

Sect  3d.  The  Gracchi,  and  the  Corruption  of  the  Commonwealih  64 
Sect  34.  Progress  of  the  Civil  Wars.    Second  Triumvirate,  and  fall  of  ) 

the  Republic         -'-.'-        -        •'.        .        •  '£7 

Sect.  35.  Considerations  on  such  particulars  as  marie  the  Genius  and  • 

national  Character  of  the  Romans     •        -        -    -  -   .  70 

System  of  Roman  Education    -        -        *        -        -       -  'ib. 

Sect.  3G.  Of  the  Progress  of  Literature  anlong  the  Romans  -       .  71 

Sect  37.  State  of  Pnilosopby  amonff  the  Romans     ...  75 

Sect  38.  Of  tlic  Public  and  Private  Manners  of  the  Ron^ans    -        •  76 

Sect  39.  Ofthc  Art  of  War  among  the  Romans  -        -        -  77 

Sect  40.  Renections  arising  from  a  View  ef  the  Roman  History  during 

the  Commonwealth  --..-.  79 

Sect  41.  Borne  under  the  Emperors 81 

Sect.  42.  TTie  same  subject  continued  .        .        •        .        .  g4 

Sect.  43.  Age  of  the  Antonines,  «&c.        • 87 

Sect  44.  State  of  the  Roman  Empire  at  the  time  of  Constantine.    His 

Successors *  90 

Sect  45.  Progress  of  the  Christian  Religion  from  its  Institution  to  the 

Extinction  of  Paganisnj  in  the  Reign  of  Theododus      -  93 

Sect.  46.  Extinction  of  the  Roman  Empire  in  the  West  '  -  1  95 
Sect  47.  Of  the  Origin,  Manners,  and  Character  of  tlie  Gothic  Nations 

before  thoir  establishment  in  the  Roman  Empire  -  97 
S^ct.  48*  Of  the  Manners^  J^aws,  and  Government  of  the  Gothic  Na- 
tions after  their  establishment  in  the  Roman  Empire  .  99 
Sect.  49.  Method  of  studying  Ancient  History         ....  102 


PART  SECOND. 

MODERN  HISTORY. 


I.  Of  Arabia  and  the  Empire  of  the,  Saracens  '  *       -      106 

Sect    2.  Monarchy  of  the  Franks        ...  •        -  108 

Sect    3.  Reflections  on  the  State  of  France  during  the  Merovingian 

race  of  its  Rinfln 109 

Sect    4.  Charlemagne.    The  new  Empire  of  the  West       -        -         112 
Sect    5.  ]^f anners,  tjfovenimentSi  and  Customs  of  the  Age  of  Char- 
lemagne         ---      113 

Sect    6.  Retrospective  View  of  the  Affairs  cf  the  Church  before  the 

A^e  of  Charlemagne -  115 

Sect    7.  Empire  of  the  West  under  the  Successors  of  Charlemagne .      116  * 
Scot    a.  Empire  of  the  East  during  the  Eishth  ajtd  Ninth  Centurie^       118 
Sect,    9.  State  of  the  Church  in  the  Eighth  and  Nfai'th  Centuries      -      119 
Sect  10.  Of  the  Saradens  in  the  Eighth  and  Ninth  Centories        -    •      IdO 
Sect  11.  Einpire  of  the  West  and  Italy  in  the  Teath  and  Eleventh 

.    Ceattiiies M* 

Seet  12.  History  of  firitain  from  its  earliest  Period  down  to  the  Nor- 
man Conquest  -----.-  123 
Boict  13  Ofthe  Govemment,Laws,and  Manners  of  the  Anglo-Saaons  127 


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CONTENTS.  7 

Sml  U.  Sttto  of  Ewope  during  the  Tantliy  Eleventli,  and  Twelfth 

Centiuieg .•        -      1528 

Sect  15.  Hlitory  of  EnsUDd  in  the  £]eTenth|  Twelfth,  and  part  of  the 

Thiiteenth.Centuries         - 190 

Sect  la  State  of  Gennany  and  Italy  in  the  Thineenth  Centnry  134 

Sect.  17.  The  Cnuadea  or  Holy  Wars 135 

Sect.  lA.  OfChhralry  and  Romance 138 

Sect  19.  Sute  of  Earope  in  the  Thirteenth  and  Fourteenth  Centories    140 

Secu  90.  Rerolation  in  fiwitaeriand 141 

SccL  9^  State  of  Earope  oontinued  in  tlie  Thirteenth,  Fourteenth,  and 

part  oTthe  Fifteenth  Centuriea  ....  142 

SecL  83.  Hbtory  of  England  in  the  Thirteenth  Century  -  143 

Sect.  98.  Hialory  of  Scotland  from  the  Eleventh  to  the  Fourteenth 

Century 144 

Sect.  94.  History  of  England  in  the  Fourteenth  Century       -        -  146 

Sect.  25.  England  and  France  in-  the  Fifteenth  Century.     State  of 

Maimers 147 

Sect  2r>.  DecUno  and  Fall  of  the  Greek  Emoire  ...  149 

S«ct.  37.  Goveniment  and  Policy  of  the  Turkish  Empire         -       •      150 
i<rrt.  98.  France  and  Italy  in  the  End  of  the  Fifteenth  Century  151 

Sect.  99.  History  of  Spain  in  the  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Oanturies     152 
Sect.  30.  France,  Spam,  and  Italy,  in  the  End  of  the  Fifteenth  and  Be- 
ginning of  the  Sixteenth  Centunr         -        ...        .        153 
Sect.  31.  History  of  England  from  the  Hi  Ale  of  the  Fifteenth  to  the 
Beginning  of  the  Sixteenth  Century.    Civil  Wars  of  York 

anci  Lancaster 154 

Sect.  32.  History  of  Scotland  ftom  tlie  Middle  of  the  Fourteenth  Cen- 
tury to  the  End  of  the  Reign  of  James  V.  -  ir>6 
Scot.  33.  Of  the  Ancient  Constitution  of  the  Seotlish  Government  15'J 
Sect.  31.  A  view  of  the  Progress  of  Literature  and  Science  in  Europe 
ftom  the  Bevival  of  Letters  to  the  End  of  the  Fifteenth 

Century -        -        -      ICO 

Sect.  35.  View  of  the  Progress  of  Commerce  in  Earope  before  the 

Portugoe-se  ^^overies      ......  ICC* 

Sect.  38.  Discoveries  of  iR  Portuguese  in  the  Fifteenth  Century,  and 

their  effects  on  the  Commerce  of  Europe       ...      ]65 
Sect.  37.  Germany  and  France  in  the  Reigns  of  Charles  V.  and  Fran- 
cis L  . 107 

StrL  ^.  Observations  on  the  Constitution  of  the  German  Empire  170 

if«^t.  39.  Of  the  Reformation  in  Germanv  and  Switzerland,  and  the 

Revolution  in  Deimiark  and  Sweden     -        -        -        *      171 
Sect  40.  Of  the  Reformation  in  England  under  Henry  VHI.  and  his 

Successors         ........  174 

Sect  41.  Of  the  Di-scovery  and  Conquest  of  America  by  the  Spaniards  175 
6tri.  42.  Po?t9esijions  of  tne  other  European  Nations  in  America  177 

S«  a.  43.  Of  the  Stnte  of  the  Fine  Artsm  Europe,  in  the  Age  of  Leo  X.  180 
2^ect.  44.  Of  the  Otioman  Power  in  the  Sixteenth  Century       -        -      l&i 
^fU  45.  Slato  of  Persia,  and  the  other  Asiatic  Kingdoms,  in  the  Six- 
teenth and  Seventeenth  Centuries      •        -        -        -  183 

8ecC.  46.  History  of  India 184 

Sect.  47.  Ancient  State  of  India ;  Manners,  Laws,  Arts,  and  Sciences, 

andReligioa,  of  the  Hindoos 186' 

Sect.  48.  Of  China  and  Japan 18(^ 

Sect.  49.  Of  the  Antiquity  of  the  Empire  of  China.    State  of  the  Artt 

and  Sciences,  Mannera,  Uovenunent,  Laws  -  -  189 
SecL  50.  Mr.  Bailly*s  Theory  of  the  Origin  of  the  Sciences  among  the 

Nations  of  Asia  .•....-•  192 
Sict  iU.  Seign  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain.    Revolution  of  the  Netheiiandi, 

and  Establishment  of  the  Republic  of  Holland  .  194 
B&tL  58.  Of  the  Constitution  and  Gownment  of  the  United  Provinces  196 
SacL  S3.  Reip  of  Philip  H.  oontimied 197 


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8  CONTENTS. 

Pag« 
Sect  54.  State  of  Fcaoce  m  the  End  of  the  Sikteeptb  Centainr>  oBder 

Henry  it,  Francis  II.,  Charles  IX.,  Henry  luL    and 

Henry  IV. :         197 

Sect  56.  History  of  England  and  SeoUand  in  the  Reigns  of  EJizaheth 

and  Manr  Qaeen  of  Scots  -----      199 

Sect  56.  Histonr  or  Great  Britun  in  the  Reigns  of  James  I.  and 

Charles  I. 203 

Sect.  67.  The  Commonwealth  of  Endand        •       -       •       .     '  .      907 

Sect  68.  Reigns  of  Charles  II.  and  James  H SOB 

Sect  69.  On  the  British  Constitution 211 

Sect  GO  Ofthe  Public  Revenue  of  Great  Britain        **       -        -       2X4 
Sect  61.  History  of  France  under  Lewis  XIII.       -    .    •       -        -  .  216  . 
Sect  62.  Spain  under  Phihp  IIL  and  PhOip  IV.    ConstitoUon  of  For- 

tugal  and  Spain    --------'     217 

Sect.  63.  Aifaira  of  Germany  from  the  Abdication  of  Charles  V.  to  the 

Peace  of  Westphalia 218 

Sect  64.  France  under  Lewis  XIV.         - 219 

Sect  65.  Ofthe  Constitution  of  Franco  under  the  Monarchy        -         223 
Sect  66.  Of  Peter  the  Great,  Czar  of  Muscovy,  and  Charles  XII., 

King  of  Sweden  ------.      284 

Sect.  67.  A  View  ofthe  Progress -of  Science  and  Literature  in  Eorope, 

from  the  End  ofthe  FiAeenth  to  the  End  of  the  Sixteenth 

CentQiy 227 


APPENDIX. 

THE  HISTORY  OP  THE  JEWS. 

Sett    1.  A  General  View  of  the  History  of  Mankind  in  the  Primeval 

Ages ttSl 

Sect    2.  Summary  View  of  Jewish  History         -       *        •>     ,  •  232 

Scot    3.  The  Antiquity  of  the  Scriptures 233 

Sect.    4.  The  Subject  of  the  Books,  and  Characters  ofthe  Writers  236 

Sect.    5.  Of  the  Antediluvian  Worid           .....  240 

Sect.    6.  First  Ares  after  the  Deluge      ..:....  241 

Sect    7.  Ofthe  Jews ib 

Sect    8.  The  History  of  the  Hebrews  daring  the  Government  of  the 

Judges 244 

Sect    9.  Retrospect  ofthe  Government  ofthe  Hebrews          •       •  245 

Sect  10.  Regal  Government  ofthe  Hebrews       ....  246 

Sect  11.  Restoration  ofthe  Jews  to  their  Liberty  and  Country  '      •  249 

Sect  12.  The  Sute  of  Learning  and  Commefce  among  the  Jews  258 

Condnaion 263 

PART  THIRD, 

MODERN  mSTOBT. 

Beet    1. /mice,  fiMMn  the  death  9rii«wisXiV.,l|7l6,  to  the  Fitoa  of 

Vienna,  1,738  8S7 


yGoogk 


CONTENTS.  .         .  « 

%  Eoglsiid,  fiom  Ae  Ace«Mon  of  the  House  of  Hmover, 

1,714,  to  the  end  of  th<^  Reign  of  George  the  Pint,  1,727  S62 
3.  Anstrta,  (and  Germany,)  firom  the  Peace  of  RasUdt,  1>714, 

tothe  Peace  of  Aix-Ia-Chapelle,  1,748        -        -        -  S68 

£«ct.    4.  Enfland,  from  the  Accession  of  George  U.  to  the  Throne, 

1,727, 10  his  death,  1,760 273 

^cL    S.  State  of  Europe  at  the  Conclusion  of  the  Peace  of  Aiz-la- 

Chapelle,  1,748     -        - 278 

S^ct.    e  Ofthe6«venYeara' War,  1,755—1,762         -        -        -  281 

OKI     7.  From  the  Accession  of  George  UI.,  1,760,  to  the  Commence- 

vi^nt  of  the  Disputes  with  America,  1,704  .  .  •  5288 
act.    8.  Dtfputea  botweeik  Great  Britain  and  her  American  Colonies, 

1,7G4— |,7d3 291 

Sfxt,    9.  France,  from  the  Peace  of  Pari««,  1,763,  to  the  Opening  of  the 

AsM^mbly  of  the  States  General,  1,789  -        -        -      297 

9e<L  10.  Auatna,  from  tlie  conclusion  of  tiie  Seven  Years'  War,  to  the 

d#aih  of  .Maria  Tlieresa,  1,703—1,780        -        -        -  307 

S^<t.  U.  Rriffns  of  Joseph  11.,  Leopold  II.,  &c.,  from  1,765  to  1,800  909 
t^cL  12.  France,  from  the  Opening  of  the  Afiscmbly  of  the  States 

General,  1,780,  to  the  deaths  of  the  King  and  Queen,  1,793  316 
Br^L,  13.  Great  Britain,  from  the  conclusion  of  the  American  War, 

1,7t3,  to  the  Peace  of  Amiens,  1,802  -  -  -  -  322 
Sect  14.  France,  from  the  death  of  the  King  and  Queen,  and  Over- 
throw of  the  Girondist  or  Brissotine  Party,  1,793,  to  the 

Establishment  of  the  Directory,  1,795         ...  333 

8ecl.  IS.  fWnce,  frrm  the  Establishment  of  the  Directory,  1,7D5,  to  the 

Pascfl  of  Amiens    -....•.  337 

S«<t.  1G.  Franre,  from  the  Peace  of  Amiens  to  the  Treaty  of  Tilsit, 

I,-HI7     .V 347 

S«^  17.  Spun  and  Portugal,  from  1,788  to  1,814  -        -        -  363 

:W<t.  Is.  Frvice,  from  the  Peace  of  Tilsit,  to  the  Abdication  of  Na- 

tK>|«*on,  1,'S14 359 

£cct.  19.  PMiond,  from  the  Commencement  of  the  Eighteenth  Century, 

tn  the  Treaty  of  Vienna,  1,815  ...        -  363 

frfCL  SO.  Grv^at  Britain,  from  the  Peace  of  Amiensy  1^802,  to  the  death 

of  Georfelll.,  l;^^20 369 

£>ecL  SL.  Ftmavv,  from  the  Entrance  of  the  Allies  into  Paris,  March, 

1,^14,  to  the  final  ETacuaiion  of  it  by  the  Foreign  Troops« 

1>H 375 

9«n.  22   Ifonhrm  States  of  Europe,  from  the  Close  of  the  Seyea- 

ta^oth  Century  •....••.  379 
S^A  tX  Suuih«m  States  of  Europe,  &om  the  Close  of  the  Seventeenth 

Ontury  •••*,.••  367 

flKt.  S4.  Of  India,  or  Hmdoostan  •        -        -        -        •       -      391 

.^aie  of  Art^  Sciences,  Religion,  Laws,  Goremmenti  4ke.  •  •  398 
^''««y  ...     402 

f.*rtnr»*T 405 

M  umi  gr  and  Geology          -..••.••  407 

C'.^CT»^»fiy           --•.-...  409 

I*  m  •^«en«s  U»A  InTeolions       ...                  .  •      4I9 

^  mm 420 

Ha:  ^rr,  PoHte  Liieratore,  Pine  Arts.  4ke.  «      422 

Ti«ijorVic»»,l|bl5       ....  «0 

1 


y  Google 


10  00m'EMT&  •■ 

PART  FOURTH. 

THE  UNITEb  STATES. 

Sect.  1.  DiflcoTeiy  of  Aneriea        -       -   •    -       -       -       r       -     ^B4 
Sect  2.  DiicoreriM  by  the  Engluh.    Settlement  of  Virpiiia.      •         427 
Sect.  3.  Settlement  of  M ftseachuBettB,  Rhode-Iaiandy  Connecticot)  New- 
Hampshire,  Maine,  Maryland,  North  and  South  Carolioa* 
NewOTork,  New-Jersey,   Pennaylyama,   Delaware,    and 

Geofffia 431 

Sect.  4.  War  with  France,  and  Conquest  of  Canada.    Disputes  with 

Great  Britain,  and  War  or  the  R«rolution     •>        -        •      438 
Sect  5.  Establishment  of  the  State  and  National  Govemments.    Wars 

with  Tripoli  and  the  Indians,  dec.       ....         448 
Sect.  6.  War  with  Great  Britain,  Ac      -       ^       .       -        -       -      451 


A  Table  of  Chronology 460 

CoMPARinrB  TiKw  or  Ancvm  aip  H odbrji  GsoaHApar  499 


y  Google 


INTRODUCTION. 


U  THE  T^oe  of  any  science  is  to  be  estimated  according  to  its  tenden- 
rr  to  pcotnct**  i jiproremi  nt,  cither  in  private  virtue,  or  in  those  qualities 
vkkfcli  rt-toltf  mwi  extensively  useful  in  society.  Some  objects  of  pursuit 
h.ATc  a  tccuuliiry  utility  ;  iu  fumishin«^  ratiooal  amusement,  TV'hich,  re- 
b^ttUT  the  mind  at  intervals  from  the  fatigue  of  serioas  occupation,  in- 
▼  .r^nte*  ant  prepares  it  for  fresh  exertion.  It  is  the  perfection  of  auy 
•l^nc*-,  to  unite  the  !>e  advantages,  to  promote  the  advancement  of  public 
K^i  i  p  r.r&te  « irtuc,  and  to  supply  such  a  de^^ree  of  amusement,  as  to  super- 
m-  ic  il*t  nece*?ity  of  recurrmg  to  frivolous  pur:>ults  for  the  sake  of  relaxu- 
t*  a.     I  tkt\*r  tilts  de.*cription  falls  the  science  of  history. 

&  Hiftory,  says  Dionysius  of  Uaiicarnassu?,  it  "philosophy  teaching 
bj  #aAn:pi<?."  The  superior  eflic. ucy  of  fxamplc  to  precept  is  universally 
•'X-  •»*€  i^r-rt  All  lb*;  laws  of  uu.'ality  and  rules  of  conduct  are  veri- 
£r  i  i,j  «xp<riro(t:,  and  are  constantly  suhniitted  to  its  test  and  examina- 
t.^m.  H>t  '>ry^  which  aiiis  to  our  own  experience  uu  immense  treasure  of 
itjT  fXT^riTi*  t  of  oihtrs,  lun»"'*hcs  iunurneniVile  proofs,  by  which  we  may 
T«yjy   til  th»'  J  rir*'pl««  oi  morality  and  of  pru  li  nee. 

3.  JIm*  ry.  i»t>i<ic  its  :;^v'fit  ril  .nl.anla^i?,  ha*  i  distinct  species  of  util- 
ity L>  ^itrrtil  Uitn,  accuriliug  to  tluir  several  ranks  in  society,  and  occu< 
^^i».i9  tn  Iu**. 

4.  la  ti..«  onntry  U  is  an  indi?peii?:il)Ie  diity  of  every  man  of  liberal 
*■  '•'*.  f »  *wr  '*«-. painted,  in  a  terlaiu  decree,  wi'h  the  scienc-j  o(  politics  ; 
s  1  »**«•  '-y  u  u»e  trhool  of  politics.  It  open?  to  us  the  j'prin^  ol  human 
»t*  r*  i  :ni-  c  i  *'  :*  ol  the  rise,  jfraudeiir,  rtvulutious,  and  iall  of  empirt-.- ; 
i'  \  X*'?  0..1  tMf  fitipHX-al  iulluence  of  ;j(»vernnieut  and  of  national  man- 
r-  9 :  .t  rta  ■jiii*'S  pfr  j.i  lire?,  nouriihis  the  love  of  our  country,  and  di- 
»•  "»  :•  :!.•  r  •  *•  rte;i'.»  of  it?  irnproveju*  :U  ;  it  illu>trates  equally  the  bless- 
^' T*  A  I  .i'.'  d  union,  kuj  the  miitries  of  faction;  the  danger,  on  on*- 
1    «i,  %i  .^..«iii<y,  and,  on  the  other,  the  deb.'uiu^  induence  of  despotic 

>.  H  H  rj  c%  *iary  th:.'  th*-  sliiily  of  hi.  to.-y  »hrrjlA  be  pro^cutedaccord- 
r-^  Vi  a  rrr*.  l^r  plan  ;  i,>T  fhi*  sii(  ncr,  ai.Jie  pvriiaps  than  any  other,  m 
..1  •  lo  j-»ri*r«t»i  irv>.ii  it*  ]'r-'^  r  u.-e.  \\  ith  sor'ie  it  is  no  bt  tier  Uian 
m.u  •-jf  *fn  II'  i..".t ;  \*!«h  «'th#  rs  it  is  t'le  f>>l  of  vanity;  with  a  thiul 
c  .»•  it  :'.»ler«  in*  prejiitl:<ri  of  ,  arlv,  ruid  WmU  to  political  M»i»iry,  It 
•»  1-  -X»  r  -ut  lor  t.:ojr  wh  »,  cv  ti  \viUj  t'lr  l-eet  ir.tcntions,  si-ek  for  histori- 
•>,  A.U  wUd/r,  lo  J  ,r*u«i  tl.i-  sli.  iy,  wiihoiit  a  j^uide  ;  for  no  science  \v\t 
''  1  »_  lift  r  ai'  lb  ,  './♦  I.  1,1 » I. •■'.-'«  -  ol  pn-ju  lice  are  infinite;  aud  tiit 
tu  :  .f  ^outh  »h*fM!!  n>t  b**  Ull  u'i'.p  ct'  d  auii  M  the  crrinj^,  the  partial, 
au.«*Ci<.traih<.tr<'y  j*  pr«  •♦•uta'i -'n  ol  h.-t>r4.i'i?.  Ii(  sides  the  importance  wf 
('•=X  «^*c  to  di*crt.t.in.ttr  truth  1.  >'::  l.tl-*  lu>«>d,  the  atteuliou  ou°:ht  to  be 
A£Tc;#ti  only  to  u-eiid  truths.  M  uii  (U:i7*r  artst-s  from  the  perusal  of 
,  collectio'if  of  anted  ^t*-,  iVi  . ;  fdf  juany  of  tho^e  works  exhibit 
,  drftraved  picttires,  yh-aVvu  our  confidence  in  virtue,  and  present 
t  valAVOtMrAbU  views  of  human  nature 


yGoogk 


12  ERTRODUCTION. 

6.  There  are  amnj  difficultiea  ti^ch  attend  the  tttempt  of  Ibnites  a 
proper  plan  of  itudy,  and  giriag  an  initructiTe  view  of  general  histMy. 
Utility  is  to  be  reconciled  with  amuBement,  pnyudlcei  are  to  be  encoiufr- 
tered,  Tarietj  of  taste  to  be  consulted,  political  opinions  balanced^  jnd^ 
ment  and  decision  exercised  on  topica  keenly  contfoverted.  The  propoatr 
of  such  a  plan  ought  therefore  to  be  possessed  equally  of  finnness  of  mind 
and  moderation  of  sentuneBt.  In  many  cases  he  must  abandon  popularity 
for  the  calm  approbation  of  his  own  conscience.  Disregarding  every 
partial  and  inferior  consideration,  he  must  direct  his  view  tolely  to 
the  proper  end  of  all  education,  the  forming  of  good  men,  and  of  good 
citizens. 

7.  The  olject  and  general  ptirpoee  of  the  followhtg  course,  is  to  exhibit  a 
progresiire  view  of  tlte  state  of  mankind,  from  the  earliest  ages  of  which 
we  have  any  authentic  apoounts,  down  to  the  dose  of  the  17th  centuryvi 
to  delineate  the  origin  of  states  and  of  empires,  the  great  outlines  of  their 
history,  the  reTolutiona  which  they  hare  undeigone,  the  causes  whidi 
have  contribnted  to  their  rise  and  grandeur,  and  operated  to  their  decline 
and  extinction.  For  these  purposes  it  is  necessaiy  to  bestow  particular 
attention  on  the  manneia  of  nations,  their  laws,  the  nature  of  their  govern* 
m«nts,  their  relinoo,  their  tnteUectual  ivpioTeBeBti,  and  their  prsgnpia 
in  the  aita  and  MMBoaa. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


PLAN  OF  THE  COURSE. 


TWO  oppotite  methodb  hare  been  followed  in  giving  academical  lectoret 
m  the  itndj  of  history :  one  exhibiting  a  strict  chronological  airangewent 
of  events,  upon  the  plan  of  Turselline's  Epitome ;  the  other,  a  series  of  dis* 


t  on  the  various  heads  or  titles  of  public  law,  and  the  doctrines  of 
politics ;  illnstrated  bj  examples  drawn  from  ancient  and  modem  history. 
Obieclions  occur  to  both  these  methods :  the  former  furnishes  only  a  dry 
cbroaicle  of  events,  which  nothing  connects  together  but  the  order  of 
*^e ;  the  latter  is  insufficient  for  the  most  important  purposes  of  history, 
\  tracing  of  events  to  their  causes,  the  detection  of  the  springs  of  hu« 
n  actions,  the  display  of  the  progress  of  society,  and  of  the  rise  and  fall 
of  states  and  empires ;  finally,  by  confining  history  to  the  exemplification 
of  the  doctrines  of  politics,  we  lose  its  effect  as  a  school  of  morals. 

la  the  Ibllowing  lectures  we  hold  a  middle  course  between  these  ex* 
jcmea,  and  endeavour,  by  remedying  the  imperfection  of  each,  to  unite, 
f  Igesihle,  the  advantages  of  both. 

WbDe  to  much  regard  is  had  to  chronology  as  is  necessary  for  showing 
tte  progress  of  man£nd  in  society,  and  communicating  jus4  ideas  of  the 
e  of  the  world  in  all  the  different  ao:e8  to  which  authentic  historv  ex* 


I  world  in  all  the  different  ages  to  which  authentic  history  ex* 
J  we  shall,  in  the  delineation  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  empires  and  their 
fevolvtiotts,  pay  more  attention  to  the  connexion  of  ntbject  than  that  of 


In  thb  view  we  must  reject  the  common  method  of  arranging  general 
history  according  to  epochs,  or  sras. 

When  the  world  is  viewed  at  any  period  either  of  ancient  or  of  modem 
history,  we  generally  observe  one  nation  or  empire  predominant,  to  wImnd 
an  the  rest  bear,  as  it  were,  an  under  part,  and  to  whose  history  we  find 
that  the  principal  events  in  the  annals  of  other  nations  may  be  referred 
fipott  some  natural  connexion.  This  predominant  empire  or  state  It  h  pro* 
posed  to  exhibit  to  view  as  the  principal  object,  whose  history  therefore 
is  Id  be  more  folly  delineated,  while  the  rest  are  only  incidentally  touclk- 
cd  when  they  come  to  have  a  natural  connexion  with  the  principal. 

The  Jcfsrish  history,  belonging  to  a  different  department  of  academical 
edncation,  enten  not  into  the  plan  of  these  lectures ;  thongh  we  often  re* 
sort  to  the  sacred  writings  for  detached  facts  Ulustrative  of  the  manncn 
if  aadent  nations.    Sen  Appendix. 

In  the  ancient  world,  among^  the  profene  nations,  the  Greeks  are  tin 
ealsest  people  who  make  a  distinguished  figure,  and  whose  history  is  at 
te  same  thne  authentic. 

Thm  Greeks  owed  their  civilisation  to  the  Egyptians  and  Phaeniclaasl 
The  GftcSan  history  n  therefore  properly  introduced  by  a  short  account 
of  these  nations,  and  of  the  Atsyrians,  their  rivals,  conquered  at  one  Ubm 
by  the  I^yptians,  and  conquerors  afterwards  of  them  in  their  turn. 

Riwoff  the  independent  states  of  Greece,  and  singular  constitutioii  of 
the  two  gveat  republics  of  Sparta  and  Athen». 

Tike  war  of  Greece  with  Persia  mduces  a  short  account  of  the  preoedfay 
periods  of  the  Ustoiy  of  that  nation,  the  rise  of  the  Persian  uonarchyi  tlM 
ntqr»  of  its  govenunent,  manners,  and  re]|rion. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


U  PLAN  OF  THE  COURSE. 

The  Qrecbn  Uitorj  is  pursued  through  all  tfa«  revolotioiu  of  the 
tioD,  till  Greece  becomes  a  province  of  the  Roman  empire. 

Political  reflections  applicable  to  the  history  of  the  states  of  • 
Process  of  the  Greeks  in  the  arts. — Of  the  Greek  poet^— hittoriaiis,— 
phik>80phers. 

Rome^  after  the  conquest  of  Greece,  becomes  the  leading  object  of  at^ 
tentioik. 

Origin  of  the  Romans. — Nature  of  their  goremment  under  the  kings.-*- 
Easy  substitution  of  the  consular  for  the  regal  dignity. — Subsequeat 
changes  in  the  constitution. — ^Progress  to  a  democracy. — Extension  m  the 
Roman  arms. — Conquest  of  Italy. — Wars  with  foreign  nations. 

The  Punic  wais  open  a  collateral  rrew  to  the  history  of  Carthage  and 
ofSicUy. 

Success  of  the  Roman  arms  in  Asia,  Macedonia,  and  Greece.— Opu- * 
lence  of  the  republic  from  her  conquests,  and  corruption  of  her  mannen« — 
The  civil  wars,  and  ruin  of  the  commonwealth. 

Particulars  which  mark  the  genius  and  national  spirit  of  the  Romans  :— > 
education, — ^laws, — ^literary  character, — ait  of  war, — ^public  and  private 
manners. 

Rome  under  the  emperors. — Artful  policy  by  which  the  first  emperors 
disguised  their  absolute  authority. — Decline  of  the  ambitious  character 
of  the  Romans. — Easy  submission  to  the  loss  of  civil  liberty. — ^TThe  nulitarj 
spirit  purposely  abased  by  the  emperors. — The  empire  divided  becomes 
a  languid  body,  without  internal  vigour. — The  Gothic  nations  pour  down 
from  the  north.— Italy  conquered  successively  by  the  Heruli,  Ostrogoths, 
and  Lombards. — Extinction  of  the  western  empire. 

The  manners,  genius,  laws,  and  govemmt^nt  of  the  Gotbic  nations,  form 
an  important  object  of  inquiry,  from  their  influence  on  the  manners  and 
policy  of  the  modem  European  kingdoms. 

In  the  delineation  of  modern  history  the  leading  objects  of  attention  arc 
more  various ;  the  scene  Is  oftcner  changed :  nations,  which  for  a  while 
occupy  the  chief  attention,  become  for  a  time  subordinate,  and  afterwards 
re-assume  their  rank  as  priucipal ;  yet  the  same  plan  is  pursued  as  in  the 
department  of  ancient  history  r  the  picture  is  occupied  only  by  one  ercat 
object  at  a  time,  to  which  all  the  rest  hold  au  inferior  rank,  and  are 
taken  notice  of  only  when  connected  with  the  principal. 

Upon  the  fall  of  the  western  empire,  the  !?aracens  are  the  first  wbo  dis- 
tinguish themselves  by  the  extension  of  their  conquests,  and  the  splen« 
dour  of  their  dominion. 

While  the  Saracens  extend  their  arms  in  the  east  and  in  Africa,  a  new 
empire  of  the  west  is  founded  by  Charlemagne. — The  rire  and  prceress  of 
the  monarchy  of  the  Franks. — The  origin  of  the  feudal  system. — State  of 
the  European  manners  in  the  age  of  Charlemagne. — Cirovermnent,  arts 
and  sciences,  literature. 

As  collateral  objects  of  attention,  we  survey  the  remains  of  the  Roman 
entire  in  the  cast ;  the  conquests  and  settlements  of  the  Normans ;  the 
foundation  and  progress  of  the  temporal  dominion  of  the  church  of  Rome  ; 
the  conquest  of  Spain  by  the  Saracens. 

'  The  conquest  of  England  by  the  Normans  solicits  our  attention  to  the 
hi6tor)r  of  Britain.  Retrospective  view  of  the  British  history,  from  its  ea^• 
liest  period  to  the  end  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  government  in  England.— Ob* 
eervationi  on  the  government*  laws,  and  manners,  of  the  Anglo-Saxons* 

Collateral  view  of  the  stlte  of  the  continental  kingdoms  of  Europe, 
daring  the  ninth,  tenth,  and  eleventh  centuries.-<*France  under  the  Ca* 
petlBniace  of  monardii. — Conquests  of  the  Normans  in  Italy  and  Sicily.*- 
Mie  of  UiA  northern  kingdoms  of  Europe.  The  eastern  empire.— fmpira 
•fGtnnftay.--EA|)atei  of  supremacy  between  the  popes  and  the  < 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


PLAN  OP  THE  COURSE.  15 

Ibm  hS^tary  of  BfHaia  tUB  the  principal  object  of  attentioD.— Eng;Ia]id 
■nder  the  ^on^  of  the  Konnan  line,  and  the  first  princea  of  the  Plantag^ 
act  faraa^.*-The  oonquest  of  Ireland,  un^er  Heniy  II.,  introduces  an  an- 
Cicfpaied  prog;re8siTe  yiew  of  the  political  connexion  between  England 
sod  belanl  down  to  the  present  time.  As  we  proceed  in  the  delineation 
of  the  firitish  historf,  we  note  particularly  those  circomstances  which 
auuk  the  growth  of  the  English  constitution. 

At  thii  period  all  the  kiajidoma  of  Europe  join  in  the  crusades. — ^A  briel 
acoQont  h  girea  of  those  enterprises. — ^Moral  and  political  effects  of  the 
cnuades  oa  the  nations  of  Europe. — Origin  of  chivalij,  and  rise  of  roman* 
tic  Action. 

Short  connected  sketch  of  the  state  of  the  European  nations  alter  the 
cniades. — ^Rise  of  the  house  of  Austria. — ^Decline  of  the  feudal  gor^n* 
■Mat  in  IVance. — ^Establishment  of  the  Swiss  republics. — ^Disorders  in  the 
jKnpedom.— Council  of  Constance. 

The  history  of  Britain  resumed.-^England  under  Henry  III.  and  'Ed-' 
ward  l.^-Die  conquest  of  Wales. — The  history  of  Scotland  at  this  period 
iaiinaiely  connected  with  that  of  England. — View  of  the  Scottish  history 
6en  Blalcolm  Canmore  to  Robert  Qjruce. — State  of  both  kingdoms  during 
the  reigns  of  Edward  II.  and  HI. — ^The  history  of  France  connected  with 
tint  of  Britain. — France  itself  won  by  Henry  V. 

The  state  of  the  east  at  this  period  affords  the  most  interesting  object  of 
«H""»"«*- — ^The  progress  of  the  Ottoman  arms  retarded  for  d  while,  by  the 
eoiMpiests  of  Tamerlane  and  of  Scanderbeg. — The  Turks  prosecute  their 
Tictoriet  under  Mahomet  the  great,  to  the  total  extinction  of  the  Constan- 
tiaopolikail  empire. — ^The  constitution  and  policy  of  the  Turkish  empire. 

Franoe,  in  this  a^,  emancipates  herself  ft'om  the  feudal  servitude  ;  and 
SpttD,  from  the  union  of  Atfagon  and  Castile,  and  theffall  of  the  kingdom 
of  the  Moors,  becomes  one  monarchy  under  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 

The  history  of  Britain  is  resumed. — Sketch  of  the  history  of  England 
down  to  the  reiA  of  Henry  VUI. ;  of  Scotland,  during  the  reigns  of  the 
fire  Ja]ne9ea<— Delineation  of  the  ancient  constitution  of  the  Scottish  gov- 


Tbe  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  is  a  remarkable  aera  in  the  history  of 
Europe.  Lejtming  and  the  sciences  underwent  at  that  time  a  very  rapid 
inprOfvement ;  and,  after  ages  of  darkness,  shone  ont  at  once  with  sur* 
prisisg  lustre. — A  connected  view  is  presented  of  the  progress  of  literature 
ia  Europe,  from  its  rerival  down  to  this  period. — In  the  same  age  the  ad- 
Taacement  of  oayigation,  and  the  course  to  India  by  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.,  explored  by  the  Portuguese,  affect  tbe  commerce  of  all  the  Europe 
an  kingdoms. 

The  age  of  Charles  V.  unites  in  one  connected  view  the  affairs  of  Ger- 
aaay,  m  Spain,  of  France,  of  England,  and  of  Italy.  The  discovery  of 
the  Be  If  world,  the  reformation  in  Germany  and  Engird,  and  the  spleth 
dov  of  the  fine  arts  nnder  the  pontiiicate  of  Leo  X.^  render  this  period  one 
of  tlWBOit  interesting  in  the  annals  of  mankind. 

The  pacification  of  Europe,  by  the  treaty  of  Catteau  Cambresis,  aOows 
«i  for  a  while  to  turn  our  attention  to  the  state  of  Asia.  A  short  sketch  b 
pren  of  the  modem  history  of  Persia,  and  the  state  of  the  other  kingdoms 
«C  Asia,  in  die  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries ;  the  history  of  Indial ; 
the  Baana^  laws,  arts,  and  sciences,  and  religion  of  the  HindcNM ;  the 
r  of  China  and  Japan ;  the  antiquity  of  the  Chinese  empire,  its 
^  laws,  government,  and  attainments  in  the  arts  and  sciences* 
:  to  Europe,  the  attention  is  directed  to  the  state  of  the  conti* 
_  loms  in  the  age  of  Philip  11.  Spain,  the  Netherlands,  fVaaoe, 
9nd  >>ylaTwi,  present  a  Tariona  and  animated  picture. 

England  lader  £Ilixabeth.  The  progress  of  the  reformation  in  Scot- 
taad«-*Tbe  dbtractttd  reign  cf  Maiy,  queen  of  Scott.— 'Tile  history  of 

Digitized  by  V^OOgie 


16  PLAN  OT  THE  COURSE. 

Britain  pmued  without  interruption  down  to  the  reTdtuftioiii  tndhcre  do^ 
ed  bj  a  tketdi  of  tht  progress  of  the  En^ifh  constitation,  and  an  ezaiB> 
ii^ition  of  its  nature  at  this  period,  when  it  became  fixed  and  determined. 
The  liistory  of  the  eouthem  continental  kingdoms  b  brought  down  to 
the  end  of  the  rein  of  Lonii  XIV. ;  of  the  northern,  to  the  condniion  of 
the  reigns  of  Cranes  Xil.  of  Sweden,  and  of  Peter  the  ifreat,  ccar  of  Mas- 

COTT. 

We  finish  tiiis  Tiew  of  nnirersal  historf,  hf  ft  snrreir  of  Ifae  itateof  the 
arte  and  sciences,  and  of  the  progrew  of  Uteratore  in  Smrope,  dniin|^  the 
sixteenth  and  terenteenth  centnries. 

nt  ehronclpgp  ohferred  in  thi$  Vu»  0f  Vhuemd  JSUtory  w  thai  •/ 
mnhkiihop  Uiher.  vhith  Ufmnded  eft  the  Hehrew  text  of  the  Sacred  Jfrit^ 
inge*    A  shmrt  TahU  •/  CS^nmoiogy  u  mX^emtd  it  liUsf  k&tiiyftr  ike  , 
emnef  the  student 


Digitizejl  by 


Googk 


ANCIENT- tfli^PjWi/. 


SECTION  L 


CARUEST  AUTHENTIC  ACCOUNTS  OF  THE  HISTOBT  OF 
THE  WORLD. 

ir  ii  a  cfiAcnlt  lade  to  delineate  the  state  of  mankind  in  the  eai- 
bc«l  a^w  of  the  world.  We  want  information  suiHcient  to  ^ive  of 
pu««iiTr  aleasoo  the  sal]|ect;  but  aa  man  advances  in  civilization, 
9bA  m  pimwrtiuu  as  history  becomes  usefnl  and  importanti  iti  cer- 
,  and  its  materials  are  more  ahundant. 
\  DoCjoos  have  been  formed  with  respect  to  the  population 
'<  Ike  Milf  ifilin  JMij  world  and  its  physical  appeanuice ;  but  as  these 
as«  rtUMfr  matters  ot  theory  than  of  fiu^t,  they  scarcely  fall  with- 
a  Ae  prorinoe  of  history ;  and  they  are  of  the  less  consequence, 
*i  CMHi.  we  are  certain  that  the  state  of  those  antediluvian  ases 

nU  have  had  no  material  influence  on  the  times  which  succee&d 


The  boohs  of  Moses  afford  the  earliest  authentic  hintory  of  the 
<«•  tmmt  ill  iti'  ly  following  the  deluge. 

\:i«ak  150  vean  after  that  event,  Nimrod  (the  Behn  of  profime 
*.^M^  nw)  boift  BiibyloD,  and  Assur  built  Nineveh,  which  became  the 
'4WUl  01  the  A«iynan  empire. 

3te9i  the  MQ  of  Belus,  and  his  queen  Semiranus,  are  said  to  have 
"umtd  the  empire  of  A^ria  to  a  higher  degree  of  spleodour. 

trm>  the  death  of  Ninias  the  son  of  Ninux,  down  to  the  revolt  of 
«-  M^^di^  voder  Sardanapalus,  a  period  of  8U0  Tears,  there  is  a 
vaaai  m  the  history  of  Assyria  and  babylon.  This  is  to  be  supplied 
.'-iv  irom  coniecture. 

tte  CBfiiest  p<*riods  of  the  Egvptian  history  are  equally  uncer- 

--3  wtfh  t&n^  of  the  A^yriao.    Menes  is  supposed  the  first  king  ot 


trai :  probal»:y  the  Misrafan  of  tlie  Holy  Scriptures,  the  franCon 
«  ^oa^  or,  ai  others  comccture,  the  O/iris  of  Egypt,  the  mventor 
'f  tf«i.  sod  the  ctvtiixer  ot  a  great  part  of  the  eastern  world. 
l£*f  Menea  or  Oziris,  E^pt  appears  to  have  been  divided  into 
'  >s  Thin,  Me      


^  TlieU4,  Thin,  Memphis  and  Tanis ;  and  the  people 

-  test  attained  a  considerable  degree  o{  civilization :  but  a  period 
•'  ilhti  I  m  SQCceeded  under  the  ahepherd-kinirs,  sub^sting  lor  the 
•oaoe  ^  aome  centuries,  down  to  the  age  of  Sest^tris  (IGdO  A.  €.)• 
«Vo  ^u(Ut4  thr  •epoxate  princi|KilltieA  into  one  kingdom,  regulated 
•  p^hcy  wUh  admirable  skill,  and  distinguished  himself  eqittQy  by 
~    ' oesti,  and  by  hla  domestic  administration. 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  It 


18  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


CO!rSIDERATlbN8.ON^nte^Tl/j^0FTH£  FIRST  GOVERN- 
MENTS. ANX>'tpiff:trHE;bA\vs,  customs^   arts,  and 

•..•   :••.•  '••         .••.:'••.    •, 

§ :i.  The  eaijicst m?«tm^i^;i»the  patriarchal,  which eubsistB  In 
the  rudest  p^ricKt^ofsdciety. 

This  has  ad  eas^  progress  to  the  monarchical. 

The  fint  XDonarchies  must  have  been  very  weak,  and  their  terri- 
tory extremely  limite<ik  The  idea  of  security  precedes  that  of 
>  conquest  In  forming  our  notions  of  the  extent  of  the  fiist  monar- 
chies,^e  are  deceived  by  the  word  king,  which  according  to  modem 
ideas,  is  connected  with  an  extent  of  territory,  and  a  proportional 
power.  The  kines  in  scripture  are  no  more  than  the  chxe&  of  tribes. 
There  were  five  kings  in  tlie  vale  of  Sodom.  Joshua  defeated  in  his 
wars  thirty-one  kings,  and  Adonizedec  threescore  and  ten. 

When  families  grew  into  nations,  the  transition  from  patriarchal  to 
regal  government,  was  easy;  the  kingly  office,  probably  passed  by 
descent  from  father  to  son,  and  the  sovereign  ruled  his  tnbe  or  na- 
tion, as  the  patriarch  his  fsunily,  by  the  right  of  birth. 

Ihe  first  ideas  of  conquest  must  have  proceeded  from  a  people  in 
the  state  of  shepherds,  who,  necessarily  changing  their  pastures, 
would  probably  make  incursions  on  the  appropriated  territory  01" 
their  neighbours.  Such  were  the  Arabian  or  rhoenician  invaders, 
who,  MD&T  the  name  of  shepherd-kings,  conquered  Egypt  But 
kingdoms  so  founded  could  have  little  duration.  Laws  and  eood 
policy,  essential  to  the  stability  of  kingdoms,  are  the  fruit  of  intdlec- 
•tual  refinement,  and  arise  only  in  a  state  of  society  considerably  ad- 
vanced in  civilization. 

.The  progress  from  barbarism  to  civilisation  is  slow,  because  every 
step  in  the  progress  is  the  result  of  necessity,  after  the  experience 
of  an  error,  or  the  strong  feeling  of  a  want. 

§  2.  Origin  ff  Lazes.  Certain  political  writers  have  supposed 
that  in  the  infancy  of  society  penal  laws  must  have  been  extremel3' 
mild.  We  presume  the  contrary  to  have  been  rather  the  case,  as 
the  more  barbarous  the  people,  the  stronger  must  !>€  tlae  bonds  to 
restrain  them:  and  history  confinns  the  supposition  in  the  ancient 
laws  of  the  Jews,  Egyptiansj  Greeks,  Romans,  and  Gauls. 

Among  the  earliest  laws  otall  states  are  those  regarding  marriage ; 
for  the  institution  of  marriage  is  coeval  willi  the  formation  of  society. 
The  first  sovereigns  of  all  states  are  said  to  have  instituted  marriage ; 
and  the  earliest  laivs  provided  encouragements  to  matrimony. 

Among  the  ancient  nations  the  hii3!)and  purchased  his  wife  by 
money,  or  pereonal  services.  Among  the  Assyrians  the  marriageable 
women  were  put  up  at  auction,  and  the  price  obtained  for  the  more 
beaiitiful  was  assigned  as  a  dowry  to  the  more  homely. 

The  laws  of  succession  are  next  in  order  to  those  of'marriaf:e. 
The  father  had  the  absolpte  power  in  the  division  of  his  estate. 
But  primogeniture  was  understood  to  confer  certain  rights. 

Laws  arise  necessarily  and  imperceptibly  from  the  condition  or 
society ;  and  each  particular  law  may  be  fraced  from  the  state  ol 
iaanner&,  or  the  pdltioU  emergency  which  wive  it  birth.  ^  Hence 
wc  perceive  the  mtimate  corniexion  between  niatorv  and  jurispru- 

Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


ANCIENT  HISTORx^  19 

^^v»^  md  tbe  Gcht  which  they  must  necessarily  throw  npoD  each 
:  T*'  r.    Tbe  lawi  of  a  country  are  best  interpreted  from  its  history ; 
ftu:  itf  onceftuo  history  is  best  elucidated  by  its  ancient  laws. 
;  5.  Kariiat  Methods  of  authenlicaiing  QmtracU.    Before  the  inven- 

•  c  oc'  wntiof.  oootract),  te^itament^,  sales.  marriagesY  and  the  like, 

•  •  ne  iTADaacted  in  iniblic.    The  Jewish  and  the  Grecian  histories  fur- 
':  ..  eiAiiip^os.    Some  barbarous  nations  authenticate  their  bargains 

■  r  v-hjncinc  «Tm!K>l4  or  taiiies.^The  Penivians  accomplished  most 
.  ^ue  p  jj  rvit*.-?  ui*  writing  by  iiootted  cortis  ol'  various  colours,  termed 
^  !.•«.  XAe  Meucdns  commuiiiaited  intelligence  to  a  distance  by 
.  '.nc.  Other  nations  used  an  abridged  mode  of  painting,  or  lu- 
»"c.«f«*ncs^  Hvfore  wriliag  the  Egyptiaas  used  hicrogljpliics  for 
Tt-r^okiSUtk^  and  recording  knowledge :  after  writing,  they  employ- 
«^  :'  u*r  %cUing  or  conceding  knowledge  from  the  vulgar. 

;  ^  AlrU  xia  for  rtcording  HistoriruL  Facts^  and  publishing  Laws. 

.  ••*.-▼  Acd  lung  were  the  tirst  vehicles  of  history,  and  the  earliest 

.•  V  rf  pramulg'iting  laws.    The  sonijs  of  the  bards  record  a  great 

^  .  .^  aucieot  hi^tury ;  and  the  laws  of  many  of  the  ancient  nations 

^-r-  ciAnp*i^d  in  veree. 

'^  o*-*,  nkk»  aiid  sculptured,  twmUi  and  mounds  of  earth,  are  the 

.nw-Titd  ol*  lu^lory  among  a  barbaroiid  people ;  and  columns,  tri- 

-   :<td  ifrh*,-*,  mi  an,  and  medaU,  among  a  mc>re  refined.    Tnese 

-•  ■  .^^  r.,'t*tialc  the  progress  of  luanners  and  of  the  arts. 

X  A'u^u#!4*  luiiU'Uiotts,    Among  the  earliest  iastitutirns  of  all 

I*,  arc  Ui'>*e  which  regard  relijjious  worship.    The  sentiment 

■  w<;.  <\  M  tk'K  ply  rwoled  iu  the  human  mind.    An  unin>trucled 

t^  »•  .»l  inter  :J.o  exi-lcnce  of  a  God,  and  his  attributes,  from  the 

^rtl   »r  u-r  ;mi1  niJ^^hauUm  of  nature ;  arui  even  the  temporary 

C\u>ntitM  of  ii.iture  lead  to  religious  \  eneration  of  the  unknown 

•  r  w:.H:h  cmulu<:b»  it 

- :  x-^  rr^M  i\n^  the  idea  of  a  B<jing  !it(erly  imperceptible  to  his 

«-  *  *n  :£:r»  wirild  naturally  seek  that  Being  in  the  mo«t  striking 

:•••».  •    *M*  to  which  lu?  owed  las  mo-i  apparent  benetits.    Thn 

-lU-    I.. 4  ht*  lieneiicial  inthionrp  over  all  nature,  was  among 

f  .'^,%  -:  I.  )  clA  of  woivhip.    The  tire  pre-onled  a  symbol  of  the 

4  .*•?  «'.ur  c<?le-»tid  bodies  ualuraliv  alti-acled  their  shait?  of 

.  J?  •*  .j'-»h-d  m  >de  of  writing  led  to  many  peculiarities  of  the 

J"  •.»  w  .'iMiiptj'  ilie  ancient  natione.    Animals  symbolical  of  the 

r  •■•  <it  0-  ,t%.  l»ec:inie  go«lr»  then»?elve«.    The  same  God,  repie- 

'     '   1  :  r*nt  afiini  lU,  waj»  supposed  to  have  clianged  him»ell 

.  :•  tit  l«>iTnH,     The  gratitude  and  voneniiion  for  men  whow? 

•«  ',       »»-*--|  I  fTuuently  n-^et  uK  joine<l  to  tlif*  bcdiof  of  the  soul's  im« 

'•  i:.  \.  \^-i  to  the  iip>yhff»u  of  htMoos    Many  excellent  retloction« 

-   t\  x'ld  poiytiiet^m  are  foun-l  in  llie  book  called  Tiu  Wisdom 

.  <  yr^  -tnood  «ras  anciently  cxepcisod  by  tbe  chief  or  monaich ; 

•      .ft  •V"«7,  tiip*w»rtcd  by  mnny  factt,  that  ia  the  bisjinniag,  all  reli» 

rr.'b  Vkt'iavit    kuown  to  mao  by  dir»  ct  n  v-litiou.     In  aarcerd* 

•fw"  «'•.!.  -fiU   ptrc«  ptioa  wai  gradnHlIy  cl«>uded  by  the  ecnsua) 

9«B  '-•t^w  M  cnnn,  until  bli  miufl  rould  not  contcmplute  Deity,  but 

rik  tv  ft  1!  «.f  l!i«  w*irkj.     Thii»  the  hf^uvculy  were  perhaps,  at  first 

•  "-^  j*-i  ft«  rif^r**  nt  itiTc  of  th»-ir  mnker,  >>ut  gradually  became  0>>ipct» 

••  •  •! >r*i.  -u,  ikxA  trxxVy  trtry  tlt^nif ni  was  peopled  with  deities  ; 
m-s^Mia,  f  '.  tL«.  ttr«a:nf^  and  aaiiuali,  were  coufccrated  and  wof 


Digitized  by 


Googk 


0  ANCIENT  mSTOKY. 

biiUs  an  entire  became  exteosiye,  the  mooaich  exeiclKd  tfassoffice 
by  hjs  delegates ;  and  hence  an  additional  source  of  veneration  fiir  Ihe 

Snesthood.    The  priests  were  the  framera  and  the  administrators  of 
le  laws. 

^Q* 'ArU  and  Sciences  of  the  .OnckiUJ^at^  The  nsefnl  arts  are 
the  ofl&pring  of  necessify;  the  sciences  are  the  fruit  of  e««e  and 
leisure.  The  construction  of  huts,  of  weapons  of  war,  and  of  hunt- 
•  mg,  are  the  earliest  arts.  Agriculture  is  not  practised  till  4he  tribe 
t)ecomes  stationary,  and  property  is  defined  ami  secured. 

The  sciences  arise  in  a  cultivated  society,  where  individuals  enjoy 
that  leisure  which  invites  to  study  and  speculation.  The  priests 
maintained  in  that  condition  by  tl^  monarch  were  ihe  earliest  cul- 
tivatora  of  science.  The  Egyptian  science  was  confined  to  die 
priests.  Astronomy,  which  is  among  flie  earliest  of  the  sciences, 
owed  its  origin  probably  to  superstioon.  Medicine  was  amo^g  the 
early  sciences.  All  rude  nations  have  a  pharmacy  of  their  own, 
equal  in  general  to  their  wants.  Luxury,  creating  new  and  more 
comi^ex  diseases,  requires  a  profounder  Imowledge  of  medicine,  and 
of  the  animal  economy. 


SECTION  111. 

or  THE  EGYPTIANS. 

1 . '  A  GREAT  portion  of  the  knowledge  and  attainments  of  the  ancient 
nations,  and  by  consequence  of  those  of  the  modems,  is  to  be  ttaced  to 
Egypt  The  Egyptians  instructed  the  Greeks ;  the  Greeks  perfonn- 
ea  the  same  office  to  the  Romans ;  and  the  latter  have  transmitted 
much  of  that  Imowledge  to  the  world,  of  which  we  are  in  possession 
at  this  day.* 

2.  The  antiauity  of  this  empire,  though  we  give  no  credit  to  the 
chronicles  of  Manetho,  must  be  aUowed  to  be  very  great.  The  Mo- 
saic writings  represent  Egyp^  a^oat  430  years  after  the  flood,  as  a 
flourishing  and  well  regukted  kingdom.  The  nature  of  the  coimtry 
itself  affonis  a  presumption  of  the  great  antiquity  of  the  empire,  and 
its  earlv  civilization.  From  the  fertilizing  effects  of  the  waters  of 
the  Nile,  it  is  probable  that  agriculture  wouid  be  more  early  prac- 

,  Used  there,  than  in  rejpons  less  favoured  by  nature.  The  periodical 
inundations  of  the  ^e  are  perhaps  owing  to  the  vapours  of  the 
Mediterranean  condensed  on  the  mountains  of  Ethiopia. 

3.  The  government  of  Egypt  was  a  hereditary  monarchy.  The 
powers  of  the  monarch. were  limited  by  constitutional  laws;  yet  in 
many  respects  his  authority  was  extremely  despotical.  The'  func- 
tions of  the  sovereign  were  parfly  civil  and  psu^y  religious.-^The 
king  had  the  chief  regulation  of  atl  that  regarded  the  worship  of  the 
^ods;  and  the  priests,  considered  as  his  deputies,  filled  all  the  of. 
hces  of  state.  They  were  both  the  legislators  and  the  civil  judges ; 
they  imposed  and  levied  the  ta^es,  and  regulated  weights  and  meas- 
ures. The  great  national  tribunal  was  composed  ofthirty  judges, 
chosen  from  the  three  principal  departments  of  the  empire.  The 
afkninistration  of  justice  was  defrayed  by  the  sovereign,  and,  as  par- 
ties were  their  own  advocates,  was  no  burden  upon  ttie  people. 
The  penal  laws  of  Egypt  were  uncommonly  severe.    Female  cha»- 

*For  the  tiippoied  origin  of  I^gyptian  scieno^,  tee  Part  IT.  Beet.  60, 

Digitized  by  V^O'OQIC 


ANCIENT  fflSTORY-  21 

tjtr  was  viMt  rigidly  protected.  Foneral  rites  were  not  conferred 
till  afteraacTutinj  into  the  life  of  the  deceased,  and  by  a  judicial 
decree  npiicovins  his  character.  The  characters  even  of  thesove- 
reins  were  sulgected  to  this  inquiry. 

Tliere  was  an  extraordinary  regulation  in  Egypt  regarding  the 
borrowing  of  money.  The  borrower  gave  in  pledge  the  body  of 
his  &ther,  and  it  waft  deprived  of  funeral  rites  if  he  fidled  to  re- 
deem iL 

Population  was  encouraeed  by  law ;  and  every  man  was  bound  to 
naintain  and  educate  the  cnildren  bom  to  him  of  his  slaves. 

4.  The  manners  of  the  Egyptians  were  veiy  eariy  formed.  They 
bad  a  singular  attachment  to  ancient  usages ;  a  dislike  to  innovation; 
%  jealousy  and  abhorrence  of  strangers. 

6.  Thev  preceded  most  of  the  ancient  nations  in  the  knowledge 
of  the  useful  arts,  and  in  the  cultivation  of  the  sciences.  Architecture 
was  early  brougnt  to  great  perfection.  Their  buildings,  the  pyra- 
mids, obelisks,  &c.,  have,  from  the  mildness  of  the  climate,  suffered 
liuie  injury  from  time.  Pliny  descril)es  the  contrivance  for  trans- 
p<>rting  the  c^lisks.  The  wnole  country  abounds  with  the  remains 
01*  ancient  magnificence.  Thebes,  in  Upper  Egypt,  was  one  of  the 
CK^  splendid  cities  in  the  world. 

The  pyramids  arc  supposed  by  some  writers  to  have  been  erected 
aViout  fHiO  veare  A.  C.  They  were  probably  the  sepulchral  monu- 
ments of  the  sovereigns.  The  Egyptians  believed  that  death  did 
f.  »t  separate  the  soul  from  the  body ;  and  hence  their  extreme  care 
to  pre«»rre  the  body  entire,  by  embalming,  concealing  it  in  caves  and 
r  ♦{.!•: otn^w,  and  guarding  it  by  such  stupendous  structures.  Mr. 
Lrjcc  supposes  the  pyramids  to  be  rocks  hewn  into  a  pyramidal 
i-rm,  and  encrusted,  where  necessary,  with  mason-work.* 

Tnc  remains  of  art  in  Egypt,  though  venerable  for  their  great  an- 
lj4mty,  are  extremely  deficient  in  beauty  and  elegance.  The  Egyp- 
tj.iii3S  were  ignorant  of  the  construction  of  an  arch-  The  remains  of 
piintine  and  sculpture  evince  but  a  slender  proficiency  in  those  arts. 

6.  The  Egyptians  possessed  considerable  knowledge  of  geometry, 
nKchanics,  ana  astronomy.  They  had  divided  the  zodiac  into  twelve 
M^ns ;  they  calculated  eclipses ;  and  seem  to  have  had  an  idea  of 
Ute  motion  of  the  earth. 

7.  The  morabhr  taught  by  the  priests  was  pure  and  refined; 
hut  it  had  httle  infloence  on  the  manners  of  the  people. 

8.  So  Ukewise  the  tbeoloey  and  secret  doctrines  of  the  priests 
were  rational  and  sublime ;  but  the  worship  of  the  people  was  de- 
Ui.«ed  by  the  most  absurd  and  contemptible  superstition. 

9.  Notwithstanding  the  early  civiiia^tion  and  the  great  attainments 
of  this  people,  their  national  character  w<is  extremely  low  and  des- 
picable among  the  contemporary  nations  of  antiquity.  The  reason 
ot  this  is,  they  were  a  people  who  chose  to  sequester  themselves 
from  the  rest  of  mankiikl ;  they  were  not  known  to  other  nations  by 
their  cooQoests;  they  had  little  connexion  with  them  by  conuneroe; 
and  they  bad  an  antipathy  to  the  persons  and  manners  of  strangers. 

10.  There  were  hkewise  many  circumstances  of  their  own  man- 
t»^r§  which  tended  to  degrade  them  in  the  opinion  of  other  nations. 
AU  pn>t>«ioDS  were  hereditary  in  Egypt,  and  the  rank  of  each  was 
irnipalowly  settlea;  the  objects  of  me  religious  worship  were  dil- 
hrrent  in  diflerent  ports  of  the  kingdom,  a  fertile  source  of  division 

•  Bwcot  tev«Um  have  almost  demonitnacd  this  snppoutkni. 

Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


n  ANCIENT  fflSTORY. 

and  controyenrr ;  their  peculiar  soperstitioiiB  were  of  the  mM  ab- 
surd aod  debasing  nature ;  and  the  manners  of  the  people  were  ex- 
tremely loose  and  profligate. 


SECTION  IV. 


OF  THE  PHCENICIANS. 


L  The  Phoenicians  were  amons  the  most  early  civiliaed  nations 
of  the  east  We  are  indebted  to  Uiem  for  the  inyentioD  of  writing, 
and  for  ^e  first  attempts  at  commercial  navigation.  The  fragments 
of  Sanchoniatho  are  the  most  ancient  monuments  of  writing  after 
the  books  of  Moses.  Sanchoniatho  was  contemporary  with  Joshua, 
about  1440  A.  C.  and  600  before  the  cities  of  Attica  were  united  by 
Theseus. 

2.  The  PhcEnicians,  (the  Canaanites  of  scripture),  were  a  com- 
mercial people  in  the  days  of  Abraham.  In  the  time  of  the  Hebrew 
judges  they  had  begun  to  colonize.  Their  first  settlements  were 
Cyprus  and  Rhodes ;  thence  they  passed  into  Greece,  Sicily,  Sardinia, 
and  Spain ;  and  formed  establishments  hkewise  on  the  western  coast 
of  Afirica.  The  Sidonians  carried  on  an  extensive  commerce  at  the 
time  of  ^le  Trojan  war. 


SECTION  V. 

THE  HISTORY  OF  GREECE. 

1.  Gkeex:e  beine  indebted  for  the  first  rudiments  of  Civilization  to 
the  Egyptians  and  Phoenicians,  its  history  is  prqierly  mtroduced  by 
an  account  of  those  more  ancient  nations. 

2.  The  early  antiquities  of  this  country  are  disguised  by  fable ; 
but  firom  the  time  when  it  becomes  important,  it  hasl}een  treated  of 
by  eminent  writers. 

3.  The  ancient  inhabitants  of  Greece*  the  Pelasgi,  Hiaotes,  Lcle- 
ges.  were  extremely  barbarous ;  but  a  dawning  of  civilization  arose 
under  the  Titans,  a  Phoenician  or  Egyptian  colony,  who  settled  m 
the  country  about  the  time  of  Moses.  The  Titans  gave  the  Greeks 
the  first  ideas  of  religion,  and  introduced  the  worship  of  their  oi^n 
gods,  Saturn,  Jupiter,  Ceres,  &c.  Succeeding  ages  confounded  those 
Titans  themselves  with  Qie  gods,  and  hence  sprung  numberless  febles. 

4.  Inachus,  the  last  of  the  Titans^  founded  the  Kingdom  of  Argos, 
1856  A.  C;  and  Egialtes,  one  of  lus  sons*  the  kingdom  of  Sicyon. 

5.  In  the  following  century  happened  the  deluge  of  Ogyges,  1796 
A.  C     Then  followed  a  period  of  barbarism  for  above  200  years. 

6  Cecrops*  the'  leadier  of  another  colony  firom  Egypt,  landed  in 
Atdca.  1582  A.  C. ;  and,  connecting  himself  with  the  last  king,  sue* 
ceeded,  on  his  death,  to  the  sovereignty.  He  built  twelve  cities, 
and  was  eminent,  both  as  a  lawgiver  and  politician. 

7.  The  Grecian  history  derives  some  authenticity  at  this  period 
from  the  Chronicle  of  Parosu  preserved  emons  the  Arundelian  mar- 
bles at  Oxibrd.  The  authority  of  this  chronic^  has  been  questioDed 
of  late,  and  many  ammeots  adduced  presumptive  of  its  being  a 
forgery ;  but.  on  a  review  of  the  whole  controversy,  we  judge  the  ax^ 
gumentsfor  InauUienticity  to  preponderate.   It  fixes  the  dates  of  the 

Digitized  byVjOOQlC 


ANCIENT  fflSTOEY.  25 

moat  remarkable  eyents  in  the  history  of  Greece,  finom  the  time  of 
Cecrops  down  to  the  age  of  Alexander  the  great 

8.  Cranaus  succeeded  Cecrops,  in  whose  time  happened  two  le^ 
nvukable  events  recorded  in  the  Chronicle  of  Paros :  the  judgment 
ot  the  areopagus  between  Mars  and  Neptnne,two  princes  of  Thessa- 
It  :  and  the  deluge  of  Deucalion.  The  court  of  areopagus,  at  Athens, 
WAA  instituted  by  Cecrops.  The  number  of  its  judges  varied  at  differ- 
ent periods,  from  nine  to  lifty-one.  The  deluge  ofJDeucalion,  magnir 
lied  aad  di'^gui^d  by  the  poet?,  was  probably  only  a  partial  inundation. 

9.  Amph}  ction,  the  contemporary  of  Cnmaus,  if  the  founder  of 
ihe  ampnyclionic  council,  must  have  possessed  extensive  views  ol 
pv'»l2cy.  This  council,  from  a  league  of  twelve  cities,  became  a 
r.^prr'^entative  a5seml)ly  of  the  states  of  Greece,  and  had  the  moat 
ui;ninible  political  effects  in  uniting  the  nation,  and  giving  it  a  com- 
Hj'»n  interest 

10.  Cadmus,  about  1519,  A.  C,  introduced  alphabetic  writing  into 
Ure»ece,  from  Phoenicia.  The  al phabet  then  had  only  sixteen  letters ; 
in«l  tne  mode  of  writing  (termed  bomtrophedon)^  was  alternately  from 
ri^iht  to  left  and  lef\  to  right  From  this  period  the  Greeks  made 
r.ii>id  advances  in  civiliziition. 

SECTION  VI. 

REFLECTIONS  ON  THE  FIRST  AND  RUDEST  PERIODS  OF 
THE  GRECIAN  HISTORY. 

1.  The  country  of  Greece  presents  a  large,  irregtilar  peninsula, 
.nt.'Pipcted  by  many  chains  of  mountains,  separating  its  difterent 
'r-rict«s  and  opposing  natural  impediments  to  genenu  intercourse, 
I'  J  therefore  to  rapid  civilization.  The  extreme  barbarism  of  the 
I  cU-'si^  who  are  said  to  have  been  ciinnibals,  and  Ignorant  of  the 
1-^  of  hre,  has  its  parallel  in  modem  barbarous  nations.  There 
Hv>re  numy  circumstances  that  retarded  the  progress  of  the  Greeks 
to  re&iemeot  The  introduction  of  a  national  religion  was  best  fit- 
v<l  to  remove  those  obstacles.  Receiving  this  new  system  of  theolo- 
ix  £rofn  strangers,  and  entertaining  at  first  very  confused  ideas  of  it, 
ti.ry  would  Datorally  blend  its  doctrines  and  worship  with  the  notions 
o;  religion  which  they  formerly  possessed ;  and  hence  we  observe 

»'dy  partial  coincidences  of  the  Grecian  with  the  Egyptian  and 
r'>iefiic]an  mytbolo^es.  It  has  been  a  vain  and  wearisome  labour  of 
o.vJem  niythologicai  vmters,  to  attempt  to  trace  all  theiables  of  anti- 
"Vnxjy  and  the  various  systems  of  pagan  theology,  up  to  one  conunon 
«>^urce.  The  difficulty  of  this  is  best  shown,  by  comparing  the  differ- 
^lii  and  most  contradictory  solutions  of  the  same  fable  given  bydiffer- 
''ot  aiy1hc4o|^;  as,  for  example,  lord  Bacon  and  the  abbe  Banier. 
N ine'ai^ocs,  with  much  indiscretion,  have  attempted  to  deduce  all 
ilw  Pagan  mythologies  from  the  holy  scriptures.  SiKh  researches 
are  iBprofitd>le,  sometimes  mischievous. 

2.  Sopefstition,  in  the  eariy  periods,  was  a  predominant  charac* 
teristic  of  the  Greeks.  To  this  age,  and  to  this  character  of  flie 
people,  we  refer  the  ongni  ti  the  Urecian  oracles,  and  the  institrn 
U'^  of  the  public  games  in  honour  of  the  gods. 

Tbe  desire  of  penetrating  into  futurity,  and  the  su^rstition  com- 
ovn  to  mde  nations,  gave  rise  to  the  oracles  of  Delphi.  Dodona.&c. 

Ttie  resort  rf  strangers  to  these  oracles  on  particular  occasionsi 
U  to  th«  cdebratiaa  Sr  a  festival,  and  to  paUic  fames. 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


M  ANCIENT  fflSTORY. 

The  four  solenm  games  of  the  Greeks,  particulaiiv  tenned  imC 
were  the  Olympic,  the  Pythian,  the  Nemean,  and  the  Isthmian. 
They  consisted  principally  in  contests  of  skill  In  all  the  athletic  ex- 
ercises, and  the  prizes  were  chiefly  honorary  marks  of  distinction. 
Archbishop  Potter,  in  hLs  Ardialogta  Gtceccl^  fully  details  their  par^ 
ticular  nature.  These  games  had  excellent  political  effects,  in  pro- 
moting national  union,  in  diffusing  the  love  of  glory,  and  training  the 
youth  to  martial  exercises.  They  cherished  at  once  a  heroical  and 
superstitious  spirit,  which  led  to  the  formation  of  extraordinary  and 
hazardous  enterprises. 


SECTION  VIl. 

EARLY  PERIOD  OF  THE  GRECIAN  HISTORY.     THE  AR60- 
NAUTIC  EXPEDITION.    WARS  OF  THEBES  AND  OF  TROY. 

1.  The  history  of  Greece,  for  a  period  of  300  years  preceding 
the  Trojan  war,  is  intermixecl  with  fables ;  but  contains,  at  the  same 
time,  many  &cts  entitled  to  credit,  as  authentic.  Erectheus,  or  Erich- 
thonius,  either  a  Greek  who  had  visited  EgypJ,  or  the  leader  of  a 
new  Egyjptian  colony,  cultivated  the  plains  of  Eleusis,  and  instituted 
the  Eleusinian  mystei^les,  ia  imitation  of  the  Egyptian  games  of  Isis. 
These  mysteries  were  of  a  religious  and  moral  nature,  conveying  the 
doctrines  of  the  unity  of  Go<^  the  immortality  of  the  soiii,  and  a 
iiiture  state  of  reivard  and  punishment.  Cicero  speaks  of  them 
with  high  encomiunL  But  the  ceremonies  connected  with  them 
seem  to  be  childish  and  ridiculous. 

2.  Theseus  laid  the  foundation  of  the  grandeur  of  Attica,  by  unit- 
ing, its  twelve  cities,  and  giving  them  a  common  constitution,  1257 
A.  C. 

3.  The  first  great  enterprise  of  the  Greeks  was  the  Argonautic 
expedition,  1263  A.  C.  (Usher),  and  937  A.  C.  (sir  I.  INewton). 
This  is  supposed  to  have  been  both  a  military  and  a  mercantile  aa- 
venture,  and  was  singularly  bold  for  the  times  m  which  it  was  under- 
taken. The  object  was,  to  open  the  commerce  of  the  Euxine  sea, 
and  to  secure  some  establishments  on  its  coasts.  The  astronomer 
Chiron  directed  the  plan  of  the  voyage,  and  formed,  for  the  use  of 

^the  mariners,  a  scheme  of  the  constellations,  fixing  with  accuracy 
the  solstitial  and  equinoctial  points.  Sir  Isaac  Newton  has  founded 
his  emendation  of  the  ancient  clironology  on  a  calculation  of  the 
regular  procession  of  the  equinoxes  from  this  period  to  the  present, 
as  well  as  on  an  estimate  of  the  medium  length  of  human  genera- 
tions. 

4.  The  state  of  the  military  art  at  this  time  in  Greece  may  l>c 
estimated  from  an  account  of  the  sieges  of  Thebes  and  Troy. 

In  these  enterprises  the  arts  of  attack  and  defence  were  very  rude 
fnd  imperfect  The  siece  was  entirely  of  the  nature  of  blockade,  and 
ttierefore  necessarily  of  long  duration.  A  dispute  for  the  divided 
sovereignty  of  Thelies  between  the  brothers  Eteocles  and  Polynicee, 
gave  rise  to  the  war,  which  was  terminated  by  single  comhat,  Id 
which  both  were  killed. 

5.  The  sons  of  the  commanders  slain  in  this  war  renewed  the 
quarrel  of  their  fathers,  and  occasioned  the  war  of  the  Epigtmai, 
subject  on  which  Homer  is  said  to  have  written  a  poem,  now  lost, 
eqw  to  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey. 


yGoogk 


ANCIENT  mSTORy.  ft 

€.  lie  detail  of  the  war  of  Troy  rests  chiefly  od  the  auAoritj 
of  Homer,  and  oaght  not,  in  spite  of  modem  scepticusm  Lo  he  retna* 
cii,  in  ks  princifml  facts,  the  credit  of  a  true  history.  AAcr  a  block* 
ade  of  ten  years  Troy  was  taken,  either  by  storm  or  surprise,  1184 
h.  C^  and  being  set  on  fire  in  the  night,  was  burat  to  the  ground  i 
not  a  vestige  of  its  ruins  existing  at  the  present  day.  The  empire  iell 
from  that  moment  The  Greeks  settled  a  colony  near  the  spot,  and 
the  rest  of  the  kingdom  was  occupied  by  the  Lydians. 

7.  Military  expeditions  at  this  time  were  carried  on  only  in  the 
spring  and  summer.  In  a  tedious  siege  the  winter  was  a  season  c^ 
annisuce.  Tiie  science  of  inilitaiT  tiictics  was  then  utterly  unknown| 
ercry  battle  be'uig  a  inultituile  of  single  combats.  The  soldier  haa 
no  pay  but  his  share  of  the  booty,  divided  by  the  chiefs.  The 
weapons  of  war  were  the  sword,  the  bow,  the  javelin,  the  club,  tte 
hatchet,  and  the  sling.  A  helmet  of  bntss,  an  enormous  shield,  a 
cuiraett,  and  buskins,  ivere  the  weapons  of  defeoce. 


SEcnoN  vm. 

ESTABUSHMENT  OF  THE  GREEK  COLONIES. 

1.  Aboct  eighty  years  after  the  taking  of  Troy,  began  the  war  <rf 
the  IferacUdae.  Hercules,  the  son  ot  Amphitryon^  soveroign  of 
Mycenas,  was  bani-^hed  from  his  country  with  nil  hi^  family,  while 
the  crown  was  possessed  by  a  usurocr.  His  descendunte,  after  the 
period  of  a  century,  returned  to  reloponnesus.  and  subduing  all 
iheir  enemies,  took  possesion  of  the  sUies  of  juyccnae,  Argos,  and 
Ldcedsmoa 

2.  A  long  period  of  civil  war  and  bloodshed  succeeded,  and  Greece, 
divided  amoag  a  ntmiber  of  petty  tyrants,  suffered  eq^ually  the  mis- 
«nes  of  oppression  and  anarchy. 

CodruA,  kin^  of  Athens^  showed  a  singular  example  of  patriotism, 
•D  dcTOting  himself  to  cleath  for  his  country;  yet  the  Athenians, 
weary  of  monarchy,  determined  to  make  the  experiment  of  a  popo- 
Ur  Goostitatioa.  Aiedon,  the  son  of  Codru«*.  was  elected  chief  magi^ 
(rate,  with  die  title  of  archon.  This  is  the  commencement  of  the 
Aiheoiao  republic,  about  1O08  A.  C. 

S.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the  Greeks  began  to  coloni>:e.  The 
lymeaaion  which  they  suffered  at  home  forced  many  of  them  to 
af«andoo  their  country,  and  seek  refuge  in  other  lands.  A  large  body 
«f  £d^\an»  from  Peloponnesus  founded  twelve  cities  in  the  Lesser 
Au^  of  which  Smyrna  was  tiie  most  confide nxble.  A  troop  of 
«QuB  exUes  built  Ephcsus,  Colophon,  Clazomene^  and  other  towns; 
e:f  jnf  to  their  new  settlcm'^nts  the  name  of  their  native  country, 
r«ua.  llie  Dorians  sent  ofl  coloiues  to  Italy  and  Sicily,  founding,  m 
the  fiKaer,  Tarentum  and  Locri,  and  in  the  latter.  Syractiso  ajod 
AhgsDtoiB.  The  mother  country  considered  its  colonies  as  eman* 
dpite4  children.  These  speodii^  attained  to  eminence  and  spleo* 
<l.'Mir,  rivalling  and  surpassing  their  parent  states :  and  the  example 
U  tbeir  prosperity,  which  was  attributed  to  the  freedom  of  their 
C^Tcnoiaita,  incited  (he  states  of  Greece,  oppren^f  J  by  a  numter  of 
p.tty  deipotau  to  pat  aa  end  to  the  reg:il  govcrua<  <  t«  :nd  try  the 
experiment  of  a  popuI.ir  constilutioQ.  Athens  and  facbes  gate  the 
^rk  examples,  wtiich  wr-e  soon  foUowed  by  ail  the  rest 

i.TlMKi&lmitxepabi2C»  ddSMidMl  oew^hHts;  andttwamece^ 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


M  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

« 

aaiy  that  Mne  enlightened  citizen  should  arise,  who  had  discerameut 
to  perceiye  what  system  of  ledslation  was  most  adapted  to  the  cha^ 
acter  of  his  native  state ;  who  nad  abilities  to  compile  such  a  system, 
and  sufficient  authority  with  his  countrymen  to  recommend  and  ei^ 
force  it  Such  men  were  the  Spartan  Lycurgus  and  the  Aflienian 
Solon. 

SECTION  K. 

THE  REPUBLIC  OF  SPARTA. 

1.  Tbb  ori^  of  this  political  system  has  given  rise  to  much  in^ 
nious  disquisition  among  the  modems,  and  fiords  a  remaikable  m- 
fltance  of  the  passion  for  systematizing.  It  is  a  prevailing  pn^«nsity 
with  modem  philosophers  to  reduce  every  thmg  to  seneral  princt^ 
pies.  Man,  say  they,  is  always  the  same  anima^  an^  when  placed 
m  similar  situations,  will  always  exhibit  a  similar  appearance.  His 
manners,  his  improvements  the  eovemment  and  laws  under  which 
he  lives^  arise  necessarily  from  the  situation  in  which  we  find  him ; 
and  all  is  the  result  of  a  few  general  laws  of  nature,  which  operate 
universally  on  the  human  species.  But  in  the  ardour  of  this  passion 
for  generalizing,  these  philosophers  often  forget,  that  it  is  the  kqowW 
edge  of  &ct3  which  can  alone  lead  to  the  discovery  of  general  laws : 
a  Imowledge  not  limited  to  the  history  of  a  single  age  or  nation,  but 
extended  to  that  of  the  whole  species  in  every  age  and  cliinate. 
Antecedently  to  such  knowledge,  all  historical  system  is  mere  ro- 
mance. 

2.  Of  diis  nature  is  a  late  theory  of  the  constitution  of  Sparta,  fiist 
started  by  Air.  Browne,  in  his  Essay  on  Civil  Liberty;  and  from  him 
adopted  by  later  writers.  It  thus  accounts  for  the  origin  of  the  Spar- 
tan constitution.*  ^  The  army  of  the  Heraclidas,  idien  thev  came  to 
recover  the  dominion  of  their  ancestors,  was  composed  of  Dorians 
from  Thessaly,  the  most  barbarous  of  all  the  Greeic  tribes.  The 
Achaeans,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Laconia,  were  compelled  toaeek 
new  habitations,  while  the  barbarians  of  Thessaly  took  possession  of 
(heir  country.  Of  all  the  nations  which  are  the  subject  of  historical 
record,  this  peoj^e  bore  ttie  nearest  resemblance  to  the  rude  Ameri- 
cans. An  Amencan  tribe  where  a  chief  presides,  where  the  council 
of  the  aged  deliberate,  and  the  assembly  of  the  people  gives  their 
voice,  is  on  the  eve  of  such  a  political  establishment  as  the  Spartan 
OQOStitution."  The  Dorians  or  Thessalians  settled  in  Lacedsmooi 
manifested,  it  is  said,  the  same  manners  with  all  other  nations  in  a 
iNffbarous  state.  Lycurcus  did  no  more  than  arrest  them  b  that  state^ 
by  forming  their  usages  into  laws.  He  checked  them  at  once  in  the 
mat  stage  of  their  improvement  ^  He  put  forth  a  bold  hand  to  that 
apringwhich  is  in  society,  and  stent  its  motion.^  ' 

S.  This  theory,  however  ingemous,  is  confuted  by  fikcts.  All  8» 
dent  authors  agiee,  that  Lycurgus  operated  a  total  change  on  the 
Spartan  manners,  and  on  the  constitution  of  his  country ;  while  the 
modems  have  discovered  that  he  made  no  change  on  either.  The 
most  striking  features  of  the  manners  and  constitution  of  Sparta  had 
not  the  smaflest  resemblance  to  those  of  anvrude  nations  with  which, 
we  are  acquainted.  The  communion  of  daves  and  of  many  other 
"        1  of  property,  the  right  of  the  state  in  the  children  of  all  thft 

Digitized  by  CjOOQIC 


ANCIENI' HISTORY.  27 

dtittiB,  their  common  education,  the  public  tables,  the  equal  di?h 
siOQ  of  lands,  the  osith  of  government  between  the  kings  and  peo0% 
have  no  parallel  in  the  history  of  any  barbarous  nation. 

4.  The  real  history  of  Spsurta  and  its  constitution  is  therefore  not 
to  be  foond  in  modem  theory,  but  in  the  writings  of  the  Greek  hi»- 
toriaDB,  and  these  are  our  sole  authorities  worthy  of  credit 

Afier  the  return  of  the  Heraclidae,  Sparta  was  divided  between 
the  two  SODS  of  Aristodemus,  Eurysthenes,  and  Procles,  who  jointly 
reigned ;  and  this  double  monarcny,  transmitted  to  the  descendants 
<A  each,  continued  in  the  separate  branches  for  near  900  years.  A 
r«ufica]  priEicipIe  of  disunion,  and  consequent  anarchy,  made  the  want 
of  coQstitutiooal  laws  be  severely  felt  Lycurgus,  brother  of  Poly- 
dectei,  one  of  the  kings  of  Sparta,  a  man  distinguished  alike  by  his 
al>ilities  and  virtues,  was  invested,  by  the  concurring  voice  of  the 
sovereigns  and  people,  with  the  important  duty  of  reforming  and  new- 
modelling  the  constitution  of  his  country,  884  A.  C. 

5.  Lycurgus  instituted  a  senate,  elective,  of  twenty-eight  mem- 
bers ;  whose  office  was  to  preserve  a  jast  balance  between  the  pow- 
•r  of  the  kmgs  and  that  of  the  people.  Nothing  could  come  before 
!)e  assembly  of  the  people  which  had  not  received  the  previous  con* 
ent  of  the  senate ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  no  judgment  of  the  sen- 
ie  was  efiectual  without  the  sanction  of  the  people.  The  kings  pre- 
f^ded  in  the  senate ;  they  were  the  generals  of  the  republic :  but 
they  eoold  plan  no  enterprise  without  the  consent  of  a  council  of  the 
citizens. 

6.  Lycorgus  bent  his  attention  most  particularly  to  the  regulation 
i^i  maoDers :  and  one  great  principle  pervaded  his  whole  system : 
Luxury  is  tne  bane  of  society. 

He  divided  the  territory  ol  the  republic  into  39,000  equal  portions, 
among  the  whole  of  its  free  citizens. 

He  substituted  iron  monev  for  gokl  and  silver,  prohibited  the  prac- 
tice of  commerce,  abolisheci  ail  useless  arts,  ana  allowed  even  those 
oeceaaary  to  life  to  be  practised  only  by  the  slaves. 

The  whole  citizens  made  their  principal  repast  at  the  public  far 
McsL  The  meate  were  coarse  ana  parsunonlous ;  the  conversation 
T»  fitted  to  improve  the  youth  in  virtue,  and  cultivate  the  patriotic 
ipiriL 

The  Spartan  education  rejected  all  embellishments  of  the  under- 
4andin^  It  nourished  only  the  severer  virtues.  It  taught  the  do- 
L-e*  of  religion,  obedience  to  the  laws,  respect  for  parents,  reverence 
lir  oid  age«  inflexible  honour,  undaunted  courage,  contempt  of  dan- 
cer and  ofdeath ;  above  all,  the  love  of  glory  and  of  their  country 

7.  Bat  the  general  excellence  of  the  institutions  of  Lycurgus  was 
iBIMBitgd  by  many  blemishes.  The  manners  of  the  Lacedxmooian 
wotDen  were  sbamefullv  loose.  They  frequented  the  batl»,  and 
icj^  naked  in  the  pauestra  promiscuously  with  the  men.  Theft 
wxi  a  mxt  of  Spartan  education.  The  youth  were  taught  to  subdue 
<b«  i-i1hi£n  of  humanity ;  the  slaves  were  treated  with  the  most  bai^ 
baitna  rigoor,  and  often  massacred  for  sport  The  institutions  of 
LTcurswlnd  do  other  end  than  to  form  a  nation  of  soldiers. 

8.  Atnty  part  of  the  constitation  of  Sparta  was  the  office  of  tlm 
epbori :  oagmates  elected  by  the  people,  whose  power,  though  to 
MM  mpects  sobonfiDate,  was  in  othen  paiamount  to  that  of  (b» 
kl«iwl0mi& 

•  •    .  .  .'.  \.  '  '-» 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


i6  AltClENT  mSTORT. 

SECTION  X. 

THE  REPUBUC  OF  ATHENS, 

1.  Oir  the  abolition  of  the  regal  office  at  Athena,  the  change  tif 
Q^e  coostitixtion  was  more  nominal  than  real.  The  archonship  was, 
during  three  centuries,  a  perpetual  and  hereditary  magistracy.  In 
734  A.  C.  this  office  became  decennial.  In  646  the  arehons  were 
ttinually  elected  and  were  nine  in  number,  with  equal  authority. 
Under  all  these  changes  the  state  was  convulsed,  and  Uieoonditioa  of 
tbe  people  misernbie. 

%  Draco,  elevated  to  the  archonship  624  A.  C,  projected  a  reform 
in  the  constitution  of  his  country,  and  tnought  to  repress  disorders  by 
the  extreme  severity  of  penal  laws.  £ut  his  talents  were  unequal 
to  the  task  he  had  undertaken. 

3.  Solon,  an  illustrious  Atheman,  of  the  race  of  Codrus,  attained 
the  dignity  of  archon  594  A.  C,  and  was  entrusted  with  the  care  of 
framing  for  his  country  a  new  form  of  government,  and  a  new  ays* 
tem  otlaws.  He  possessed  extensive  knowledge,  but  wanted  that 
mtrepidity  of  mind  which  is  necessary  to  the  character  of  a  ereat 
statesman.  His  disposition  was  mild  and  temporizing;  and,  wiUiout 
attempting  to  reform  the  manners  of  his  countrymen,  he  accoamio- 
dated  nis  system  to  their  prevailing  habits  and  passions* 

4.  The  people  claimed  the  sovereign  power,  and  they  receiTed 
It;  the  rich  demanded  ofiices  and  dignities:  the  system  of  Soloal 
acconmiodated  them  to  the  utmost  of  tJieir  wishes.  He  divided  the 
citizens  into  four  classes,  according  to  the  measure  of  their  wealth. 
To  the  three  first,  the  richer  citizens,  belonged  all  the  offices  of  the 
coDunonwealth.  The  fourth,  the  poorer  chiss,  more  nun^rous  thaa 
all  the  other  three,  had  an  equal  right  of  suiirnge  with  them  in  the 
public  assembly,  wtiere  all  laws  were  framed,  and  measures  of  state 
decreed  Consequently  the  weight  of  the  latter  decided  every  ques- 
tion. 

5.  To  regulate  in  soine  decree  the  proceedings  of  those  aasem-l 
blies,  and  balance  the  weiglit  d"  the  popular  intere^  Solon  instituted 
•  senate  of  400  nsembers  (afterwtlrds  enlarged  to  500  and  6CK>)^ 
"with  whom  it  was  necessary  that  every  measure  should  originate, 
before  it  became  the. subject  of  discussion  in  the  assembly  of  the 
people. 

6.  To  the  court  of  areopagus  he  committed  the  guardiansihip  oi 
d)e  laws,  and  the  power  of  enforcing  them:  with  the  supreniQ 
administration  of  justice.  To  this  tribunal  belonged  likewise  the 
custody  of  the  treasures  of  the  state*  the  care  of  religion,  and  s 
tat(»iai  power  overall  the  youth  of  the  republic  The  number  ol 
tt9  judges  was  various  at  difE^retit  periods,  and  the  most  launacul^fi 
purityof  character  was  essential  to  that  high  office. 

7.  The  authority  of  ihe  senate  end  areopagus  imposed  sone  checli 
on  the  popular  assemblies;  but  as  these  possessed  the  ultimate  rlgh 
of  decision,  it  was  always  in  the  power  of  ambitious  demagonies  U 
•way  them  to  the  worst  of  purposes.  Continual  factions  divided  th< 
people,  and  corruption  pervaded  every  department  of>  the  state 
The  public  measures,  the  result  of  the  hiterested  schemes  of  ioAij 
vWuaJs,  were  often  equally  absurd  as  they  were  profligate.  Alheri 
often  saw  her  best  patriots,  the  wisest  and  most  virtuous  of  her  citi 

')  shaiBeMjsaciificedto  the  iDost  depraved  and  mo6tab«iulQiie< 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


AI9CIENT  UISTO&Y.  19 

6.  The  pnrticular  kwsoftiieAtheDian  state  are  more  deferring  of 
CDcomiom  than  its  funn  of  foremmeiit  The  laws  reiatJDf  to  debt- 
ors were  mild  and  eqaitable^  as  were  those  which  regalated  t^e 
tr&almeiit  of  slaves.  But  the  vassalage  of  women,  or  their  abso- 
lute sobjection  to  the  control  of  their  nearest  relations^  approaclied 
tC4>  near  to  a  state  of  senitude.  The  proposer  of  a  law  found  on 
cKperieooe  impolitic  was  liable  to  punishment;  an  enactment  ap- 
pareotly  rigorous,  but  probably  necessary  in  a  popular  government 

9.  One  most  iniquitous  and  absurd  peculiarity  or  the  Athenian,  and 
tome  other  goycmments  of  Greece,  was  the  practice  of  the  ostrch 
CLTTi,  a  baiiot  of  all  tlie  citizens,  in  wliich  each  wrote  down  the  name 
ot  the  person  in  his  opinion  most  obnoxious  to  censure ;  and  he  who 
w.i<4  tbos  marked  out  by  the  greatest  number  of  voiccis  though  un- 
impeached  of  any  crime,  was  banished  for  ten  years  from  liis  coun- 
try. Tins  barbarous  and  disgraceful  institution,  ever  capable  of  the 
rrusest  abuse,  and  generally  subservient  to  the  worst  of  purposes, 
hid  ftaioed  the  character  of  Athens  with  many  flagrant  instances 
ol  pciblic  ingratitude. 

10.  The  manners  of  the  Athenians  formed  the  most  striking  con- 
\ri*t  to  (hose  of  the  Lacedemonians.  At  Athens  the  arts  were  in 
f*.^  highest  esteem.  The  Laccdcemoniaas  despised  the  arts,  and  all 
^  tiO  cultivated  them.  At  Athens  peace  w<is  tiie  natund  state  of  the 
n  fMililic,  and  the  retined  enjoyment  oi  life  the  aim  of  all  its  subjects. 
>xiTXz  W3B  entirely  a  military  establishment ;  and  her  subjects,  when 
'T/^oga^cd  in  war,  were  totally  unoccupied.  Luxury  was  the  char- 
jtf  .'er  oft  the  Athenian,  as  frugality  of  the  Spjirttm.  They  were 
»^^twi]y  jealous  of  their  liberty,  and  equally  brave  in  war.  The 
<  •ir.iee  of  the  Spaitims  spning  from  coristilutional  ferocity,  that  of 
Li»  Athenian  from  the  principle  of  honour. 

U.  The  Spartan  government  Imd  acquired  solidity,  while  all  the 
^-t  of  Gn*ccc  Wiis  loni  by  domej^tlc  dissensions.    Athens,  a  prey  to 

♦  Hon  and  civil  disorder,  surrendtM*ed  lier  liberties  to  l^i«<istrat«is,  B50 
V  C;  who,  at'ter  various  turns  of  fortune,  cj»tiiblished  himself  lirm- 
''  m  the  «overeignty,  exercised  a  splendid  and  muniticenc  dominion, 
"   ipletely  g:iinod  the  ad^otions  of  the  people,  and  transmitted  a 

•  1    Mble  crown  to  his  sons  Ifippias  ami  liipparcnus. 

li  Hcrmocfiastmd  Ari^topiton  undertook  to  restore  the  democra- 
'V;  and  «ncce(M)ed  in  the  :itt(?mpt  Hipparchus  was  put  to  death ; 
*-•!  Hippia^  dethroned,  scliciteii  a  foreign  aid  to  replace  him  in  the 
"•^^reigoty.  Darins,  tlic  son  of  HysUispes  meditated  at  this  time 
^t  coiM|ue«t  of  Grt'ece.  Llippias  took  advantage  of  the  viei^s  of 
n  'zsemy  against  his  native  country,  and  Greece  was  now  involved 
u.  a  war  with  I'crsia. 


SECTION  XL 

I 

I CF  THE  STATE  OF  THE  PERSIAN  EMPIRE,  AND  ITS  HISTOBV 

DOWN  TO  THE  WAR  WITH  GREECE. 

I    1  Tbe  fifSt  empire  of  the  Assyrian*  ended  under  Sardanapalos,  and 

t'  '  atooarchies  arose  upon  ils  ruins,  Nineveh,  Babylon,  and  the 
.  •  lom  of  the  Medes. 
i  .'.  The  hWory  of  Kabylon  and  of  Nineveh  b  very  imperfectly 
[p-wn.  The  Modes,  hitherto  independent  tribes,  were  united  under 
m  i^uoarchj  by  Dejocca.  His  son  Fhraortea  conquered  Persia,  but  w%f 
L  C  2 


30  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

himself  vanquished  by  NabuchodoDosor  L,  king  of  Aasyria,  and  pat 
to  death.  Nabuchodonosor  U.  led  the  Jews  into  captivity,  took  Je- 
rusalem and  Tyre,  and  subdued  Egypt 

3.  The  history  of  Cyrus  is  involved  in  great  uncertainty ;  nor  is 
it  possible  to  reconcile  or  apply  to  one  man  the  different  accounts 
eiven  of  him  by  Herodotus,  Ctesias,  and  Xenophon.  Succeeding 
his  father  Cambyses  in  the  throne  of  Persia^  and  nis  uncle  Cyasares 
in  the  sovereignty  of  the  Medes,  he  united  uiese  empires,  vanquish- 
ed the  Babylonians  and  Lydlans,  subjected  the  greatest  part  of  the 
Lesser  Asia,  and  made  himself  master  of  Syria  and  Arabia. 

4.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Cambyses,  distinguished  only  as 
a  tyrant  and  a  madman. 

5.  After  the  death  of  Camb3^s,  Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspes^ 
was  elected  sovereign  of  Persia,  a  prince  of  great  enterprise  and 
ambition.  Unfortunate  in  a  rash  expedition  against  the  bcythians, 
he  projected  and  achieved  the  conquest  of  India.  Inflated  with  suc- 
cess, he  now  meditated  an  invasion  of  Greece,  and  cordially  entered 
into  the  views  of  Hlppias,  who  sought  by  his  means  to  regain  the 
sovereignty  of  Athens. 

6.  Government^  Manners^  Lctws^  SfC,  of  the  Ancient  Persians.  The 
government  of  Persia  wasan  absolute  monarchy ;  the  will  of  the  sov- 
ereign being  suLgect  to  no  control,  and  his  person  revered  as  sacred : 
yet  Die  education  bestowed  by  those  monarchs  on  their  children  was 
calculated  to  inspire  every  valuable  quality  of  a  sovereign. 

The  ancient  Persians  in  general  bestowed  the  utmost  attention  on 
the  education  of  vouth.  Children  at  the  age  of  iive  were  committed 
to  the  care  of  tne  magi,  for  the  improvement  of  their  mind  and 
morals.  They  were  trained  at  the  same  time  to  every  manly  exercise* 
The  sacred  books  of  the  Zendaoesta  promised  to  every  worthy  parent 
the  imputed  merit  and  reward  of  all  the  good  actions  of  nis  chiW 
dren. 

7.  Luxurious  as  they  were  in  after  times,  the  eariy  Persians  were 
distinguished  for  their  temperance,  bravery,  and  virtuous  simplicity 
of  manners.  They  were  all  trained  to  the  use  of  arms,  and  display- 
ed great  intrepidity  in  war.  The  custom  of  the  women  following 
tiieir  armies  to  the  tield,  erroneously  attributed  to  effeminacy,  was 

a  remnant  of  barbarous  manners.  i 

8.  The  kingdom  of  Persia  was  divided  into  several  provinces,  each 
under  a  governor  or  satrap,  who  was  accountable  to  the  sovereign  I 
for  the  whole  of  his  conduct  The  prince,  at  stated  times,  visiteii 
his  provinces  in  person,  correcting  all  abuses,  easing  the  burdens^ 
of  the  oppressed,  and  encouraging  agriculture  and  the  practice  of 
the  useful  arts.  The  laws' of  Persia  were  mild  and  eqmtable,  an  J 
the  utmost  purity  was  observed  in  the  administration  of  justice.  i 

9.  The  religion  of  the  ancient  Persians  i»  of  great  antiquity.    It 
is  conjectured  that  there  were  two*Zoroasters;  the  first,  the  founder 
of  this  ancient  religion,  and  of  whom  are  recorded  miracles  and 
prophecies ;  the  second,  a  reformer  of  that  religion,  contefiiPorHrv 
with  Darius  the  son  of  Hystaspes.    The  Zendaoesttu  or  sacred  book, 
compiled  by  the  former,  was  unproved  and  purified  by  the  latter. 
It  has  been  lately  translated  into  French  by  M.  Anquetil,  and  appeais 
to  contsdn,  amidst  a  mass  of  atourdity,  some  sublime  truths,  and  ex- 
ceUent  precepts  of  morahty.    The  theology  of  the  Zendavesta  is 
founded  on  the  doctrine  of  two  opposite  pnnciples,  a  good  and  ou 
evil,  Ormusd  and  Ahriman,  eternal  tJeings,  who  divide  betweep  tben> 
Ihe  govenunent  of  the  univeiae,  and  whose  warfare  must  endure  till 

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ANCIENT  HISTORY.  31 

(he  end  of  12^)00  years,  when  the  good  will  finally  prevsdl  over  the 
cfiL  A  separatioD  will  ensue  of  the  votaries  of  each :  the  jost  shall 
be  admittea  to  the  Immediate  enjoyment  of  Paradise ;  the  wickedi 
aAer  a  limited  purification  by  fire,  snail  oltimateiy  be  allowed  to  pai^ 
take  io  the  blessings  of  eternity.  Onnusd  is  to  be  adored  throncb 
Che  medium  of  his  greatest  works,  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars.  Toe 
fire,  the  symbol  of  the  sun,  the  air,  the  earth,  the  water,  have  their 
satK»rdiDate  w<»i8hjp. 

The  morality  ot  the  Zeiidaotsta  is  best  known  from  its  abridg- 
ment, the  SaMer^  complied  about  three  centuries  ago  by  the  modem 
Goebres.  It  inculcates  a  chastened  species  of  epicurism:  allowing 
a  free  indulgence  of  the  passions,  wlule  consistent  with  the  welfare 
of  society.  It  prohibits  equally  intemperance  and  ascetic  mortifies^ 
tioQ.  It  recommends,  as  precepts  of  religion,  the  cultivation  of  the 
earth,  the  planting  of  fruit-trees,  the  destniction  of  noxious  anim^k^ 
the  bringing  water  to  a  barren  land. 

10.  Such  were  the  ancient  Persians.  But  their  character  had  ud- 
dergooe  a  great  change  before  the  period  of  the  war  with  Grreece. 
At  mis  time  they  were  a  degenerate  and  corrupted  people.  Athens 
had  recently  thrown  off  the  yoke  of  the  Pisistratidse^  and  highly  va^ 
ued  her  new  liberty.  Sparta,  in  the  ardour  of  patnotism,  iorgot  adl 
jealoosy  of  her  rival  state,  and  cordially  united  in  the  defence  of 
their  coosmon  country.  The  Persians,  in  this  contest,  had  no  other 
advantage  than  that  of  numbers,  an  unequal  match  for  superior  hero* 


I  and  military  skill 


SECTION  XIL 


THE  WAR  BETWEEN  GREECE  AND  PERSIA. 

1.  Thb  ambition  of  Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspes,  heightened  by  the 
paaaon  of  revenge,  gave  rise  to  the  prcnect  of  that  monarch  for  the 
BDfasion  of  Greece.  The  Athenians  nad  aided  the  people  of  Ionia  io 
an  attempt  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  Persia,  and  burnt  and  ravaged 
Sardis,  the  capital  of  Lydia.  iDarius  speedily  reduced  the  lonians  to 
rabausiioQ,  and  then  turned  his  arms  against  the  Greeks,  their  allies ; 
the  exile  Hippias  eagerly  prompting  the  expedition. 

2.  Afieran  insolent  demand  of  submission,  which  the  Greeks  scorn- 
fully refused,  Darius  began  a  hostile  attack  both  by  sea  and  land. 
The  first  Persian  fleet  was  wrecked  in  doubling  the  promontory  of 
Athoa ;  a  second,  of  600  sail,  ravaged  the  Grecian  islands ;  while  an 
ioBnettse  army  landing  in  Euboea,  poured  down  with  impetuosity  oo 
Atfka.  Ilie  Athenians  met  them  on  the  plain  of  Marathon,  and, 
headed  by  Miltiades.  defeated  them  with  prodigious  slaughter,  490 
A.  C.  The  loss  of  the  Persians  m  this  battle  was  6,300,  and  that  of 
the  Athenians  190. 

S^  The  merit  of  Bliltiades,  signal^  displayed  in  this  great  battle* 
was  repaid  by  hto  country  with  the  most  shocking  ingratitude.  Ac- 
cosed  of  treason  for  an  unsuccessful  attack  on  the  isle  of  Paro&  hit 
aentenoe  of  death  was  commuted  into  a  fine  of  fifty  talents;  wmcb 
being  unable  to  pay  be  was  thrown  into  prison,  and  there  died  of  hit 


4.  The  glory  of  ungratefiil  Athens  was  yet  nobly  sustained  in  the 
Pcnian  war  In- Themistocles  and  Aristides.    Darius  dying  was  soo- 
^  lbyhis80QXenes,thefaeirQfhi8fiithei'samhifion,butnotof 

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U  ANCIENT  HISTOKY. 

1^  abiUtfes.  He  armed,  as  is  said,  five  nullions  of  men,  for  the  om^ 
giiest  of  Greece;  1,200  ships  o(  war,  and  3,000  ships  of  buntok 
f^i}A\ng  in  Thessaly  he  proceede<l,  by  rapid  ooar'^Jies,  to  Themiop* 
yla^,  i  narrow  defile  on  the  Sinus  Maliacus,  The  Athenlaos  and 
Spartans,  aided  only  by  the  Thespians,  Finteans,  and  £f  inetes,  de* 
termined  to  withstand  the  invader.  Lconidas,  king  of  Sparta,  was 
<;ho6en  to  defend  this  important  pass  with  6,000  men.  Xerxes,  after 
a  weak  attempt  to  corrupt  him,  inmerionsly  summoned  him  to  lay 
down  his  arms.  Let  him  come^  said  Leonidas,  and  taJie  than.  For  two 
days  the  Persians  in  rain  strove  to  force  their  way,  and  were  repeat- 
edly renulscd  with  ereat  slaughter.  An  unguai-ded  track  being  at 
length  discovered,  the  defence  of  the  pass  became  a  fruitless  attempt 
on  Uie  part  of  the  Greeks.  Leonidas,  foreseeing  certain  destruciioa, 
commanded  all  to  retire  but  300  of  his  countrymen.  His  motive  was 
to  sive  the  Pei'sians  a  just  idea  of  the  spirit  of  that  foe  whom  they 
had  to  encounter.  He,  with  his  brave  Spartans,  were  all  cut  off  to  a 
man,  480  A.  C.  A  monument,  erected  on  tlie  spot,  bore  tliis  noble 
InscriptiGMn,  written  by  Simonides:  O  stranger!  tell  it  at  Laceekunoiiy 
thai  we  died  here  in  cbedience  to  her  la-xs. 

6.  The  Persians  poured  dovvn  upon  Attica.  The  inhabitants  of 
Athens,  after  conveying  their  women  and  chiMren  to  the  islands  for 
security ,  betook  themselves  to  (heir  fleet,  abandoning  the  city,  which 
the  Persians  pillaged  and  burnt  The  fleet  of  the  Greeks,  consisting 
of  380  sail,  was  attacked  in  the  straits  of  Sulauiis  by  that  of  the  I'cr- 
Bians,  amounting  to  1.200  ships.  Xerxes  him'^.'lf  beheld  from  an  em-> 
inence  on  the  coast  tlie  total  discomfiture  of  his  squadron.  He  then 
fled  with  precipitation  across  the  Hellespont.  A  second  overthrow 
awaited  his  army  by  hmd :  for  Mardoifius,  at  the  head  of  300.000 
Persians,  was  totally  defeated  at  Platsea  by  the  combined  army  or  the 
Athenians  and  Lacedxmoniaas,  479  A.  C.  On  the  same  day  the 
Greeks  engaged  and  destroyed  the  remains  of  the  Pei-sian  fleet  at 
Mycale.  Vvom  that  day  tiie  ambitious  schemes  of  Xerxes  were  at 
an  end:  and  his  inglorious  life  w;is  soon  after  teiminatodby  assassina- 
tion. He  was  succeeded  in  the  throne  of  Persia  by  his  son  Artaxerxea 
Longimanus,  464  A.  C. 

6.  At  this  time  the  national  character  of  the  Greeks  was  at  its  highest 
elevation.  The  common  diuiger  had  annihilated  all  partial  jealousies 
bebveen  the  states,  tmd  given  them  union  as  a  nation.^  But  with  the 
cessation  of  danger  those  jeiUousies  recommenced.  Sparta  meanly 
opposed  the  rebuilding  of  deserted  Athens.  Ati)ens,risinc  again  into 
splendour,  saw  with  pleasure  the  depopulation  of  Sparta  bj  an  earth- 
quake, and  liesitiitea  to  give  her  aid  m  that  juncture  ol  calamity 
against  a  vebeilion  of  her  slaves. 

7.  Cimon,  the  son  of  Miitiades.  after  expelling  the  Persians  from 
Tiirace,  Htti\cked  and  de.-troyed  tneir  fleet  on  the  co;ist  of  Pamphylia^ 
and,  landing  his  troops,  gained  a  signal  victory  over  their  army  tlie 
same  day.  Supplanted  in  the  public  favour  by  the  arts  of  hia  lival 
Pericles,  he  suUered  a  temporary  exile,  to  retuiti  only  with  higher 
popularity,  and  to  signalize  himself  still  more  in  the  service  of  hia 
ungrateful  country.  He  attacked  and  totally  destroyed  the  Persian 
fleet  of  300  sail,  and,  landing  in  Cilicia,  completed  his  triumph,  by 
defeating  300,000  Persians  under  Megabyzes,  4C0  A-  C.  Artaxenies 
now  had  the  prudence  to  sue  for  peace,  which  was  granted  by  the 
Greeks,  on  terms  most  honourable  to  the  nation.  They  stipulated 
fcr  the  freedom  of  all  the  Grecian  cities  of  Asia,  and  that  the  neetiof 
Pecaia  ahoukl  not  appruoch  their  coasta  from  the  Euxioe  t^  the  ex. 

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AKOENT  HISTORY.  88 

mme  bomdary  of  Pamphylia.  The  last  fifbr  yean  were  te  period 
of  the  highest  glory  of  tlie  Greekfi;  and  they  owed  their  prosperi^ 
entirely  to  their  union.  Tlie  peace  with  Persia,  di9E;olving  that  con. 
DPXion,  hroQght  back  the  jealousies  between  tiie  predominant  statei; 
the  faitestine  disordere  of  each,  and  the  national  weakness. 

8.  Hie  martial  and  the  patriotic  spirit  beg:in  visibly  to  decline  io 
Athens.  ^  An  acquaintance  with  Asia,  and  an  importation  of  her 
wealth,  introduced  a  relish  for  Asiatic  manners  ana  luxuries.  With 
the  Atheaiaos, however,  this  luxurious  spirit  was  under  the  guidance 
of  tnste  and  genius,  it  led  to  the  cuhivation  of  the  finer  arts ;  and 
the  a^  of  Periclfts,  though  the  national  glory  was  in  its  wane,  is  the 
en  m  the  highest  internal  splendour  and  magni&ence  of  Greece. 


SECTION  XIU. 
AGE  OF  PERICLES. 

1.  Bepcvucs^  equally  with  monarchies,  are  generally  regulated 
by  a  single  will :  only,  in  the  former  there  is  a  more  frequent  change 
of  master?.  Pericles  ruled  Athens  with  little  less  tluui  arbitrary 
sway ;  and  Athens  pretcnri<?d  at  this  time  to  the  command  of  Greece. 
She  held  the  allied  stales  in  the  moet  absolute  subjection,  and  lavished 
their  suU^iiiies,  bestowed  for  the  national  defence,  in  mapjnificent 
boilvlin^^.  frames,  and  festivals,  for  her  own  citizens.  The  tributary 
siite*»  loii  llycompliineJ,  but  dnivt  not  call  this  domineering  republic 
toaccx)unt ;  and  the  vvr*r  of  PeIopon^esu^i,  dividing  tiic  nation  into 
two  great  pard  =»s,  hound  (be  less  cities  to  the  strictest  subordination 
€n  tbe  predomiiKint  pow/^i-s. 

2.  The  stito  of  Corinlii  bn/l  been  included  in  tbe  last  treaty  be- 
tween Atlv-iw  and  t>p:irta.  Tiie  Corinthians  waging  war  with  the 
people  of  Corcyr.1,  an  anci«»nt  colony  of  thoir  own,  both  parlies  so- 
lirited  the  :»i  i  of  Ath-^ns  wb.ich  took  part  with  the  latter;  a  measure 
which  theC«  intbi  ns  conipl.uned  of,  not  only  as  an  infraction  of  tlie 
tn*^ty  wiih  J-^vn-ti,  hnf  as  ;i  brencb  of  a  j^eneral  rule  of  tl)e  national 
policT»ll^^t  n  >  fore  i 4  » T;cv.-i»r=l)OMlJ  interlorein  tbe  disputos  between 
a  colony  and  it>  p.i:*nl  *-t:ite.  Wiir  w;is  proclaimed  on  tliis  ground 
If'tween  Ati'"n>;inJ  fr.cpj  rmon,  each  snp])orted  by  its  respective 
ai:ie«.  Tfi«'  <!  'lil  of  tl^e  war,  which  continued  for  twcnlv-eight 
T'^ars,  Willi  \.ri  '.>  jm  1  ailrm  itc  success,  is  to  lx»  found  in  Tliucyd- 
ili*.  P«Mi«i  -^  cli -il  }».'.bn'  its  termination;  a  splendid  ornament  of 
Li*  co^iiitn*,  '^iit  a  Cv»r.  iinit-»r  of  its  manners.  Alcibiades  ran  a  similar 
career,  wiJi  equal  lil«"]<s  eq'ial  ambition,  and  still  less  parity  ot 
moral  principle,  la  i!ir»  iilen-nl  of  a  truce  with  Sparta  be  inconsid- 
erately pn»j'icted  tlie  ctv^qMOSt  of  Sicily ;  and.  failinfi:  in  the  attempt, 
w»,  on  nh'  r  *tum  to  Alliens,  condemiieil  to  death  for  treason,  rie 
ltf?<itated  not  to  wreak  his  ven,:'»ance  against  his  country,  by  selling 
im  •enrices,  lirst  to  Sjiarta,  and  atlcnvards  to  Persia.  Finally,  he 
pordused  ht«  peace  with  his  country,  by  betraying  the  power 
vliich  protected  him,  and  returned  to  Atnens  the  idol  of  a  populace 
99  TCEiitilc  a<i  worthless. 

3.  A  fatal  de&at  of  the  Athenian  fleet  at  JEm  Potamos,  by  Lyu 
MDder,  reduced  Athens  to  the  Last  extremity;  and  the  Lacedaemonians 
Mnttaded  the  city  bj  land  and  sea.  The  war  was  ended  by  tha 
•biolgte  fabmisBioQ  of  the  Athenians,  who  agreed  to  demolish  their 
|ar^  tolnoii  their  fleet  to  twelve  ships,  and  undertake  for  thefutuis 

6 

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M  ANCIENT  mSTORY- 

DO  military  enternrise*  but  under  command  of  the  LacedsBmontaDSL 
405  A.  C. 

4.  To  the  same  Lysander,  who  tenninated  thaPeloponneaian  war 
so  ffloriously  forLacedsmon,  history  ascribes  the  first  great  breach 
of  tne  constitution  of  his  country,  by  the  introduction  of  gjoM  into 
that  republic.  Lysander,  after  the  reduction  of  Athens,  abolished 
the  popular  goyemment  in  that  state,  and  suDstituted  in  its  place 
thirty  tyrants,  whose  power  was  aosolu^e  The  most  eminent  of 
the  citizens  fled  firom  their  country ,  E«it  a  Dand  of  patriots,  headed 
by  Thrasybulus,  attacked,  vanqusshed.  and  expelled  the  usurpers, 
and  once  more  re-established  the  democracy 

5.  One  event,  which  happened  at  this  time,  reflected  more  disgrace 
on  the  Athenian  name  than  their  national  humiliation :  this  was  the  per- 
secution and  death  of  Socrates,  a  philosopher  who  was  himseltthe 
mttem  of  every  virtue  which  he  taught  Th6  sophists,  whose  futile 
logic  he  derided  and  en>osed,  represented  him  as  an  enemy  to  the 
leugion  of  his  country,  becau&e,  without  regard  to  the  p6po]ar  su- 
perstitions, he  led  the  mind  to  the  knowledge  of  a  Supreme  Being, 
the  creator  and  ruler  of  the  universe,  and  to  the  belief  of  a  future 
state  of  retribution.  He  made  his  defence  with  the  manly  fortitude  of 
conscious  innocence ;  but  'm  vain:  his  judges  were  his  nersonal  ene- 
mies, and  he  was  condemned  to  die  by  pois<»i,  397  A.  C.  (See  Sec- 
tion XXm,§  5.) 

6.  On  the  death  of  Darius  Nothus,  his  eldest  son  Artaxerzea  Mne- 
mon  succeeded  to  the  empire  of  Persia.  His  younger  brother  Cyrus 
formed  the  project  of  dethroning  him,  and  with  me  aid  of  13,000 
Greeks  engaged  him  near  Babylon,  but  was  defeated  and  slain ;  a 
lost  reward  of  his  most  culpable  enterprise.  The  remainder  of  me 
Txrecian  army,  to  the  amount  of  10,000,  under  the  command  of  Xen* 
ophon,  made  a  most  amazing  retreat,  traversing  a  hostile  coun^of 
1,600  miles  in  extent,  firom  Babylon  to  the  banks  of  the  Euxine .  Aei> 
ophon  has  beautifully  written  the  history  of  this  expedition:  but  has 
pauited  the  character  of  Cyrus  in  too  flattering  colours,  and  without 
the  smallest  censure  of  his  criminal  ambition. 

7.  The  Greek  cities  of  Asia  had  taken  part  with  Cyrus,    Sparta 
was  engaged  to  defend  her  countrymen,  and  consequentiy  was  in 
volved  m  a  war  with  Persia.    Had  Athens  added  her  stren^,  the 
Greeks  might  have  once  more  defied  the  power  of  Asia ;  but  jealousy 
kept  the  states  divided^  and  even  hostile  to  each  other;  and  the  gofil 
of  Artaxerxes  excited  a  general  league  in  Greece  a^dnst  Lac^»- 
mon.    Agesilaus,  king  ofSparta,  sustained  for  a  time  the  honour  of 
his  coun^,  and  won  some  important  batties  in  Asia;  but  others  were 
lost  in  Greece ;  and  a  naval  defeat  near  Cnidos  utterly  destroved  the 
Lacedsmonian  fleet   Finally,  to  escape  total  destruction,  the  spartans 
sued  for  peace,  and  obtainedf  it  by  the  sacrifice  to  Persia  of  all  the 
AMatic  colonies,  387  A.  C.  Artaxerxes  iurther  demanded,  and  obtain- 
ed for  his  aUies  the  Athenians,  the  islands  of  Scyros,  Lemnos.  and  Im- 
bros :  a  disgrace&l  treaty;  a  mortiiyiog  picture  of  the  humiUatioQ  of 
the  Greeks. 


y  Google 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  ^ 

SECTION  XIV.  ! 

THE  REPUBLIC  OF  THEBES. 

1.  Wmix  Athens  and  Sparta  were  thus  visibly  tenduig  to  decline, 
the  Theban  republic  emerged  from  obscurity,  and  rose  for  a  time 
to  a  degree  of  splendour  eclipsing  all  its  contemporary  states.  The 
repubuc  was  divided  by  faction,  one  party  supporting  its  ancient  de- 
mocracy, and  the  other  aiming  at  the  establishment  of  an  oligarchy. 
The  latter  courted  the  aid  of  ue  Spartans,  who  embraced  that  occa- 
maa  to  take  possession  of  the  citadel.  Four  hundred  of  the  exiled 
Thebaos  fled  for  protection  to  Athens.  Among  these  was  Felopidas, 
who  planned  and  accomplished  the  deliverance  of  his  country.  Dis- 
iratfling  himself  and  twelve  of  his  friends  as  peasants,  he  entered 
Thebes  in  the  evening,  and  joining  a  patriotic  party  of  the  citizens, 
they  surprised  the  heads  of  the  usurpation  amid  the  tumult  of  a  feast, 
and  pat  them  all  to  death.  Epaminondas,  the  friend  of  Felopidas, 
shared  with  him  in  the  glory  of  this  enterprise ;  and  attacking,  with 
the  aid  of  5,000  Athenians,  the  LacedsBmonian  garrison,  drove  them 
entirely  out  of  the  Theban  territory. 

2.  A  war  necessarily  ensued  between  Thebes  and  Sparta,  in  whici' 
the  former  had  the  aid  of  Athens.  This,  however,  was  but  for  a  sea 
8oa  Tliebes  singly  opposed  the^wer  of  Spar^  and  the  league  ot 
Greece :  but  Epaminondas  and  Felopidas  were  her  generals.  The 
latter,  amidst  a  career  of  glory,  perished  in  an  expedition  against 
(he  tyrant  of  Fheraea.  Epaminoni&s,  triumphant  at  Leuctra  and  Man- 
tipea,  frll  in  that  last  engagement,  and  with  him  expired  the  glory  of 
his  couiiay,  363  A.  C.  Athens  and  Sparta  were  humbled  at  the  battle 
ofMaDtinea.  Thebes  was  victorious ;  out  she  was  undone  by  the  death 
of  Epaminoodas.  All  parties  were  tired  of  the  war ;  and  Artaxerxes^ 
more  powerful  among  those  infatuated  states  ttmn  m  his  own  domin- 
ions, dictated  the  terms  of  the  treaty.  It  was  stipulated  ^at  each 
power  should  retain  what  it  possessed ;  and  that  the  less  states,  now 
me  from  the  ydke  of  the  greater,  should  remain  so. 

SECTION  XV. 
PHILIP  OF  MACEDON. 

1.  Gkebci:  was  now  in  the  most  abject  situation.  The  spirit  of 
MtiioUam  appeared  utterly  extinct^  and  military  glory  at  an  end. 
A^ens  seemed  to  have  lost  all  ambition ;  the  pleasures  of  luxury  had 
cndrely  supplanted  heroic  virtue ;  poets,  musicians,  sculptors,  and 
fffliii*^"*!  were  now  the  only  ^reat  men  of  Attica.  Sparta,  no  less 
danced  mm  the  simplicity  of  its  ancient  manners,  and  its  power 
Adfted  by  the  new  independency  of  the  states  of  Feloponnesasi 
WM  TSk  no  capacity  to  attempt  a  recovery  of  its  former  greamess.  In 
ftdititnatioa  Phihp  of  Macedon  formed  the  ambitious  project  c^briDg- 
MDg  Wider  his  dommion  the  whole  of  Greece. 

\  He  had  mounted  the  throne  of  Macedon  by  popular  choice,  in 
viofafioo  of  the  natural  right  of  the  nearer  heirs  to  uua  crown;  and 
te  tecorad  hifl  power  by  the  success  of  his  arms  against  the  Oiyrian^ 
iteaUnBi  nd  Athenians,  who  espoused  the  interest  of  his  competitors 
IhfliDC  to  (real  miUtaiy  talents  the  mo6t  c(xi^^ 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


S6  ANCIENT  HISTOKY. 

dreffi,  he  had  his  pensionaries  in  all  the  states  of  Greece,  who  direcU 
ed  to  his  advantage  every  public  measure.  The  miserable  PoUcr 
of  these  states,  embroiled  in  perpetual  quarrels,  co-operated  with  hm 
designs.  A  sacrilegious  attempt  of  the  Fhocians  to  plunder  the  tem- 
ple of  Delphos  excited  the  sacred  ta:arAn  which  almost  all  the  repub- 
ucs  took  a  part  Philip^s  aid  being  courted  by  the  Thebans  and 
Thessalians,  he  began  hostilities  by  invading  Phocis,  the  key  to  the 
territory  of  Attica,  -^schines,  the  orator,  bribed  to  his  interest,  at- 
tempted to  quiet  the  alarms  of  the  Athenians,  by  ascribing  to  Philip 
,<a  design  only  of  punishing  sacrilege,  and  vindicating  tlie  cause  of 
'  Apollo.  Demosthenes,  with  true  patriotism,  exposed  the  artful  de- 
figns  of  the  invader,  and  with  the  most  animated  eloquence  roused 
iis  countrymen  to  a  vigorous  efibrt  for  the  jjrescn'ation  of  their  nat- 
ural liberties.  But  the  event  was  unsucces^fuL  The  battle  of  Che- 
ronaea,  fought  337  A.  C,  decided  the  fate  of  Greece,  and  subjected  all 
the  states  to  the  dominion  of  the  king  of  Macedon.  But  it  was  not 
his  policy  to  treat  them  as  a  conquered  people.  They  retained  their 
separate  imd  independent  governments,  while  he  controlled  and  dh^ct- 

fd  all  the  national  measures.  Convoking  a  general  council  of  the  states, 
^hilip  was  appointed  commander  in  chief  of  the  forces  of  the  nation; 
and  he  laid  before  them  his  ])roject  for  the  conquest  of  Persia,  ap- 
pointing each  republic  to  funiish  its  proportional  subsidies.  On  Qke 
€ve  of  this  groat  enterprise  Philip  was  assassinated  by  PausaniasL  a 
captain  of  his  gdanls,  in  revenge  ot  a  private  injury,  33G  A.  C.^  The 
Atnenians,  on  the  death  of  Philip,  meanly  expret^sod  the  most  tumal- 
tuous  joy,  in  the  hope  of  a  recovery  of  their  liberty;  but  this  vision- 
ary prospect  was  never  realized.  The  spirit  of  the  nation  was  gone  ; 
and  In  their  subsequent  revolutions  they  only  changed  theii  mastera. 

SECTION  XVI. 

ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT. 

1.  Alexaxdoi,  the  son  of  Philip,  succeeded  at  the  age  of  twenty  to 
the  throne  ol* Macedon,  and,  after  a  few succe-Tful  bailies  against  the 
revolted  slates,  to  the  command  of  Greece.  Asscmblinsj  the  deputies 
of  the  notion  at  Corinth,  he  communicated  to  them  iiis  resolution  of 
prosecuting  the  deiM^ns  of  his  thihcr  lor  the  conquest  of  Persia. 

2.  Witli  an  anny  ol* 30,000  foot,  and  b.OOO  hor^o,  the  sum  of  70  tal- 
ents, and  pl•ovi^iolls  only  for  a  single  month,  he  cros5;ed  the  Hellespont, 
and  in  traversing  I'lirvj^'a  vi  iteid  the  tomb  of  Acljilles.  Darius  Co- 
domanus,  resoivv-d  to  cV  A^  at  once  this  inconsiderate  youth,  met  him 
on  the  Liarks  of  tlic  Gfanicus  with  100,000  foot  and  10,000  horse. 
The  Greeks  ^\v:\m  the  river,  the  ir  king  leading  the  van.  and,  attack-* 
jDg  the  astonished  Terpiiuis,  left  20,000  dead  upon  the  field,  and  put  to 
flight  their  whole  army.  Drawing  from  his  lirst  success  a  presage 
ofcontinued  victorv,  Alexander  now  sent  home  his  Ueet,  leaving  to 
his  army  the  sole  altonulive,  that  they  must  subdue  Asia  or  perish. 
Prosecuting  their  course  for  some  time  without  resistance,  the  Greeks 
were  attacked  hv  the  Persiai.s  in  a  narrow  valley  of  Cilicia,  near  the 
town  of  Issia.  'Ihe  Persian  host  amounted  to  400,000 ;  but  their  ait* 
nation  was  such  that  only  a  small  part  could  come  into  acticn,  «Dd 
ttiey  were  defeated  with  prodigious  slaughter.  The  loss  of  the  Pei^- 
^Bo^s  In  this  battle  wds  1 10^ ;  thflit  of  Hie  Gxteeks  (aceordiiv<to«^ 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ANCItl^^^  histohy.  yi 

3u  The  historf  of  Ale^nder  by  QuiDtus  Curtias,  though  a  most 
elegant  compositioa,  is  extremely  suspicious  on  the  score  of  authexk- 
tic  iofonnalioa.    Arrian  is  ttie  best  authority. 

4*  The  generosity  of  Alexander  was  di:*plaved  after  the  battle  ot 
Iflsus,  in  hU  attiiniion  to  his  noble  prisonors,  tae  mother,  the  wife, 
mud  iaxnily  of  Darius.  To  ilie  credit  of  Alexander  it  must  be  owoea 
that  humanity,  however  overpowered,  and  at  times  extinguished  by 
his  passions,  cert  linly  formed  a  part  of  im  natural  character. 

5.  The  consequence  of  the  battle  of  Issus  was  the  submission  of 
ftil  Syria.  Dainiuicus,  where  Darius  had  deposited  his  chief  treaBures, 
was  betiityed  and  given  up  by  its  governor.    The  Phoenicians  were 

e eased  to  see  themsaives  thus  avenged  for  tlie  oppression  which  thej 
id  suflefed  under  the  yoke  of  Per-ia. 

6.  Aieiander  had  hitherto  borne  his  good  fortune  with  moderation 
FekXfSXfs  Cuviim^  si  fiac  cotitiientia  ad  uUimwnvitcevcrseverarepoi- 
fdtsei  ;  std  nawlun  fort  una  se  anvno  ejus  infudercU.^  He  directeohik 
course  towards  Tyre,  and  desired  admittance  to  perfonn  a  sacrifice 
to  Hercoles.  The  Tyriims  shut  their  gates,  and  maintained  for  seven 
moptho  a  noble  defence.  The  city  was  at  leii^^th  taiten  by  storm, 
and  the  victor  glutted  liis  revenge  by  the  iniiumrii  massacre  of  8,000 
of  the  inhabiiimis.  The  fute  of  Ciaza,  gloriousiy  dflended  by  Betis,  wa* 
eqaaliy  deplorable  to  its  citizens,  and  more  disgraceful  to  the  con* 
qoeror.  Ten  thousand  of  tiie  fomier  were  sold  into  slaveiy,  and  ita 
brave  defender  dragged  at  tlie  wheels  oftiie  victor's  chariot :  Gloria 
ante  regt^  AcJdllan^  a  qao  genus  ipse  dcduccrd^  vnitatum  se  essc^  pcma 
t»  hoiian  capkiiiUi,\   C u r ti us. 

7.  The  taking  of  Gaza  opened  Egypt  to  Alexander,  and  the  whole 
coaotry  submitted  without  opposition.  The  course  he  now  pursued 
demonstrated  taut  in  his  con^j^uc^ts  he  follovvv^d  no  determined  plan. 
Amidst  the  most  incredible  latigues,  he  led  iiis  army  through  the 
deserts  of  Lybi.i,  to  vi-it  the  ternpie  of  hi-  llitlier,  Jupiter  Jhtinwn,  On 
his  return  he  i>uiit  Alexandria,  at  the  mor.th  of  tiie  JN  ile,  afterwards  the 
capital  of  the  Lower  l^gynt,  and  one  ot'ihe  most  lloafishing  cities  in 
the  world.  Twenty  oihor  ciaes  of  \.\vi  s.irne  name  were  reared  by 
him  in  the  conrse  of  his  conque.-t^.  il  i>  L-uch  works  as  these  that 
juMly  entitle  tiie  r.l.ice-aonian  to  the  epii: tot  of  Great.  By  rearing 
lu  the  midst  of  deports  tiiosc  nnrA:rL^b  oi"  ponn!  nion  and  ol  industry, 
bcp.*paired  th^  wa^te  and  li.ivoc  of  iu>  co.u]  i  svs.  Kxccpt  for  those 
moooHients  of  his  glory,  he  woihd  ii.no  in;  rit'^I  no  otlier  epithet 
than  that  a^ignevl  him  i>y  the  hr.ihmins  ot'li.li;i,  T if c  Migult/ Murderer. 

8.  Ketnnung  from  l^;>pl.  AlrxiiL-r  tnuer-od  A<-}  ria,  and  was 
met  at  Ajrbela  by  Dariu^,  at  the  .head  of  7iiv),ajJ  men.  The  Persinn 
iiad  proffered  puace,  con<t^n'i;i»  to  yield  tlie  wijole  country  Irom  the 
Eopnrates  to  Uie  lijile<p<>nt,  to  give  Alexiin  Kt  ids  dai!ii;Lter  in  mar- 
litgc,  aiiJ  the  immense  ><im  of  lU,i)Ji>  t.iU-nls.  But  these  terms 
were  haughtily  rc'j"Cic'<I,  au.i  peace  oiicnvl  only  upon  the  unqualified 
•dbmKsioQ  of'iiis  en?my.  The  i'ei**.iuH  were  dfteated  at  Arbela, 
with  tiie  loss  of  J'J'.),M 00  men.  Dai  ins  ll(\l  tVom  province  to  proviooe. 
At  kagth  betrayed  by  Bc.s5u<,  one  of  his  own  satra|)s,  he  was  cruellT 
noRlered;  and  the  Persian  empire,  which  had  subsi-ited  for  SOo 
TttA  from  the  time  of  Cyrus  the  great,  submitted  to  the  conquerCMi 
530  A.  C. 

*  Happj  if  he  conld  have  persevered  in  this  temperance  la  the  «QBh1  of 
kA  life.  Dot  rortune  had  not  ytt  pcisooed  his  mind. 

t  TIm  kfaig^  boa^Dg  that  be  imitated  Achillci,  Irom  wtai  ha  i 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


88  ANCIENT  HISTORT. 

9.  Alexander  now  projected  the  conquest  of  India,  finnly  persuad- 
ed that  the  gods  had  decreed  him  the  sovereignty  or  the  whole  hab- 
itable globe.  He  penetrated  to  the  Ganges,  and  would  have  pnv 
ceeded  to  the  eastern  ocean,  if  the  spirit  of  his  army  had  kept  pace 
with  his  ambition.  But  his  troops,  seeing  no  end  to  their  toils,  refus- 
ed to  proceed.  He  returned  to  the  Indus,  whence  sending  round  bis 
fleet  to  the  Persian  gulf  under  Nearchus,  he  marched  his  army 
across  the  desert  to  Persepolis. 

10.  Indignant  that  he  had  found  a  limit  to  his  conquests,  he  abandoned 
himself  to  every  excess  of  luxury  and  debauchery.  The  arrogance 
of  his  nature,  and  the  ardour  of  his  passions,  heightened  by  continual 
intemnerance,  broke  out  into  the  most  outrageous  excesses  of  cruelty, 
for  which,  in  the  few  intervals  of  sober  reflection,  his  ingenuous 
mind  suffered  the  keenest  remorse.  From  Persepolis  he  returned 
to  Babylon,  and  there  died  in  a  fit  of  debauch,  in  the  thirty-third  year 
of  his  age,  and  thirteenth  of  his  reign,  324  A.  C, 

11.  Of  the  character  of  Alexander  the  most  opposite  and  contra- 
dictory estimates  have  been  formed.  While  by  some  he  is  esteemed 
nothing  better  than  a  fortunate  madman,  he  is  by  others  celebrated 
for  the  grandeur,  wisdom,  and  solidity  of  his  political  views.  Truth 
is  rarely  to  be  found  in  extreme  censure  or  applause.  We  may  al- 
low to  Alexander  the  spirit  and  the  talents  of  a  great  military  genius, 
without  combining  with  these  the  sober  plans  of  a  profouod  politician. 
In  a  moral  view  of  his  character,  we  see  an  excellent  and  mgenuoua 
nature  corrupted  at  length  by  an  unvarying  current  of  success,  and  a 
striking  example  of  the  fatal  violence  ofthe  passions,  when  emmeace 
of  fortune  removes  all  restraint,  and  flattery  stimulates  to  their  ud- 
controUed  indidgence. 


SECTION  XVU. 

SUCCESSORS  OF  ALEXANDER. 

1.  Alexander,  on  his  death-bed,  named  no  successor,  but  gave  his 
ring  to  Perdiccas,  one  of  his  oflBcers.  When  his  courtiers  asked  him 
to  whom  he  wished  the  empire  to  devolve  upon  his  death,  he  replied, 
*To  the  most  worthy;"  and  he  is  said  to  have  added,  that  he  fore« 
flaw  this  legacy  would  prepare  for  him  very  extraoroinaiy  funeral 
rites;  a  prediction  which  was  fully  verified. 

2,  Perdiccas,  sensible  that  his  pretensions  would  not  justify  a  di-^ 
lect  assumption  of  the  government  of  this  vast  empire,  brought  about 
a  division  of  the  whole  among  thirty-three  of  the  principal  officers  ; 
andtrosting  to  their  inevitable  dissensions,  he  proposed  by  thatmeana 
to  reduce  all  of  them  under  his  own  authority.  Hence  arose  a  seriea 
of  wars  and  intrigues,  of  which  the  detail  is  barren  both  of  amus^^ 
ment  and  useful  information.  .  It  is  sufiicient  to  say,  that  their  cooso* 
fuence  was  a  total  extirpation  ofthe  &mily  of  Alexander,  and  a  n&vw 
TOititioD  of  the  empu%  into  four  great  monarchies,  the  shares  oF 
Ptolennr.  Lysimachus,  Caasander,  aSa  Seleucus.  Of  these  the  moet 
wmemi  were  that  of  Syria  under  Seleucus  and  his  descendants)  acu] 
Ihat  of  Egypt  the  Ptolemies. 

« We  cannot  (says  Condillao)  fix  our  attention  on  the  history  of 
Ihe  fiooceasorB  of  Alexander,  thoueh  a  great  theatre  is  opened  to  cnxr 
vlfiW|  a  variety  of  scenes,  and  mmtiplied  catastrophes.  A  pictora  ia 
|iAin^iqi)eaidi^from  the  veiy  ciicomstanceof  iti  W^ 


yGoogk 


ANCIENT  HISTQRT-  » 

kme  the  connezion  of  its  parts,  because  the  eye  caimot  take  them  In 
at  once.  Still  less  will  a  large  picture  give  us  pleasure,  if  every  part 
of  it  presenls  a  different  scene,  each  unconnected  with  the  other.* 
Such  IS  the  history  of  the  successors  of  Alexander. 


SECTION  XVIIL 

I  FALL  AND  CONQUEST  OF  GREECE. 

1.  Nor  is  the  history  of  Greece  from  the  period  of  the  death  of  Al- 
exander any  longer  an  interesting  or  pleasing  object  of  contemplation. 
Demosthenes  once  more  made  a  noble  attempt  to  vindicate  the  nation- 
al freedom,  and  to  rouse  his  countrymen,  the  Athenians,  to  shake  off 
the  yoke  of  Macedon.  But  it  was  too  late.  The  pacific  counsels  of 
Plwcion  suited  better  the  lam^uid  spirit  of  this  once  illustrious  peoplfi. 

2.  The  history  of  the  diflerent  republics  present  from  this  tmie 
nothing  but  a  disgusting  series  of  uninteresting  revolutions ;  with  the 
exception  only  ot  that  last  effort  made  by  the  Achaean  states  to  re- 
vive the  expiring  liberty  of  their  country.  The  republic  of  Achaia 
was  a  league  of  a  few  of  the  smaller  states  to  vindicate  their  freedom 
agnnst  the  domineering  spirit  of  the  greater.  They  committed  tibe 
govenunent  of  the  league  to  Aratus  of  Sicyon,  wiUi  the  title  of  pra&* 
tor,  a  young  mun  of  high  ambition,  who  immediately  conceived  the 
DMve  extensive  project  of  rescuing  the  whole  of  Greece  from  the 
dominion  of  Macedon.  But  the  jealousy  of  the  greater  states  render- 
ed this  scheme  abortive.  Sparta  refused  to  arrange  itself  under  the 
guidance  of  the  praetor  of  Acnaia :  and  Aratus,  forgetting  his  patriotic 
designs^  sought  only  now  to  wreak  his  vengeance  a^inst  the  Laco- 
dsmomans.  For  this  purpose,  with  the  most  inconsistent  policy,  he 
courted  the  aid  even  of  the  Macedonians:  the  very  tyrants  who  bad 
endaved  his  country. 

3l  The  period  was  now  come  for  the  intervention  of  a  foreign 
power,  which  was  to  reduce  all  under  its  wide-spreadins  domioioa 
The  Ronnns  were  at  this  time  the  most  powerful  of  all  Uie  contem- 
porarf  nations.  The  people  of  Etolia,  attacked  by  the  Macedonians, 
with  a  rash  polic^r  besougnt  the  aid  of  the  Romans,  who,  eager  to 
add  to  their  dominion  tms  devoted  country,  cheerfully  obeyed  the 
•iBUiiaDS,  and  speedily  accomplished  the  reduction  of  Macedonia 
Peneoa,  its  last  soverei^,  was  led  captive  to  Rome,  and  graced  the 
^ — Aph  of  Paulus  iEmilius,  167  A.  C.  From  that  period  the  Ro- 
J  were  hastily  advancing  to  the  dominion  of  all  Greece ;  a  prof^ 
In  which  thrir  art  was  more  conspicuous  than  their  virtueb 
Ther  gained  their  end  by  fostering  dissensions  between  the  statev 
wUoi  they  directed  to  their  own  advantage,  corrupting  their  princlp 
ul  dtizews  ^^^  using,  in  fine,  every  art  of  the  most  insidious  policy. 
A  pcetext  was  only  wanting  to  unaheath  the  sword,  and  this  wai 
faidriied  hy  the  Achaean  states,  who  insulted  the  deputies  of  imper^ 
•I  Booie.  This  drew  on  tliem  at  once  the  resentment  of  the  Romans 
MeHtSm  marched  his  legions  into  Greece,  gave  them  battle,  and  ei^ 
tire^  defeated  them,  fiummius  die  consul  terminated  the  WQrk| 
md  made  an  easy  conq[uest  of  the  whole  of  Greece^  wiiich  from  ^at 
petiodbecameaKoman  province,  mider  the  name  of  Achaia,  146  A.C 

4^  Hone  had  acoutrea  firaml^er  conquests  a  flood  of  wealth,  and 
r  to  manabart  a  taste  ibr  loiniy,  and  a  qpirit  of  ] 


Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


40  ANCIENT  fflSTGRY. 

Id  ttiese  points  Giteecc  was  to  its  conqueroraan  iitttracter  and  a 
model: 

Gnecia  capta  ferum  victorem  cepit,  et  artei 
Intulit  agresti  Latio-* 

Hence,  even  though  vanquished,  it  was  regarded  with  a  species  otf 
respect  hy  its  ruder  masters. 


SECTION  XIX. 

POLITICAL  KEFLECTIONS  ARISING  FROM  THE  HISTORY 
OF  THE  STATES  OF  GREECE. 

1.  The  revolutions  which  the  states  of  Greece  underwent,  and  the 
fiitoations  into  which  they  ^vcre  thrown  hy  their  connexion  and  diffeiv 
ences  with  each  otiier,  juid  their  ware  with  foreign  nations,  were  so 
various,  that  their  history  is  a  school  of  instruction  in  political  science. 
The  surest  test  of  the  truth  or  lal  chood  of  abstract  principles  of  pol* 
itics,  is  their  application  to  actual  experience  and  to  the  history  of 
nations. 

2.  The  oppression  which  the  states  of  Greece  suffered  under  their 
ancient  despots,  who  were  subject  to  no  coa^litufional  control,  was  a 
most  justiljable  motive  for  tiieir  esl  iblishing  a  new  form  of  govern- 
ment, which  promised  them  t\\2  enjoyment  of  greatf  r  political  free* 
dom.  We  heliove  too  tlv.it  thoso  new  ibrms  of  govenrnent  were  fram- 
ed by  their  virtuous  leii^i^lators  in  the  trie  spirit  of  patriotism.  Bui 
as  to  the  real  merits  of  llio<e  poiitical  labiics,  it  is  certain  that  they 
were  very  far  from  corref-ixnuiinfij  in  practice  with  wliat  was  expect- 
ed from  tliera  in  tlieory.  Vve  soek  in  v;iin,  either  in  the  history  of 
Athens  or  Lacedsemon,  ibr  i\v^  be-xulinjl  iiba  ofa  well-order- id  common- 
wealth.' The  revolutions  of  government  which  tliey  were  ever  ex- 
periencing, the  ctern;il  ficiions  wiih  wiiich  they  were  embroiled, 
plainly  demonstrate  tfiat  tlioro  was  ar<K!ic:il  dr-lbct  in  the  stnicture  of 
the  machine,  which  pivcluiied  the  poTsil>iiiiy  of  r.^gular  motion.  The 
condition  of  the  projjle  unlcr  tho-e  goveniMients  was  such  as  pai^ 
took  more  of  servitu,!o  ind  Gp))res^ion,  thna  lint  of  the  subjects  of  the 
most  despotic  monarciiies.  The  bi:r,\is  formed  i!ie  rctuarmajority  of 
the  inhabitants  in  all  the  f^talcs  of  Gvvocg.  To  these  the  tree  citi- 
zens were  rigorous  boud-mi^ters.  Ijarulii^'i  being  a  conN:quence  of 
the  contraction  of  debts  even  by  freemen,  a  great  proportion  of  tliese 
wassuhject  to  the  tyrannical  control  of  thoir  fellow-citizens.  Nor 
were  the  richer  cla^^es  in  the  actual  enjr>ym(  nt  of  independence. 
They  were  perpetually  diviJ-?d  into  faction^!' whicfl  servilely  ranked 

•tiiemselves  under  the  bannei-s  oi'  the  contending  ciiiels  of  the  repiih- 
lie  Those  pjulies  were  kr-pt  tig^«ther  solely' by  corruption.  The 
whole  was  therefore  a  system  of  Servility  and  d?basement  of  spirit^ 
which  left  nothing  ofa  free  or  ingenuous  nature  in  the  condition  of  iiw 
dividual^  nor  any  tiling  ihat  could  funiish  encomium  to  a  real  advo- 
cate for  the  dignity  of  human  nature. 
Such  was  the  condition  of  the  chief  repuhlics  of  antiquity.    Their 

Eyemments  promised  in  theory,  what  they  never  conferred  la  pnio-' 
e,  the  political  happiness  of  the  citizens. 

*For  conqtrered  Greece  subdued  her  conqnerfng  foe, 
Aad  taogfat  rade  Home,  tbe  aru  of  peace  to  kwm*. 

Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


ANCIENT  HISTOBY.  41 

S.  ^Id  dewoaacf  (eays  Dr.  Fergnssou)  men  mtnt  1ot«  equattr, 
thej  inu»t  respect  die  i  ights  o(  their  ieliow-citizeos ;  they  most  be 
satisfied  with  ta:it  degree  of  consideration  which  they  can  procure  by 
their  abilities  Ikirly  measured  agaiiLst  those  of  an  opponent;  they 
must  labour  tor  the  public  without  hope  of  profit ;  they  must  reject 
every  attempt  to  ere  ue  a  pei*soniil  deiiendimce."  This  is  the  picture 
oi'  a  reuublio  in  theory.  If  we  rever»e  this  picture  in  every  single 
pnticuiar,  and  tike  its  diivct  opposite,  we  shall  have  the  true  por- 
L'Jt  of  a  republic  ill  govenunent  in  practice. 

A.  it  is  l!io  fund  irnentid  theory  of  iMontesquieu's  Spirii  of  Lawf^ 
th\t  the  llirce  disunct  ibrms  of  goveranicnt,  the  monarchical,  despot- 
ical,  and  re  publicum,  die  induenced  by  the  three  separate  principlesi 
01  honour,  fe*:ir,  and  virtue ;  and  this  theory  is  the  foundation  on 
irhjrb  the  author  builds  a  great  part  of  hi3  political  doctrines.  That 
each  of  these  principles  is  oxchwively  essential  to  its  i-espective  form 
of  ^oremment,  but  uanectssiuy  and  even  prejudicial  in  the  otliers,  is  a 
po-iuoa  contrary  both  to  reason  and  to  truth.  No  form  of  govern- 
m^'ul  can  sul>>ist  whore  every  one  of  those  principles  has  not  iti 
operation.  The  admi:jsioii  ol  such  a  theory  leads  to  the  most  mis- 
cnievous  conclu!^ions ;  a^,  ibr  exa!n[)Ie,  that  in  monarchies  the  state 
(Ji^fx^ttses  with  virtue  in  its  ollicers  and  magi^-lrates;  that  public 
employnicnts  ought  to  be  venal;  and  that  crimes,  if  kept  secret,  are 
ot  no  consequence. 

5.  It  Is  oaly  in  the  infmt  period"^  of  the  Grecian  history  that  we 
nr ;  to  look  for  those  splendid  examples  of  p-itrioli^m  and  heroic  vir- 
i".'*,  which  the  ardent  mind  of  uncornipt^Ml  youth  will  ever  deUght 
I >  contemplate.  The  most  remarkable  circumstiince  which  strikes 
u*  on  comparing  tlie^  latter  with  ihe  more  eirly  periods  of  the  hia- 
lory  of  the  Greek«,  is  the  total  change  in  the  gcMii.is  and  spirit  of  the 
people.  The  ardour  of  patriotism,  the  thirst  of  military  glory,  the 
enthuslism  of  liberty,  decline  vviih  the  risinij  grandeur  and  opulence 
oi  the  nation,  and  an  enthusiasm  of  another  species,  and  tiu"  less 
worthy  in  it-*  aim.  succeeds:  an  almiration  of  tl)e  fine  art^i,  a  violent 
j;»-ioa  for  the  objects  oi'  ta=te,  and  for  the  reiinements  of  luxury. 
i  ii>  Indi  us  to  consider  G*vece  in  tlie  light  in  which,  after  the  loss 
<'<  Its  liberty,  it  still  continued  to  atlr-act  tiic  admiration  of  other  na- 


SECTION  XX. 

STATE  OF  THE  ARTS  IN  GREECE. 

1.  It  is  not  among  the  Greeks  that  we  are  to  look  for  the  greatest 
mprovement^  in  the  useful  and  necess  iry  arts  of  life.  In  agricul- 
ure,  m.inufacturcs,  commerce,  they  never  were  greatly  distinguish- 
«1.  But  in  tliose  which  are  term  j<l  tlie  lipe  arts,  Greece  surpassed 
4lllhe  conteajporary  nations.  The  monuments  of  tho<e  which  yet 
r»*mainare  the  modids  of  imitation,  and  the  confessed  standard  of 
•xcebeocc,  in  the  judgment  of  tlic  most  polished  nations  of  modern 
tiao. 

i.  After  the  defent  of  Xerxes  the  active  spirit  of  the  Athenians, 
which  would  have  otherwise  languished  for  want  of  an  object,  taking 
^l^vf  direction  from  luxury,  di-^pl.iyed  ilsr  If  signally  in  aU  the  works 
of  taste  to  the  line  arts.  The  admiui-tntiun  of  i^encies  was  the  aera 
of  Imary  and  splomiour.  The  arts  broke  out  at  once  with6urpri»- 
ioC  h»lre ;  au/i  afx:hiteclurc,  sculpture,  and  pointing,  were  carried 
D2  6 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


42  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

to  the  smmnit  of  perfection.  This  golden  aee  of  the  arts  in  Greece 
endured  for  about  a  century,  till  ailer  the  death  of  Alexander  the 
great 

3.  The  Greeks  were  the  parents  of  that  system  of  ardutectnre 
which  is  universally  allowed  to  be  the  most  perfect 

The  Greek  architecture  consisted  of  three  distinct  orders:  the 
Doric,  the  Ionic,  and  Corinthian. 

The  Doric  has  a  masculine  grandeur,  and  a  superior  air  of  strength 
to  both  the  others.  It  is  therefore  best  adapted  to  works  of  ^at 
magnitude,  and  of  a  sublime  character.  The  character  of  sublimity 
Is  essentially  connected  with  chasteness  and  simplicity.  Of  this  or- 
der is  the  temple  of  Theseus  at  Athens,  built  ten  years  alter  the  bat- 
tle of  Marathon,  and  at  this  day  almost  entire. 

The  Ionic  order  is  light  and  elegant  The  former  has  a  masculine 
gracndeurj  the  latter  a  feminine  elegance.  The  Ionic  is  likewise 
simple :  lor  simplicity  is  an  essential  requisite  in  true  beauty.  Of 
tliis  order  were  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  JVIiletus,  the  temple  of  the 
Delphic  oracle,  and  the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus. 

The  Corintlilan  marics  an  age  of  luxury  and  magnificence,  when 
pomp  and  splendour  had  become  the  predominant  passion,  but  had  not 

Set  extinguished  the  taste  for  the  sublime  and  beautifoL    It  attempts 
lerefore  a  union  of  all  these  characters,  but  satisfies  not  the  chasten- 
ed judgment,  and  pleases  only  a  corrupted  taste. 


-"  First  unadomedf 


^^  And  nobly  plain,  the  manly  Doric  rose ; 

^^  The  Ionic  then,  with  decent  matron  grace, 

**  Her  airy  pillar  heavM ;  luxuriant  last 

"  The  rich  Corinthian  spread  her  wanton  wreath." 

THOBirBOH^s  Liberty^  Part  %. 

4.  The  Tuscan  and  the  Composite  orders  are  of  Italian  origia 
The  Etruscan  architecture  appears  to  have  been  nearly  allied  to  the 
Grecian,  but  to  have  possessed  an  inferior  degree  of  elegance.  The 
Trajan  column  at  Rome  is  of  this  order;  less  remarkble  for  flief 
beauty  of  its  proportions  than  for  the  admirable  sculpture  which 
decorates  it  The  Composite  order  is  what  its  name  implies ;  it  shows 
that  the  Greeks  had  in  the  three  original  orders  exhausted  all  the 
principles  of  grandeur  and  beauty ;  and  that  it  was  not  possible  to 
frame  a  fourth,  except  by  combining  the  former. 

5.  The  Gomic  architecture  offers  no  contradiction  to  these  obser- 
vations. The  eifect  which  it  produces  cannot  be  altogether  account- 
ed for  from  the  rules  of  synmietry  or  harmony  in  the  proportions  be- 
tween the  several  parts;  but  deoends  on  a  certain  idea  of  vastness, 
gloominess,  and  solemnity,  which  are  powerfiil  ingredients  in  the 
sublime. 

6.  Sculpture  was  brought  by  the  Greeks  to  as  high  perfection  as 
architecture.  The  remains  of  Grecian  sculpture  are  at  this  day  the 
most  perfect  models  of  the  art ;  and  the  modem  artists  have  no  means 
of  attiining  to  excellence  so  certain,  as  the  study  of  those  great  mas 
ier-pieces. 

7.  The  excellence  of  the  Greeks  in  sculpture  may  perhaps  be 
accounted  for  chiefly  from  their  having  the  human  figure  often  before 
their  eyes  quite  naked,  and  in  all  its  various  attitudes,  both  in  the 
paksstra^  and  in  the  public  games.  The  antique  statues  have  ^ere- 
Uae  a  grandeur  united  with  perfect  simplicity,  because  the  attitude  is 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  45 

not  the  result  of  an  artificial  disposition  of  the  figpe,  as  in  the  mo^ 
era  academies,  but  is  nature  unconstrained.  Thus,  in  the  Dying 
Gladiator,  when  wc  obseire  the  relaxation  of  the  muscles,  and  the 
▼siblc  failure  of  strength  and  life^  we  cannot  doubt  that  nature  wai 
the  sculptor's  immediate  model  or  imitation.* 

3.  And  this  nature  was  in  reality  superior  to  what  we  now  see  in 
the  ordinary  race  of  men.  The  constant  practice  of  gymnastic  ex- 
ercises gave  a  tiner  conformation  of  body  than  what  is  now  to  be  found 
in  the  vitiated  pupils  of  modem  effeminacy,  the  artificial  children  of 
modem  fashion. 

9.  A  stomdary  cause  of  the  eminence  of  the  Greeks  in  the  arts  of 
design,  was  their  theology,  which  furnished  an  ample  exercise  for 
the  genius  of  the  sculptor  and  painter. 

10.  We  must  speak  with  more  diffidence  of  the  ability  of  the 
Greeks  in  painting,  tiian  we  do  of  their  superiority  in  sculpture ;  be- 
cause the  exi^sting  specimens  of  the  former  are  extremely  rare,  and 
the  pieces  which  are  preserved  are  probably  not  the  most  excellent 
But  in  the  want  of  actual  evidence  we  have  every  presumption  that 
the  Greeks  had  attained  to  equal  perfection  in  the  art  of  painting  and 
in  sculpture ;  for  if  wc  find  the  judgment  given  by  ancient  writers  of 
their  excellence  in  sculpture  confirmed  by  the  universal  assent  of  the 
hest  critics  among  the  modems,  we  have  every  reason  to  presume  an 
equal  rectitude  in  the  judgment  which  the  same  ancient  writers  have 
pronounced  upon  their  paintings.  If  Pliny  is  rieht  in  his  opinion  of 
the  merits  of  tho?e  statues  which  yet  remain,  the  Venus  of  Praxiteles. 
and  the  Laocoon  of  Acesander,  Polydorus,  and  Athenodorus.  we  liave 
DO  reason  to  suppose  nis  taste  to  be  less  iust  when  he  celebrates  the 
merits,  and  crifically  characterizes  the  different  manners  of  Zeuxis, 
Apeiles,  Parrhasius,  Protogenes,  and  Timanthes,  whose  works  have 
perished. 

11.  The  paintings  found  in  Herculaneum,  Pompeii,  the  Sepul- 
chrnm  Nasonianum  at  Rome,  were  probably  the  work  of  Greek 
arti>»ts  ;  for  tlie  Romans  were  never  eminent  in  any  of  the  arts  de- 
pencknt  on  design.  These  paintings  exhibit  great  knowledge  of 
proportions,  and  of  the  chiaro-oscuro ;  but  betray  an  ignorance  of 
the  rules  of  perspective. 

12.  The  music  of  the  ancients  appears  to  have  been  very  greatly 
inferior  to  that  of  the  modems. 

13.  The  peculiar  genius  of  the  Greeks  in  the  fine  arts  extended  its 
efiects  to  the  revolutions  of  their  states,  and  influenced  their  fate  as  a 
nation. 


SECTION  XXL 

or  THE  GREEK  POETS. 

1.  The  Greeks  were  the  first  who  reduced  the  athletic  exercises 
to  a  system,  and  con5<idered  them  as  an  object  of  general  attention  and 
importance.  The  Panathenaean,  and  afterwanb  the  Olympic,  the 
Fnhian,  Xemap:in,  and  Isthmian  games,  were  under  the  reguhtion 
or  the  laws.  They  contributed  essentially  to  the  improvement  of  the 
natiun ;  and,  while  they  cherished  martial  ardour,  and  promoted  bar* 

*  Crtfilut  rulneraium  dtficitnUm  ficit^  tx  quo  posni  intelligi  quantitm 
rtntel  aiUmu  PUo.  lib.  3G.  Crcsiias  has  represented  a  wounded  siaa 
faiutln^,  from  which  we  may  perceive  how  mach  life  itill  remaint. 


Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


44  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

dinen  and  agility  of  body,  the j  cuitiyated  likewise  urbanity  and  p<v 
liteness. 

2.  The  games  of  Greece  were  not  confined  to  gymnastic  or  athlet- 
ic exercises.  They  encouraged  comnelitions  in  genius  and  learning. 
They  were  the  resort  of  the  poets,  the  nistorlans,  and  the  philosophers. 

3.  In  all  nations,  poetry  is  of  greater  antiquity  than  prose  composi- 
tion. The  earliest  prose  writers  in  Greece,  l^ierecydes  of  Scyros, 
and  Cadmus  of  Miletus,  were  350  years  posterior  to  Homer.  Any 
remains  of  the  more  ancient  poets,  as  Linus,  Orpheus,  &c.,  are  ex- 
tremely suspicious.  Homer  is  generally  supposed  to  have  flourished 
about  907  A.  C. ;  to  have  followed  the  occupation  of  a  wandering 
minstrel,  and  to  have  composed  his  poems  m  detached  iragmcnts^ 
and  separate  ballads,  and  episodes.  Pisirtntlus,  about  540  A.  C.,  en>- 
ployecl  some  learned  men  to  collect  and  methodize  these  fragments ; 
and  to  this  we  owe  the  complete  poems  of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey. 
The  disliDgui?liing  morils  of  fiomer  are,  his  profound  knowledge  of 
human  nature,  his  faithful  and  minute  description  of  ancient  man- 
ners, his  genius  lor  tlie  sublime  and  beautiful,  and  the  harmony  of 
his  poetical  numl>er5.  H  is  tidelity  as  a  historian  has  been  questioned  ; 
but  the  great  outlines  of  his  narrative  are  probably  authentic. 

4.  Hesiod  was  nearly  contemporary  with  Homer:  we  should  be 
little  sensible  of  his  merits,  ii'  thev  were  not  seen  through  the  medi- 
um of  an  immense  antiquity.  The  poem  of  the  Worfi  and  Day« 
contains  some  judicious  precepts  of  tngriculiure.  The  Theogony  is 
an  obscure  history  of  the  origin  of  the  gods,  and  the  formation  ofthe 
universe. 

5.  About  two  centuries  after  Homer  and  Hesiod,  flourished  Archi- 
lochus,  the  inventor  of  Iambic  verse ;  Terpander,  equally  eminent 
as  a  poet  and  a  musician ;  Sappho,  of  whose  composition  we  have 
two  exquisite  odes ;  Alca  us  and  Simonides,  of  whom  there  are  some 
fine  fragments ;  and  Pindar  and  Anacreon,  who  have  left  enough  to 
allow  an  accurate  e?^timate  of  their  merits. 

6.  Pindar  was  esteemed  by  the  ancients  the  chief  of  the  lyric  poef^ 
He  possesses  unbounded  l^mcy,  and  great  sublimity  of  imagery ;  but 
his  digressions  are  so  rapid  and  so  frequent,  that  we  cannot  discover 
the  chain  of  thought ;  and  his  expresision  is  allowed,  oven  by  Longinus, 
to  be  often  obs;:ure  and  unintelligible. 

7  Anacreon  is  a  great  contviisi  to  Pindar.  His  fancy  suggests  only 
familiar  and  luxurious  pictures.  He  has  no  comprehension  of  the 
sublime,  but  contents  himself  with  the  easy,  the  graceful,  and  the 
wanton.  His  morality  is  loose,  and  his  sentiments  little  else  than  the 
effusions  of  a  voluptn-iry. 

8.  The  collection  termed  Anihologia^  which  consists  chiefly  of  an- 
cient epigrams,  contains  many  valuable  specimens  of  Uie  taste  and 
poetical  fancy  ofthe  Greeks  and  contributes  materially  to  the  illus- 
tration of  their  manners.  The  best  of  tlie  modern  epigrams  may  be 
traced  to  this  source. 

9.  Tlie  sera  ofthe  origin  of  dramatic  composition  among  the  Greeks 
is  about  590  A.  C.    Thespis  was  contemporary  with  Solon.    Within 


gai 

matic  poetry  at  the  Olyinpic  games.  Like  ^?hakt:peare,'his  genius  ia 
sublime,  and  his  imaginatioji  imbounded.  He  disdained  regmarity  of 
plan,  and  all  artificial  ref:tri('tion ;  but  unfortunately  he  disdained 
likewise  the  restraints  of  decency  and  of  good  morals. 

Digitized  by  CjOOQIC 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  40 

la  Euripides  mid  Sophockfl  flouri^ed  about  fifly  yean  aftsr 
/Eschjluft.  Euripides  is  mostmasterl;^  in  paintinc  the  passion  of  love, 
both  in  its  tcnderest  emutions  and  in  its  most  violent  paroxysms:  yet 
Ciie  charactera  of  his  women  demonstrate  that  he  had  no  great  opimoo 
of  the  virtues  of  the  sex.  Longinus  does  not  rate  high  his  talent  for 
Che  sublime.  Bat  he  possessed  a  much  superior  excellence :  his  verses, 
with  great  eloquence  and  iiarmony,  breathe  the  most  admirable  mo* 
nlitT.  There  remain  twenty  tragedies  of  Euripides ;  and  of  these, 
Ifae  Medea  is  deemed  the  best. 

11.  Sophocles  shared  with  Euripides  the  palm  of  dramatic  poetry; 
and  is  judeed  to  have  surpassed  him  in  the  grand  and  the  sublmie.  Of 
120  tragedies  which  he  composed,  only  seven  remain.  They  display 
^reat  Imowledge  of  the  human  heart,  and  a  general  chastity  aod 
smpUcity  of  expression,  which  gave  the  greater  force  to  the  occasional 
strokes  of  the  sublime.  The  Oedipus  of  Sophocles  is  esteemed  the 
most  perfect  production  of  the  Greek  stage. 

12.  The  Greek  comedy  is  divided  iuto  the  ancient^  the  middle j  aiM> 
Ibe  new.  The  first  was  a  licentious  satire  and  mimicry  of  real  per 
aooages,  exhibited  by  name  upon  the  stage.  The  laws  repressed  this 
extreme  license^and  gave  birtS  to  the  middle  comedy,  whicn  continued 
the  satirical  delineation  of  real  persons,  but  under  iiclitious  names 
The  last  improvement  consisted  in  bani^-hing  ail  personal  satire,  aoil 
coofiiuDg  comedy  to  a  delineation  of  manner!i.  This  was  the  new 
comedy.  Of  the'llrst  species,  the  ancient,  we  have  no  remains.  Tho 
dramas  of  Aristophanes  are  an  example  of  the  second  or  middle 
cofDedy.  Tho  gros?nr?8  of  hia  miller)',  and  tlie  malevolence  which 
freqoeutly  innpireil  it,  are  a  reproach  to  the  morals  of  that  people 
which  could  tolrrate  it.  Yet  his  works  have  their  value,  as  throwmg 
iiglU  upon  ancient  miivinen*. 

13.  Of  the  new  comedy,  Menander  was  the  bright  example ;  po»- 
sesasing  a  vein  of  the  nictt^t  delicate  wit,  with  the  utmost  purity  of 
moral  sentiment.  Unfortunately  we  huve  nothing  of  him  remainioff 
but  ai  few  fragments  preserved  by  Atlienzeus,  We  see  a  great  deal  of 
kb  merits,  however,  in  his  copyist  and  translator,  Terence. 

14.  The  actors,  both  in  the  Greek  and  Roman  theatres,  wore  maskM^ 
of  which  the  features  were  strongly  piiinted,  and  the  mouth  so  con- 
iibtKted  as  toincrea<ie  the  power  ot  the  voice.  It  is  probable  that  the 
tagedy  aod  comedy  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  were  set  to  music, 
an  song,  like  the  recitative  in  tlie  Italian  opera.  Sometimes  one 
oenoD  was  employed  to  recite  or  sing  the  part,  and  another  to  per- 
nni  the  corresponding  action  or  gcsticuUaion.        ^ 

15.  The  mimes  were  burlesque  parodies  on  tfe  serious  tragedf 
and  conedy.  The  pantonumes  consisted  solely  o£  gesticulatiQD,.and 
were  carried  to  great  peiiection* 

SECTION  XXIL  i 

OP  THE  GREEK  HISTORIANS, 

I.  Tte  roost  emioent  of  the  Greek  histarians  were  contempoiih 
ilei.  Herodotus  died  413  A.  C;  ThucViU.ks  391  A.  C;  and  XeiM^ 
pteo  was  about  twenty  years  younger  tnan  Th ucy dides,  Herodotus 
mmULB  the  ioiot  history  of  the  Greeks  and  PerFiaos,  from  the  Ume  of 
CtiiM)  to  the  battlotf  of  Piatsa  and  Mvcale.  fie  treaU  hicidentatt|r 
ncwbe  of  the  EgyptiaoB.  Assyriani,  Kledes,  :u>.<;  Lydians.  His  Tflnp 
utf  la  to  be  depended  oo  m  all  matters  that  ieii  uuJer  hit  own^otae^ 

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ANCIENT  fflSTORT. 

but  be  admits  too  easily  the  reports  of  others,  and  is  in  ^en- 
id  of  (he  marvellous.  His  style  is  pure,  and  he  has  a  copious 
Dn. 

lucydides,  himself  an  able  general,  has  written,  with  great  abil* 
I  history  of  the  first  twenty-one  years  of  the  Peloponnesian 
itrodudng  it  with  a  short  narrative  of  the  precedioe  periods 
history  of  Greece.  He  is  justly  esteemed  for  his  fidelity  and 
r.  His  style  is  a  contrast  to  the  full  and  flowing  period  <^ 
}tus,  possessing  h  sententious  brevity^  which  is  at  once  lively 
^rgetic.  The  history  of  the  remaining  six  years  of  the  war 
)ponnesus  was  written  by  Theopompus  and  Aenophon. 
enophon  commanded  the  Greek  army  in  the  service  of  Cyrus 
meer,  in  his  culpable  enterprise  against  his  brother  Artaxers* 
»e  Sect  XIII,  §  6.)  After  the  failure  of  this  enterprise,  Xeno- 
irected  that  astomshing  retreat  fixim  Babylon  to  the  Euxine, 
3h  he  has  given  a  splendid  and  faithful  narrative.  He  wrota 
e  the  Cyropedia,  or  the  history  of  the  elder  Cyrus,  which 
ed  to  be  rather  an  imaginary  delineation  of  an  accomplished 
than  a  red  narration.  He  continued  the  history  of  Tnucyd 
id  has  left  two  excellent  political  tracts  on  the  constitutions  of 
imon  and  Athens.  His  style  is  simple  and  energetic ;  but  the 
of  his  sentences  sometimes  obscures  his  meaning, 
reece,  in  its  decline,  produced  some  historians  of  great  ena- 

Polybius,  a  native  of  Megalopolis,  wrote  forty  books  of  the 
and  Greek  history  during  his  own  age ;  that  is,  from  the  b^ 
;  of  the  second  Punic  war  to  the  reduction  of  Macedonia  into 
m  province ;  but  of  this  great  work,  only  the  first  five  books 
ire,  with  an  epitome  of  the  following  twelve.  He  merits  less 
ise  of  eloquence  than  of  authentic  information,  and  most  jud^ 
sflection. 

iodorus  Siculus  flourished  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  and  compo»> 
brty  books,  a  general  history  of  the  world,  under  the  title  of 
leca  Historica.  No  more  remain  than  fifteen  books ;  of  which 
t  ^se  treat  of  the  ^bulous  periods,  and  the  history  of  the  £eyi^ 
ssyrians,  Peraians,  Greeks,  &c.  prior  to  the  Trojan  war.  The 
e  are  wanting.  The  remainder  brings  down  the  history  from 
•edition  of  Xerxes  into  Greece  till  after  the  death  of  Alexander 
iat  He  is  taxed  with  chronological  inaccuracy  in  the  eariier 
f  bis  work;  but  the  authenticity  and  correctness  of  the  later 
are  unimpeached. 

onysius  of  Halicamassus,  eminent  both  as  a  historian  and  rhet- 
,  nourished  in  the  age  of  Augustus.    His  Roman  Antiquitiea 
much  valuable  information,  though  his  work  is  too  much 
id  with  the  spirit  of  ^tematizinjg. 

utarch,  ananve  of  Cheronea,  in  Boeotia,  flourished  in  the 
f  Nero.  His  Lives  of  illustrious  Men  is  one  of  the  most  vat 
)f  the  literary  works  of  tiie  ancients;  introducing  us  to  aii 
itance  with  the  private  character  and  manners  of  those  emineat 
I  whose  public  achievements  are  recorded  by  professed  hia^ 

His  morality  is  excellent;  and  his  style,  though  unpolished| 
and  energetic. 

rrian  wrote,  in  the  reign  of  Adrian,  seven  books  of  the  wan  of 
der,  with  great  judgment  and  fidelity;  ius  narrative  beios 
^ed  on  Uie  anthori^  of  Aristobulus  and  Ptolemy,  two  w 
der's  principal  officetB.  His  style  is  unadoned,  but  chaste^ 
;uou3|  and  manly. 

pigitized  by  CjOOQIC 


ANCIENT  HlSTOHi. 


SECTION  xxra. 

OF  THE  GREEK  PHILOSOPHERS. 

1  After  the  time  of  Homer  and  Hesiod,  the  increasinE  relish  for 
poetical  composition  gave  rise  to  a  set  of  men  termed  niapsodiste| 
wbcMe  emplovi^nent  was  to  recite  at  the  games  and  festivals  the  com- 
positions of  the  older  poets,  and  to  comment  on  their  merits  and  ex* 
phiin  their  doctrines.  Some  of  these,  foundiog  schools  of  instruction, 
were  dignified  by  their  pupils  with  the  epithet  of  Sophists,  or  teach- 
ers of  wisdom. 

)£.  The  most  ancient  school  of  philosophy  was  that  founded  by 
Tbales,  640  A.  C,  and  termed  the  Ionic  Thales  is  celebrated  for 
hi-  knowledge  of  geometry  and  astronomy.  His  metaphysical  doC" 
trines  are  imperfectly  known.  He  taught  the  belief  of  a  hrst  cause, 
and  an  over-^ruling  providence ;  but  supposed  the  Divinity  to  animate 
tlie  universe,  as  me  soul  does  the  body.  The  moral  doctrines  of  the 
Ionic  school  were  pure  and  rational.  The  most  eminent  of  the  dis- 
Jples  of  Thales  were  Anaximander  and  Anaxagoras. 

X  Soon  after  the  Ionic,  arose  the  Italian  sect,  founded  by  Pythag- 
oras, wbo  was  bom  about  586  A.  C.  He  is  supposed  to  have  derived 
much  of  bi<  knowledge  from  Egypt ;  and  he  nad,  like  the  Egyptian 
priesu,  a  pui>lic  doctrine  for  the  people,  and  a  private  for  his  disci- 
I'ic* ;  the  former  a  good  system  of  morals^  tlie  latter  probably  unin 
I  i:i%ih\e  mystery.  His  notions  of  the  Divinity  were  akin  to  those  of 
Tliriles;  but  he  bcHeved  in  the  eternity  of  the  universe,  and  its  co- 
M.^ence  with  the  Deity.  He  taught  the  transmigration  of  the  soul 
I  h rough  different  bodies^  His  disciples  lived  in  conunon;  abstained 
ri^oroialy  from  the  flesh  of  animals;  and  held  music  in  highestima- 
UoD,  as  a  corrective  of  the  passions.  Pythagoras  believed  the  earth 
(0  be  a  sphere,  the  planets  to  be  inhabited,  and  the  fixed  stars  to  be 
tlie  suns  and  centr^  of  other  systems.  His  most  eminent  foliowen 
were  Empedocles,  Epicharmus,  Ocellus  Lucanus,  Timsus,  Archyta& 

4.  The  £k*atic  sect  was  founded  by  Xenophanes,  about  500  A.  C 
Its  chief  supporters  were  Parmenides,  Zeno,  and  Leucippus,  citizens 
of  Elea.  The  metaphysical  notions  of  this  sect  were  utterly  unintel- 
b^ibk.  They  maintained  that  thmgs  had  neither  beginnm^,  end, 
nor  ny  chance ;  and  that  all  the  changes  we  perceive  are  m  our 
own  senses,  x  et  Leucippus  taught  the  doctrine  of  atoms,  whence 
be  supposed  all  material  substances  to  be  formed.  Of  this  sect  were 
Democritus  and  Heraclitus.  ^ 

&  The  Socratic  school  arose  from  the  Ionic.    Socrates  died  401  -i 
K.  C,  the  wisest,  the  most  virtuous  of  the  Greeks.    He  exploded  the  ^ 
tolile  logic  of  the  Sophiste,  which  consisted  of  a  set  of  eeneral  are»>  '^ 
TBots,  applicable  to  all  manner  of  questions^  and  by  whidi  they  comd| 
with  an  appearance  of  plausibility,  maintam  either  side  of  any  pro]^ 
Qritioa   Socrates  always  brought  his  antagonist  to  particulars;  be- 
efanii^  with  a  simple  imd  undeniable  fiosition,  which  being  grantedi 
anodier  followed  equally  undeniable,  till  the  disputant  was  conducl- 
edelep  by  step,  by  nls  own  concessions,  to  thai  side  of  the  questioa 
omrhkh  lay  the  truth.    Hia  rivals  lost  all  credit  as  philosophen,  bUl 
hadioAaeoce  to  procure  the  destructioQ  of  the  man  who  had  enoe* 
ed  them.    The  docfarines  of  Socrates  are  to  be  kamed  from  Pm 
VdXenoplioa   He  t&ught  the  belief  of  eflrat  cause,  whose  beaefti 

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4B  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

cence  is  equal  to  his  power,  the  Creator  and  Ruler  of  the  unirers^ 
He  inculcated  the  moral  agency  of  man.  the  immortality  of  the  soul^ 
and  a  future  state  of  reward  and  punishment  He  exploded  the 
polytheistic  superstitions  of  his  country,  and  thence  became  the 
victim  of  an  accusation  of  impiety.    (See  Section  Xlll,  §5.) 

6.  The  monility  of  Socrates  was  successfully  cuUivcited  hy  the 
Cyrenaic  sect,  but  was  pushed  to  extravagance  by  the  Cynics.  Vir- 
tue, in  their  opinion,  consisted  in  renouncing  all  the  conveniences  of 
life.  They  clothed  themselves  in  rags,  slept  and  ate  in  the  street*, 
or  wandered  about  the  country  with  a  stick  and  a  knapsack.  They 
condemned  all  knowledge  as  useless.  1'hey  associated  impudence 
with  ignorance,  and  indulged  themselves  in  scurrility  and  invective 
without  restraint 

7.  The  Megarian  sect  was  the  happy  inventor  of  logical  syllogism, 
or  the  art  of  quibbling. 

8.  Flato  was  the  tbunder  of  the  Academic  sect :  a  philosopher, 
whose  doctrines  have  had  a  more  extensive  empire  over  the  minds 
of  mankind,  than  those  of  tmy  other  among  the  ancients.  This  is  in 
part  owing  to  their  intrinsic  merit,  and  in  part  to  the  eloquence  with 
which  they  have  been  propoun«lod.  Plato  had  the  most  sublime 
ideas  of  the  Divinity  and  his  atiribules.  He  taught  that  the  human 
soul  was  a  portion  of  the  Divinity,  and  that  this  alliance  with  the 
eternal  robd  might  be  improved  into  actual  intercourse  with  the 
Supreme  Being,hy  abstracting  the  soul  from  all  the  corruptions 
which  it  derives  from  the  body :  a  doctrine  highly  flattermg  to  the 
pride  of  man,  vmd  generating  that  mystical  enthusiasm  which  bastiie 
most  powerful  empire  over  a  warm  imagination. 

9.  The  Platonic  philosophy  found  its  chief  opponents  in  four  re- 
markable sect3,  the  Peripatetic,  the  Sceptic,  the  Stoic,  and  the  Epi- 
curean. 

10.  Aristotle,  the  founder  of  the  Peripatetic  sect,  was  the  lutor  of 
Alexander  tlie  great,  and  established  his  school  in  the  Lyce*un  at 
Athens:  a  philosopher  whose  tenets  have  found  more  zealous  parti 
sans  and  more  rancorous  opponents,  than  those  of  any  other.  His 
Metaphysics,  from  the  sententious  brevity  of  his  expression,  are  ex- 
tremely obscure,  and  have  given  rise  to  numberless  commenfariea. 
The  best  analysis  of  his  cUKtrines  is  given  by  Dr.  Reid,  in  Lord 
Karnes's  Sketches  of  the  History  of  Man.  His  physical  works  are 
the  result  of  great  observation  and  acquaintance  with  nature;  am2  his 
critical  writings,  as  his  Poetics  and  Art  of  Rhetoric,  display  bbth  taste 
and  judgment  The  peculiar  passion  of  Aristotle  was  that  oi*  classic 
fying,  arranging  J  and  combining  tiie  ohjectB  of  his  knowledge,  so  as  to 
reduce  all  to  a  lew  principles:  a  very  dangerous  pvop^osity  In  phi- 
losophy, and  repressive  olimprovement  in .«cience. 

tl.  The  Sceptical  sect  wasiounded  by  Pyrrha  They  formed  no 
mtems  of  tlieir  owovbut  endeavoured  to  weaken  the  foundations  of 
those  of  dl  othersi.  They  inculcated  universal  doubt,  as  the  only  true 
wMom.  There  was,  in  their  opinion,  no  essential  difference  l>&> 
tiveea  vice  and  virtue,  furtlier  than  as  human  compact  had  discrim» 
Inated  them.  Tnmquillity  of  mind  they  supposed  to  be  the  state  of 
the  greatest  happiness,  aod  this  was  to  be  attained  by  absolute  Iiid2f> 
ierence.to  all  dogmas  or  opinions. 

12.  The  Stoics,  proposing  to  themselves  the  same  end,  traxiquiHity 
^  mind,  took  a  nobler  path  to  anive  at  it    They  endeavoured  to 

eie  themselFes  above  aU  the  passions  and  feelings  of  humanity 
ef  believed  att  ba^tiare,  and  God  himself^  the  soul  of  the  umrenei 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


ANCIENT  mSTORT.  49 

to  be  mgolated  hj  fixed  and  immutable  laws.  The  human  Mnd  be- 
\ati  a  portion  of  the  DiTlnity,  man  cannot  complain  of  being  actuated 
^y  that  oecesaitj  which  actuates  the  Divinity  nimself.  His  pains  and 
ha  pleasures  are  determined  by  the  same  laws  which  determine  his 
existence.  Virtue  consists  in  accommodating  the  disposition  of  the 
mizMi  to  the  immutable  laws  of  nature ;  vice  m  opposmg  those  laws : 
vice  therefore  is  folly,  and  virtue  the  only  true  wisdom.  A  beautiful 
picture  of  the  Stoical  philosophy  is  found  in  the  Meditations  of  M. 
Aurdius  Antoninus.    TSee  Madan^s  Translation.) 

13.  Epicurus  taughc  that  man^s  supreme  happiness  consisted  la 
pleasure.  He  limited  the  term,  so  as  to  make  it  mean  onl^  the  prac- 
tice of  virtue.  But  if  pleasure  is  allowed  to  be  the  obiect,  every 
man  will  draw  it  from  those  sources  which  he  finds  can  oest  supply 
it.  It  miglit  have  been  the  pleasure  of  Epicurus  to  be  chaste  and 
tempenite.  We  arc  told  that  it  was  so.  l5ut  others  find  their  pleas- 
ore  m  btemperance  and  luxury,  and  such  was  the  taste  of  his  princ^ 
pal  followers.  Epicurus  held  that  the  Deity  was  indififerent  to  all  the 
jctims  of  man.  His  followers  therefore  had  no  other  counsellor 
than  their  own  conscience,  and  no  other  guide  than  the  Instinctive 
desire  of  their  o^vn  happiness. 

14.  The  Greek  philosophy,  on  the  whole,  affords  little  more  than 
a  picture  of  the  imbecility  and  caprice  of  the  human  mind.  Its 
te^^ers,  instead  of  experiment  and  observation,  satisfied  themselves 
with  constructing  theories ;  and  these  wanting  fact  for  their  basu, 
have  only  served  to  perplex  the  understanding,  and  retard  eqinlN 
the  advancement  of  sound  morality  and  the  progress  of  useful  knowl- 
edge. 

SECTION  XXIV. 

THE  HISTORY  OF  ROME. 

1.  br  the  delineation  of  ancient  history,  Rome,  after  the  conquest 
nf  Greece,  becomes  the  leading  object  of  attention.  The  history  of 
this  empire,  in  its  progress  to  universal  dominion,  and  afienvards  m  its 
decline  and  £iil,  mvolves  a  collateral  account  of  all  tiie  other  na> 
tioQS  of  antiquity,  which  in  those  periods  are  deserving  of  our  cod- 
adeiatioD. 

2.  Thou^  we  cannot  determine  the  aera  when  Italy  was  first  peo- 
pled, yet  we  have  every  reason  to  beUeve  that  it  was  inhabitea  by 
a  renned  and  cultivated  nation,  many  ages  before  the  Rooum  name 
WM  known.  These  were  the  Etruscans,  of  whom  there  exist  at 
this  dxy  monuments  in  the  fine  arU,  which  prove  them  to  have  been 
a  apleodid,  luxurious,  and  highly  polished  pcople.^Their  alphabet 
reMnbltoe  the  Phoenician,  disposes  us  to  believe  them  of  easteni 
origio.  Tne  Roman  historians  mention  them  as  a  powerfiil  and  opo- 
lent  oatlan  long  before  the  origin  of  Rome;  and  JDionysius  of  Hall* 
cjonassas  deduces  most  of  the  religious  rites  of  the  Romans  ficom 
Ctrwia. 

3.  The  rest  of  Italy  was  divided  amon^  a  number  of  independent 
tribes  or  nations^  comparativclv  in  a  rude  and  uncuitlvated  state  i 
Umbriaos,  Ligunans,  ^  ibines,  Vcientes,  Latins,  iEqui,  VolscI,  Uq. 
Ls^um,  a  territory  of  titty  miles  in  length  and  sixlooa  in  breadth^ 
uMtained  fort^-seven  inJepen  1  ni  cities  or  stiites. 

4.  TiyB  origin  of  the  city  and  state  of  Rome  r<  r  ^  i'olved  b  p^tet 
Dionysius  supposes  two  cities  of  tkit  o^mc  t6' bav« 
E  7 

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iO  ANCIENT  HISTORT. 

existed,  and  to  have  perished  before  the  fonndatlon  of  the  cify  boRt 
by  Romulus.  The  vulgar  account  of  the  latter  is.  that  it  was 
rounded  752  A.  C.  by  a  troop  of  shepherds  or  banditti,  who  peo^* 
pled  their  new  city  by  carrying  off  the  wires  and  daughters  d'tneir 
Deighbours,  the  Sabines. 

6.  The  great  outlines  of  the  first  constitution  of  the  Roman  eovero^ 
ment,  though  generally  attributed  to  the  political  abilities  of  Romu- 
lus^ seem  to  have  a  natural  foundation  in  the  usages  of  barfoannv 
nations.  Other  institutions  bear  the  traces  of  political  skill  and  posi- 
tive enactment 

6.  Romulus  is  said  to  have  divided  his  people  into  three  tribes,  and 
each  tribe  into  ten  curia.  The  lands  he  distributed  into  three  por- 
tions; one  for  the  support  of  the  government,  another  for  the  main- 
tenance of  relieion,  and  the  third  for  the  use  of  the  Roman  citizens, 
which  he  divided  into  equal  portions  of  two  acres  to  each  citizen. 
He  mstituted  a  senate  of  100  members  (afterwards  increased  to  200,) 
who  deliberated  on  and  prepared  all  public  measures  for  the  assembly 
of  the  people,  in  whom  was  vested  the  right  of  determination.  lli« 
partrician  ^unilies  were  the  descendants  of  those  centum  patrea{hm^ 
dredfcUhen). 

7.  The  lung  had  the  nomination  of  the  senators,  the  privilege  of 
anembling  the  people,  and  a  risht  of  appeal  in  all  questions  of  in^- 
portance.  He  nad  the  command  of  the  army,  and  the  office  of  /nm> 
i^fex  maximus  {high  priest).  He  had,  as  a  guaird,  twelve  lictors,  and 
a  troop  of  horsemen  named  celerts^  or  eqmUs^  afterwards  the  distinct 
order  of  Roman  knights.  These  regulations  are  of  positive  institu- 
tion :  others  arose  naturaSly  from  the  state  of  society. 

8.  The  jjotriapotatat  {paiemal  authority's  is  of  the  iaher  nature,  be* 
bg  common  to  all  barbarous  tribes.  The  limitation  of  all  arts  to  the 
riaves  arose  from  the  constant  employment  of  the  citizens  in  wariare 
or  in  ajnricuiture. 

9.  l^e  connexion  of  patron  and  client  was  an  admirable  institu- 
tion, which  at  once  umted  the  citizens,  and  maintained  a  useful  sab> 
ordination. 

10.  The  Sabines  were  the  most  formidable  enemy  of  the  early 
llomans ;  and  a  wise  poUcv  united  for  a  while  the  two  nations  into 
one  state.  After  the  death  of  Romulus,  who  reined  thirty-seven 
fears.  Noma,  a  Sabine,  was  elected  king,  liis  dis|K)sition  was  pious 
and  pacific,  and  he  endeavoured  to  give  nis  people  the  same  charac- 
ter. He  pretended  to  divine  inspiration,  to  give  the  greater  au^ori- 
tr  to  his  laws,  which  in  themselves  were  excellent.  He  multiplied 
ue  national  |ods,  built  temples,  and  instituted  different  classes  of 
miests,  flamtnes.  saHi,  &c.,  and  a  variety  of  religious  ccremoniea» 
The  flamines  omciated  each  in  the  service  of  a  particular  deity ;  the 
aalil  guarded  the  sacred  bucklers;  the  vestals  cherished  the  sacred 
fire :  the  augurs  and  aruspices  divined  future  events  from  the  flight 
of  birds,  and  the  entrails  of  victims.  The  temple  of  Janus  was  opea 
in  war,  and  shut  during  peace  Numa  reformed  the  calendar,  regi>> 
lating  the  year  at  twelve  lunar  months,  and  distinguislied  the  days 
for  civil  occupatim  (Jasti)  from  those  dedicated  to  religious  rest 
(nefoiti).  Agriculture  was  lawful  on  the  latter,  as  a  duty  of  religioo. 
Kuma  reLrnei  forty-three  years. 

11.  Tullus  HodUlius,the  tliird  king  of  Rome,  of  wvi^Ske  dispotl. 
Hod,  subdued  the  Albans,  Fiilenates,  and  other  neighbouriiur  s 
TIm  Sabines.  now  disunited  from  the  Romans,  were  among  me 
t^vreifbl  of  meir  enemies.   TuUus  reigned  thirty  tluree  yean. 

Digitized  by  CjOOQIC 


ANCIENT  HISTORT.  5J 

It.  Adcqs  MartlTU,  the  erandson  of  Numa,  was  elected  kin^  co 
the  death  of  Tullus.  He  ioBerited  the  piety  and  virtues  of  his  grand* 
fiitfaer,  and  joined  to  these  the  talents  of  a  warrior.  He  increased 
the  popabtiOD  of  Rome,  by  naturalizme  some  of  the  conquered 
states;  enlaced  and  fortified  the  city,  and  bollt  the  port  of  Qstia  at 
the  mouth  otthe  Tiber..    He  rei^ea  gloriously  twenty-four  year& 

13.  Tarquinius  Priscus,  a  citizen  of  Corinth,  popular  from  his 
wealth  and  Ubendity,  was  elected  to  the  vacant  throne.  He  enlarg- 
ed the  senate  by  100  new  members  from  the  plebeian  fianilles,/xi(ref 
miM«niai  gentium  {thejaifien  of  du  lessfianUies),  This  body  consisted 
now  of  duo,  at  which  number  it  remained  for  some  centuries.  Tar> 
qoin  was  victorious  in  his  wars,  and  adorned  and  improved  the  city 
with  works  of  utilltv  and  magnificence.  Such  were  the  circus  or 
hippodrome,  the  walls  of  hewn  stone ;  the  capitol ;  the  cloacae,  thoea 
common  sewers,  which  lead  to  the  belief  that  the  new 


Rome  had  been  built  on  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  city  of  ereater  mag* 
fiitnde.  Tarquinius  was  nswtfsinated  in  the  thirty-eighth  year  of  hn 
TeigD- 

14.  Servios  Tullius,  who  had  married  the  daughter  of  Taranlniusii 
ecoied,  by  his  own  address  and  the  intrigues  of  his  mother^law. 
lis  election  to  the  vacant  throne.  He  courted  popularity  by  acts  ot 
mmificence ;  discharging  the  debts  of  the  poor,  dividing  amone  the 
citizens  \m  patrimonial  lands,  unproving  the  city  with  useful  edifices, 
and  extending  its  boundaries.  The  new  arrangement  which  he  in- 
trodoced  in  the  division  of  the  Roman  citizens  is  a  proof  of  much  po^ 
liticai  ability,  and  merits  attention,  as  on  it  depended  many  of  mtt 
revolatioQS  of  the  republic 

15.  From  the  time  that  the  Romans  had  admitted  (he  Albans  and 
Sabioes  to  the  rights  of  citizens,  the  urban  and  rustic  tribes  were 
coc^iosed  of  those  three  nations.  Each  tribe  bemg  divided  into  ten 
otriKy  and  every  curia  having  an  equal  vote  in  the  eomiiia^  as  each 
iocfividual  had  in  his  tribe,  all  questions  were  decided  by  the  majority 
«f  floffirages.  There  was  no  pre-eminence  between  the  curim^  and 
the  ofder  in  which  they  gave  their  votes  was  determmed  by  lot 
Thm  was  a  reasonable  constitution,  so  long  as  the  fortunes  oi  the 
citizem  were  nearly  on  a  par:  but,  when  riches  came  to  be  un^ 
quaOy  divided^  it  was  obvious  that  much  inconvenience  must  havtt 
arisen  finom  this  equal  partition  of  power,  as  the  rich  could  easily,  by 
bribefy,  command  the  suffrages  ot  the  {>oor.  Resides,  ail  the  taxes 
bad  hitherto  been  levied  by  the  head,  without  %nj  regsird  to  the  in* 
eqodity  of  fortunes.  These  obvious  defects*  furnished  to  Servius  a 
jwt  pretext  for  an  entire  change  of  system.  His  plan  was,  to  remove 
the  poorer  citizens  from  all  share  of  the  government^  while  the 
boxdens  atteodiog  its  support  should  fall  solely  on  the  ricn. 

16.  All  the  citizens  were  required,  under  a  heavy  penalty,  to  de- 
cors opoQ  oath  their  names,  dwellin|;s,  number  of  their  childr«ny 
and  aaoont  of  their  fortune.  After  this  numeration  or  couio,  Set* 
whm  Avided  the  whole  citizens,  without  distinction,  into  four  tribeti 
caiBed,  from  the  quarters  where  they  dwelt,  the  PidoHne,  Murran, 
CoOatmrj  and  Esquitme.  Beside  this  local  division,  Servius  distribul* 
ed  fhe  whole  people  into  six  classes,  and  each  class  into  several 
ueuUuies  or  purtioos  of  dtizens  so  called,  not  as  actu:  Jly  consistiof 
«f  a  lumdrec!,  rjut  as  being  obliged  to  furnish  and  maintam  100  men 
fe  tmie  of  wir.  In  the  firat  cla£.  wliich  consisted  of  the  richest  dtft- 
aenS  or  tho9<^  iviio  were  worth  r.t  loast  100  nwnoe  (about  SOOL  ater- 
iJaC)t  &erc  were  ao  less  thaa  ninety-eight  centuries.    In  the  aeoood 

Digitized  by  CjOOQIC 


ht  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

dasB  (those  worth  75  mma)  there  were  twenty-two  centories.  In 
the  third  (those  worth  50  mines)  were  twenty  centuries.  In  the 
£bnrth  (those  worth  25  miruB)  twenty-two  centuries.  In  the  fifth 
(those  worth  12  mina)  thirty  centuries.  The  sixth,  the  most  nu- 
merous of  ^e  whole^  comprehending  all  the  poorer  citizens,  furnish- 
ed only  one  century.  Thus  the  whole  Roman  people  were  divided 
into  193  centuries,  or  portions  of  citizens,  so  called,  as  furnishing 
each  a  hundred  soldiers.  The  sixth  class  was  declared  exempt  from 
taxes.  The  other  classes,  according  to  the  number  of  centuries  of 
which  they  consisted,  were  rated  for  the  pubUc  burdens  at  so  much 
for  each  century. 

17.  The  poor  had  no  reason  to  complain  of  this  arrangement;  but 
something  was  wantir.g  to  compensate  the  rich  for  the  burdens  to 
which  they  were  subjected.  For  tliis  purpose  Servius  enacted,  that 
henceforth  the  comitia  should  give  their  votes  by  centuries  ;  the  first 
class,  consisting  of  ninctv-eight  centuries,  always  voting  first  Thus. 
though  the  whole  people  were  called  to  the  comitia^  and  all  seemea 
to  have  an  equal  suffrage,  yet  in  reality  the  richer  classes  determin- 
ed every  question,  the  suffrage  of  the  poor  being  merely  nominal ; 
for  as  tlie  whole  people  formed  193  centuries,  and  the  first  and  second 
classes  contained  120  of  these,  if  they  were  unanimous,  which  gen- 
erally happened  in  questions  of  importance,  a  niajority  was  secured. 
Thus,  in  tne  camiiia  centuricta  {assemblies  in  which  the  people  voted  hy 
centuries)^  in  which  the  chief  magistrates  were  elected,  peace  and 
war  decreed,  and  all  other  important  business  discussed,  the  richer 
classes  of  the  citizens  had  the  sole  authority,  the  votes  of  the  poor 
being  of  no  avail.  And  such  was  the  ingenuity  of  this  policy,  that  ali 
were  pleased  with  it :  the  rich  paid  their  taxes  with  cheerfulness,  as 
the  price  of  theirpower;  and  tlie  poor  gladly  exchanged  authority 
for  immunities.  The  census,  ]>erformed  every  five  years,  was  closed 
by  a  lustrwn^  or  expiatory  sacrifice ;  and  hence  that  period  of  time 
was  called  a  katrwn. 

18.  Servius  was  assas«;inated,  ailer  a  reign  of  forty-four  yean,  by 
his  infamous  daughter  Tullia,  married  to  Tarquinius^  the  grandsoa 
of  Priscus,  who  thus  paved  the  way  for  his  own  olevalion  to  tiie 
throne.  The  government  of  Tarquin.sumamed  the  proud,  was  sys- 
tematically tyrannical.  He  ingratiated  himself  with  the  lower  orders, 
to  abase  by  their  means  the  power  of  the  higher ;  but,  insolent,  ra- 
pacious, and  cruel,  he  finally  disgusted  all  ramcs  of  his  subjects.  A 
rape  conunitted  by  his  son  Sextus  on  Lucretia.  the  wife  of  CoUatznus. 
who,  unable  to  survive  her  dishonour,  stabbed  herself  in  presence  of 
her  husband  and  kindred^  roused  their  vengeance,  and  procured,  It  j 
their  influence  with  their  countrymen,  the  expulsion  of  the  tyranti 
•Dd  the  utter  aboUtion  of  the  regal  dignity  at  Rome,  509  A.  C. 

R^fleciumt  on  the  GavtmmerU  and  Stale  qf  Rome  during  the  period  of 

the  kings, 

19.  Tbe  whole  stmcture  of  the  constitution  of  the  Romans  under 
the  monarchy  has  been  by  most  authors  erroneously  attributed  ex- 
clusively to  the  abilities  of  Romulus,  a  ^outh  of  eighteen,  the  leader 
of  a  troop  of  shepherds  or  banditti.  This  chimerical  idea  we  owe  to 
JDionysius  of  Halicamassus.  The  truth  is,  the  Roman  government, 
like  ahnost  every  other,  was  the  gradual  result  of  circumstances ; 
tbe  finit  of  time,  and  of  political  emergency. 

ftXk  The  coDBtitutioQ  of  the  Roman  senate  has  occasioned  conrider* 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  63 

■Me  research^  and  Is  not  free  from  obscurity.  It  is  probable  that  the 
kings  had  the  sole  right  of  oamine  the  senator?,  that  the  consuls  snc- 
ceetled  them  in  this  right,  and  aiterwards,  when  these  magistrates 
found  too  miKh  occupation  from  the  frequent  wai^s  in  which  ue  state 
was  engaged,  that  privilege  devolved  on  the  censors.  The  senators 
were  at  first  always  chosen  from  the  body  of  the  patricians,  but  after- 
wards the  plebeians  acquired  an  equal  title  to  that  dignity.  In  the 
early  periods  of  the  republic  the  people  could  not  be  assembled  but 
by  tie  senate^s  authority ;  nor  were  the  pUbisciia  [decrees  oftht  peo- 
ple) of  any  wight  till  coniirmed  by  their  decree.  Hence  the  early 
coastitntion  ol  the  republic  was  ratlier  aristocnitical  than  democrat- 
icaL  From  thi-*  extensive  power  of  the  senate  the  first  diminution 
was  made  by  the  creation  of  the  tribunes  of  the  people  j  and  other 
retmcbmcnts  successively  took  j)lace,  till  the  people  acquired  at 
length  the  predominant  power  in  the  state.  Yet  the  senate,  even 
al^er  every  usurpation  on  their  authority,  contmued  to  have,  in  many 
points,  a  supremacy.  Tbey  regulated  all  matters  regarding  religion; 
nad  toe  custody  otthe  pubfic  treasure  ;  superintended  the  conduct  of 
ail  magistrates ;  gave  audience  to  ambassadors ;  decided  on  tlie  fate  of 
vanquished  nations;  disposed  of  the  governments  of  the  provinces; 
and  took  cognizance,  by  appeal,  in  all  crimes  against  the  st<Ue.  In 
great  emergencies  tncy  appointed  a  dictator,  with  absolute  authority. 
i?l.  At  tlic  period  ofthe  aboUlion  of  the  regal  government  the  ter- 
ritory of  the  Komans  was  extrcmely  limited.  The  only  use  which 
they  made  of  their  victories  was  to  naturalize  the  inhabitants  o( 
sonic  ofthe  conquered  states,  and  so  increase  their  population.  Thus, 
their  strength  being  always  superior  to  their  enterprise,  Ihey  laid  a 
solid  foundation  for  the  future  extension  of  their  empire. 

22.  In  the  accounts  given  by  historians  of  the  streni^th  of  tlie  ar- 
mies, both  ofthe  Romans  in  those  early  tinic.-»,  and  ofthe  neighbour* 
ing  states,  their  enemie?,  we  have  every  reason  to  believe  tiiere  is 
much  exagi»e ration.  The  teiTitorios  fi\)ra  wliich  those  armies  were 
famished  were  inc  ipaMe  of  supplying  them. 

23.  In  the  continual  wars  in  which  the  republic  was  engaged  the 
Rofnans  were  mrj^t  commonly  the  aggro?soi^.  The  cans*  s  of  this 
pf*em  to  have  been  the  ambition  of  the  consuls  to  distinguish  their 
fhort  admini^ration  by  some  splendid  enterprise,  and  the  wish  ofthe 
senate  to  give  the  people  occupation,  to  j)rovent  intestine  di-quiels. 

til.  The  re^nl  gov»^nimont  subsisted  214  ycar^,  and  in  that  time 
only  seven  kin:?s  r.'ii^ncd,  several  of  whom  lYiod  a  violent  death. 
ITi'c^e  circum^tanr'js  throw  doubt  on  the  autlienticily  of  this  period 
fif  tli'3  Roman  history.  It  is  allowed  that  there  were  no  historians  for 
Oir  five  first  centuries  after  the  building  of  Rome.  The  first  is 
Fdbius  Pictor.  who  lived  during  the  second  Punic  war.  Livy  says 
that  almost  all  the  ancient  records  were  destroyed  when  Home  was 
tiiken  by  the  GauLs. 


SECTION  XXV. 

ROMC  UNDER  THE  CONSULS. 

1.  The  regal  government  being  abolished,  it  was  agreed  to  commit 
the  sanrcme  authority  to  two  magistrates,  who  should  be  annual^ 
deded  by  the  people  from  the  patrician  order.  To  these  they  ga?e 
Ibft  CVunes  dcuruuUe  ;  ^b,  modest  title,  (says  Veriot),  which  gav«  to 

*•  ^  Digitized  by  ^^OOgie 


64  ANCIENT  HISTORY: 

wdentand  that  they  were  rather  the  counsellon  of  the  repuhlJc  than 
its  soyereigns ;  and  that  the  only  point  which  they  oueht  to  baye  in 
▼kw  was  na  presentation  and  glory .^  But,  in  &ct,  tneir  authority 
differed  scarcely  in  any  thing  from  that  of  the  kinf  a.  They  had 
the  sapreme  administration  of  justice,  the  dispossu  of  the  public 
money^  the  power  of  conyoking  the  senate  and  assembling  the  peo- 
ple, raising  armies,  naming  all  the  officers,  and  the  right  of  roakioi^ 
peace  and  war.  The  only  difference  was,  that  their  authorify  was 
limited  to  a  year. 

2.  The  firat  consuls  were  Brutus  and  CoUatinus  (the  husband  of* 
Lucretia).  Tarquin  was  at  this  time  in  Etruria.  wher^e  got  two  of 
the  most  powerful  cities.  Veil  and  Tarqulnii,  to  espouse  his  cause. 
He  had  likewise  his  partisans  at  Rome,  and  a  plot  was  formed  to 
open  the  gates  to  receive  him.  It  was  detected,  and  Brutus  had 
the  mortification  to  find  his  two  sons  in  the  number  of  the  conspirsH 
tors.  He  condemned  them  to  be  beheaded  in  his  presence.  Faint 
patrem  vt  conndem  ageret ;  orhus^  vivere^  quampubhas  vindickt  deesst 
mahnL  Val.  Max.  He  ceased  (<k  be  a  father^  that  he  might  execute  the 
duties  of  a  cansat ;  and  cAtue  to  live  childless  rather  than  to  neglect  the 
juMic  punishment  of  a  crime. 

3.  The  consul  Valerius,  successful  in  an  engagement  with  the  ex 
fled  Tarquin,  was  the  first  Roman  who  enjoyed  tiie  splendid  reward 
of  a  triumph.  Arrogant  from  his  recent  honours,  his  popularity  be- 
gan to  decline ;  and,  in  a  view  of  recovering  it,  he  proposed  the  law, 
termed  from  him  the  Valerian,  which  ^  permitted  any  citizen  who 
had  been  condemned  to  death  by  a  magistrate,  or  even  to  banish-^ 
ment  or  scourging,  to  appeal  to  the  people,  and  required  their  cod- 
•ent previously  to  the  execution  of  the  sentence.^'  This  law  gave 
the  nrst  blow  to  the  aristocracy  in  the  constitution  of  the  Roman  re« 
public. 

4.  For  thirteen  years  afler  the  expulsion  of  Tarquin,  the  Romans 
were  involved  in  continual  wars  en  nis  account  Of  these  the  most 
remarkable  was  the  war  with  the  Etrurians,  under  Porscna ;  a  war 
fertile  in  exploits  of  romantic  heroism. 

5.  Soon  aller  this  period  began  those  domestic  disorder?,  which 
continued  long  to  embroil  the  republic  Great  complaints  had  arisen 
Wiong  0ie  poorer  classes  of  the  citizens,  both  on  account  of  the  ine- 
quality  of  property,  from  the  partial  distribution  of  the  conquered 
isnds,  which  the  higher  ranks  generally  contrived  to  eng-ross  to  thenK 
•elves,  and  from  the  harsh  policy  by  which  it  was  m  Uie  power  of 
creditors  to  reduce  to  a  state  of  slavery  their  insolvent  debtors.  As 
there  was  no  legal  restraint  on  usury,  the  poor,  when  once  reduced 
|o  the  necessity  of  contracting  debts,  were  lefl  entirely  at  the  mercy 
of  their  creditors.  These  grievances,  felt  in  common  by  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  qitizena,  excited  much  discontent,  which,  from  cook 
plaints  long  disregarded,  grew  at  leneth  into  a  spirit  of  determined 
resistance.  The  wars  required  new  levies,  and  the  plebeians  posi- 
tively refused  to  enrol  their  names,  unless  the  senate  should  put  an 
end  to  their  oppression,  by  decreeing  at  once  an  abolition  of  all  the 
debts  due  by  tne  poor  to  the  rich.  The  emergency  was  critical,  as 
the  enemy  was  at  the  gates  of  Rome.  The  consuls  found  their  atH 
thority  01  no  avail;  for  the  Valerian  law  had  eiven  any  citizen  con- 
demned by  them  a  right  of  appeal  to  the  people.  An  extraordinary 
measure  was  necessary,  and  a  dictator  was  created  for  the  first  time  ; 
s  magistrate  who.  for  the  period  of  six  months,  was  invested  wltli 
il^ute  bp4  oQhmited  authority.    LarUuSi  nominated  to  this  \ng\x 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  M 

dBcse,  anaed  the  twenty-four  Iktois  tvith  axes,  sammoned  the  whole 
people  to  the  comitia,  nod  calline  over  the  names,  under  the  penadtjr 
cf  death  to  any  citizen  who  shomd  dare  to  nrannur,  enrolled  all  sucd 
as  he  judged  most  fit  for  tlie  seirice  of  their  country.  This  ezpedi* 
cot  i)ecame  henceforward  a  frequent  and  certain  resource  in  all  8e»> 
tons  oTpoblic  daog;er. 

6.  The  death  oi  Tarquin  removed  one  check  against  the  tyranny 
of  the  hicher  over  the  lower  orders ;  for  the  latter  nad  hitherto  ke^ 
aliTe  a  salutary  apprehension,  that,  in  case  of  extreme  oppression, 
they  would  be  under  the  necessity  of  calling  back  their  kln^.  When 
this  fear  was  at  an  end,  the  domineering  spirit  of  the  patridans,  ex* 
eeeding  every  bound  both  of  good  poUcy  and  humanity,  drove  the 
people  at  length  to  deeds  of  mutiny  and  rebellion.  An  alarm  from 
tbe  enemy  gave  full  weight  to  their  power,  and  made  the  chief  magis- 
trates of  me  state  solenmly  engage  their  honour  io  procure  a  re- 
dress of  their  grievances  as  soon  as  the  public  danger  was  at  an  end. 
The  promise,  either  from  a  failure  of  will  or  of  power,  was  not  ful- 
filled^ and  this  violation  of  faith  drove  the  people  at  length  to  ex« 
treouties.  Bound  by  their  military  oath  not  to  desert  their  standards, 
they  carried  them  along  with  them ;  and  the  whole  army,  in  military 
array,  withdrew  from  Rome,  and  deliberately  encamped  on  theMons 
Sacer,  at  three  miles  distance  from  the  city ;  and  here  they  were  soon 
KMnedbr  the  greater  part  of  the  people.  This  resolute  procedurt 
ted  its  desiredeffect  The  senate  deputed  ten  persons,  the  most  re* 
ipectaUe  of  their  order,  with  plenary  powers;  and  these,  seeing  no 
mecfiom  of  compromise,  granted  to  the  people  all  their  demands. 
The  debts  were  solemnly  abolished ;  and,  for  the  security  of  their 
privileges  in  future,  they  were  allowed  the  right  of  choosing  magis- 
trates of  their  own  order,  who  should  have  the  power  of  onposmg 
with  effect  every  measure  which  they  should  judge  prejumcial  to 
their  interests.  These  were  the  trilmnes  of  the  people,  chosen  annxi- 
ally ;  at  first  five  in  number,  and  afterwards  increased  to  ten.  With- 
OQt  guards  or  tribunal,  and  having  no  seat  in  the  senate-house,  they 
had  yet  the  power,  by  a  single  veto,  to  suspend  or  annul  the  decrees 
of  tlie  senate  and  tne  sentences  of  the  consuls.  Their  persons  wena 
declared  sacred^  but  their  authority  was  confined  to  the  limits  of  a 
mile  from  the  city.  The  tribunes  demanded  and  obtained  two  magis- 
trates to  assist  them,  who  were  termed  addiles,  from  the  charge  con^ 
Mitted  to  them  of  the  buildings  of  the  dtj. 

7.  From  this  »ra  (260  yean  from  the  foundation  of  Rome)  we  date 
the  commencement  of  the  popular  constitution  of  the  Roman  repub- 
lic: a  change  operated  by  the  unwise  policy  of  the  patricians  them- 
aelves,  who,  by  yielding  to  just  complamts,  and  humanely  redressing 
flagrant  abuses,  might  teive  easily  anticipated  every  ground  of  dis- 
Btis&ction.  The  first  wish  of  tne  people  was  not  power,  but  relief 
from  tyranny  and  oppressioo ;  and  if  this  had  been  readily  granieNl 
tfaem  by  abolishing  the  debts,  or  at  least  by  repressing  enormous 
vnary ,  and  putting  an  end  to  tne  inhuman  right  or  corporal  punisb- 
neat  and  the  homiage  of  debtors,  the  people  would  have  cheerfully 
returned  to  order  aixl  submission,  and  the  Roman  constitution  would 
hare  long  remiined  aristocratical,  as  we  have  seen  it  was  at  the  con»- 
fnencement  of  the  consular  government  But  the  plebeians  having 
now  otytiincd  magistrates  of  Uieir  own  order  with  those  highpowersi 
we  shall  sec  it  become  the  object  o£  those  magistrates  to  increase 
their  aathority  by  continual  demands  and  bold  encroachments.  The 
people,  xegardiag  them  as  the  champions  of  their  rights,  are  delight 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


56  ASK)I£NTHXSTCMir. 

6d  to  jfind  themselves  gradually  approacbinf  to  a  level  witii  iSkB 
higher  order;  and,  no  longer  bounding  their  oedres  to  ease  and  se- 
curity, are  soon  eaually  influenced  by  ambition  as  tlieir  superiors. 
While  this  people,  borne  down  by  iiijostice,  seek  no  more  than  the 
redress  of  real  grievances,  we  sympathize  with  their  feeling  and 
applaud  their  spirited  exertions.  But  when  they  had  at  len^m  con^ 
passed  the  end  which  they  wished,  obtained  ease  and  security,  nay, 
power  which  they  had  neither  sought  nor  expected ;  when  we  see 
ihenL  after  this,  increasing  in  their  demands,  assuming  that  arrogance 
which  they  jusuv  blamed  in  their  sup^eriors,  goaded  on  by  the  am- 
bition of  their  leaders  to  tyrannize  in  their  turn ;  we  view  with 
proper  discrimination  the  love  of  liberty  and  its  extreme  licentious- 
ness ;  and  treat  with  just  detestation  the  authors  of  those  pemicioas 
measures,  which  embroiled  the  state  in  endless  faction,  and  paved  the 
way  for  the  total  loss  of  that  liberty,  of  which  this  aeluded  people « 
knew  not  the  value  when  they  actually  possessed  it 


SECTION  XXVI. 

THE  LAW  OP  VOLERO. 

1.  The  disorders  of  the  commonwealth,  appeased  by  the  creation 
of  the  tribunes,  were  but  for  a  time  suspended.  It  was  necessaiy 
that  the  popular  madstrates  should  make  an  experiment  of  thcur 
powers.  In  an  assembly  of  the  people  one  of  the  consuls,  interrupt- 
ed by  a  tribune,  rashly  said,  that  if  the  tribunes  had  called  that  assent 
bly,  he  would  not  have  inteiTupted  them.  This  was  a  concession  on 
the  part  of  the  consuls,  that  the  tribunes  had  the  power  of  assem- 
bling tlic  comitia.  which,  from  that  moment,  they  asaumed  as  their 
acknowledged  right  It  was  a  consequence  of  this  right,  that  the 
afigdrs  of  the  commonwealth  should  be  agitated  in  those  meeting.?, 
equally  as  m  the  assemblies  held  in  virtue  of  a  consular  sununons^^or 
senatorial  decree,  and  thus  there  "wcre^  in  a  manner,  two  distinct 
legislative  powers  established  in  the  republic. 

2.  The  frial  of  Coholanus  for  inconsiderately  proposing  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  tribunate,  an  offence  interpreted  to  be  treason  against  tiio 
state,  threw  an  additional  weight  into  the  scale  of  the  people.  Thti 
proposal  of  an  agrarian  law,  for  the  division  of  the  lanas  acquired  by 
recent  conquest^  resumed  at  intervals,  though  never  carried  into 
execution^  inflamed  tlie  passions  of  the  rival  orders. 

3.  Pubhus  Volero,  formerly  a  centurion,  and  a  man  distinguished 
for  his  military  ser^ice^,  had,  in  the  new  levies,  been  ranked  as  a 
common  soldier.  Complaining  of  this  unmerited  dcgmdation,  he  re- 
ftued  his  services  in  that  capacity ;  and  the  consuls  having  con- 
demned him  to  corporal  punishment,  he  appealed  from  tlieir  seu- 
tence  to  the  people.  The  contest  lasted  till  me  annual  term  of  elect-^ 
tions,  when  Volero  himself  was  chosen  a  tribune  of  the  people.  He 
bad  an  ai^ple  revenge,  by  procuring  the  enactment  of  a  mostiropop- 
tantlaw.  Ulie  comitia  by  centuries  and  bycuriaB  could  be  called 
onlv  in  virtue  of  a  decree  of  the  senate,  after  consulting  the  auspices ; 
and  in  those  comitia  the  tribunes  had  hitherto  been  elected,  and  the 
most  important  public  afiairs  discussed.  It  was  decreed  by  the  law 
of  Volero,  tliat  the  election  of  tlie  tribunes  should  be  made,  and  the 
chief  public  business  henceforward  discussed,  in  the  comitia  held  by 
tribef  J  which  were  unfettered  by  any  of  thoiie  restraints.    From  tb^ 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  W 

c^n^d  flie  fopreme  aotfaorif  j  b  the  Roman  republic  may  be  consid- 
er )  ««  haring  passed  romTiletclj  from  the  higher  oraer  into  the 
i..>^  of  the  people.  The  Roman  constitution  was  now  plainly  a 
<yi>xncy,  471  A.  C. 


SECTION  XXVII. 

THE  DECEMVIRATE 

1 .  TvBL  Ronans  li-iJ,  till  this  period,  no  bodjr  of  civil  laws.— Under 

ti^.'*   refii  gOTcnuncnt  the  kings  alone  administered  justice;    the 

c-  •  '  ifc  f u'cceded  them  in  tliis  lugh  prerogative,  and  thus  possessed 

» .:!  •IX  control  the  absolute  command  of  the  fortunes  and  civil  righti 

;'  t..  ui*  riiizen-i.    To  remedy  tliis  great  delect,  Terenlillus,  a  tri- 

:*».  prup<j»ed  the  noniinatiun  of  ten  commissioners,  to  frame  and 

:  «:  a  rm\^  of  law*  for  the  explanation  and  security  of  tJie  rights 

.1  orden>  of  tlie  state.    A  measure  so  equitable  ought  to  have  met 

.i  ?»  tpj)<>itian.    It  wa?,  however,  strenuously  opposed  by  tte 

.  '.  -liir*,  nho,  by  a  fruitle?is  content,  only  exposed  their  oun  weafc- 

•  -.    Tii-  jlocomviri  were  cho«en ;  but  the  election  being  made  in 

V  -;..:;a  by  cculurie*,  the  consul  Appius  Claudius,  with  his  col- 

r  -.  w«^r??  at  the  h^ad  of  this  important  commission.    The  laws 

'    •  •  1. 4-i;-^d,  iho^s*?  celebnitr»d  statutes  known  by  the  name  of  the 

!   .     it  T  •»!•  *.  which  arc  the  basis  of  tlie  great  structure  of  the 

.     j;ri-|u '^'I'-nre, -tol  A.  C. 

-   Aa  .rt^  j.»i./  jrico  with  tho-e  ancient  law^s  is  therefore  of  impor^ 

L>eM  n  ll.o  ni'^4  iloiiri-liing  limes  of  the  republic  they  con- 

*  *  .**  IV  ••!  thr  bi<hf^t  authority.  They  have  the  encomium  of 
1  r^ir^-  )f;  jL'id  w»»  l"arn  iVoin  him,  that  to  commit  these  laws 
I.  >ry  ^\..'  a!i  c-^.'utial  part  of  a  liberdl  education.  From  the 
*•  l.-A*'^  t'  ••  juri'iOiisuUi  composod  a  sy-tt  m  of  judicial  forms, 

r.».!    .  >'i  ol*  the  ditTe  rent  triJmnals.    The  uumhcr  of  tJie 
.•  .-  ;. ..  \%i-e  from  time  to  time  increiLSid  by  the  icnatusconmlia 

i ..     !  •.  *'rr.vlr»  wore  invested  with  all  tlie  powers  of  govem- 

-  ;*  f  I  ».*  t  ■,:.-»!  I  to  lud  ceased  on  tlicir  creation.     Eacli  docem- 

>  r- ~  pr.-i  1  J  lor  n  day,  and  \i.\(\  the  sovereign  authority,  with 

.-.:•  .*•  ih  •  f ''-'S.^  The  nine  othci-s  olliciated  sole  iy  as  judges 

.  ^  *.   .m.  »a;!'-'i  jjf  lawsuits  luid  the  correction  of  ah  uses.     An 

-  .  kin-r,    vrr,  f'l  tiic  'no-l  tla^ruit  n.iturc,  comniittt'd  by  tho  chief 

.r  t-vj  u:!.ilK.T,  Wits  dcatucd  spetdiiy  to  bring  their  ctlice  to 

:»»  I  :.'»n. 

•  i;-»-. .'  •'  .ilij*,  inil.  m  ^d  by  lawless  pas.Vion  fur  the  young 
-4-  \  .-  l«  .r*>:Iji?d  ?*poi-c  of  IriliuH,  fonncrly  a  trihni.o  of  the 
•  .  I :;;  \'^}c.\  :\  \  :'['  ^iz  ilo  dojxMKLwit  to  claim  tlie  niai.N  u  as  biti 

'  .  }'    *  r.il  u:i  tiif  IuIm;   ji'vltuce  i«t'  hur  beuig  tlicdauxhtor  of 

•   Li*  :♦  :n»!«* -l.i*»*«».    Th^'  riuim  w.w  nvu\v.  to  llie  doconivir 

.  Bi  jvl^ii  "it,  wIjo  proii(Vi.it"^-l  an  iiilamous  dorreo,  wliich 

.'.  % .  :it.x  :  '...1  >  tiiU  l2iMj»L«»-j  \i.'tim,  and  piit  her  hilo  the  hands 

.*  viia  miii' n.     Ilor  latht^r,  to  kivo  tlio  honour  of  hi-*  child, 

^^  M  djx<**r  into  her  brcM«»l ;  and  the  poopks  vvitn(•^ses  of  tiiis 

.  ^Af  *cii0'j^  would  have  uia.<*  jcred  Appius  on  the  sjhjL,  if  he  hjid 

'  >.r»^  n^'x'VH  to  ev:ape  amiJst  the  tumult    Their  vengcanoa, 

-•-^cr*  wi«  «iU.i!ed  by  the  iastxmt  abolition  of  tliis  bated  magii- 

t  ^  J,  Md  by  Itae  death  of  Appius,  who  chose  l>yg,^^H^^gjf  ^ 


SB  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

prerent  the  stroke  of  the  executioner.  The  decemvirate  had  sub- 
sisted for  three  vearB.  The  consuls  were  now  restored,  together 
with  the  trihqnes  of  the  people,  449  A.  C. 

SECTION  xxvm. 

INCREASE  OF  THE  POPULAR  POWER. 

1.  The  scale  of  the  people  was  dallyacquiriD^  weisht,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  that  of  the  highest  order.  Two  bameis,  howeyer,  slill 
separated  the  patricians  and  plebctans :  one^  a  law  which  prevented 
their  intennamage,  and  the  other,  the  constitutl(»tal  limitation  of  all 
(he  higher  offices  to  the  order  of  the  patricians.  It  was  only  neces- 
sary to  remove  these  restrictions,  and  the  patricians  and  plebeianfl 
were  on  a  footing  of  perfect  equality.  The  firet,  after  a  long  but 
fruitless  contest,  was  at  length  agreed  to  by  the  senate ;  and  this 
concession  had  its  usual  effect  of  stunulating  the  people  to  inflexible 
perseverance  in  their  struggle  for  the  latter.  On  an  emergence  of 
war  the  customary  device  was  practj^d,  of  refusing  to  enter  the 
rolls*  unless  upon  the  inmiediate  enactment  of  a  law,  which  should 
admit  their  capacity  of  holding  all  the  offices  of  the  republic  The 
senate  sought  a  palliative,  by  the  creation  of  six  military  tribunes  in 
lieu  of  the  consuls,  three  of  whom  should  be  patricians,  and  ihr^t 
plebeians.  This  measure  satisfied  the  people  for  a  time:  theconsub 
..owever,  were  soon  restored. 

2.  The  disorders  of  the  republic,  and  frequent  wars,  had  inter 
mpted  the  regular  survey  of  the  citizens.  This  was  remedied  by 
the  creation  ot  a  new  magistracy.  Two  officers,  under  the  title  ol 
censors,  were  appointed  (437  A.  CX  whose  duty  was  not  only  to 
make  the  cennu  every  five  yesuns,  but  to  inspect  the  morafe,  and 
regulate  the  duties  of  all  the  citizens :  an  office  of  dignity  equal  to 
its  importance,  exercised,  in  the  latter  times  of  the  republic,  only  by 
consular  persons,  and  afterwards  annexed  to  the  supreme  functions 
of  the  emperors. 

S.  The  dissensions  between  the  orders  continued,  with  little  varia- 
tion either  in  their  causes  or  effects.  The  peonle  generally,  as  tlic 
last  resource,  refiised  to  enrol  themselves^  till  overawed  by  the 
sxipreme  authority  of  a  dictator.  To  obviate  the  frequent  necessity 
ofthis  measure,  which  enforced  at  best  an  unwilling  and  compelled 
obedience,  the  senate  had  recourse  to  a  wise  expedient ;  this  was^, 
lo  give  a  regular  pay  to  the  troops.  To  defray  this  expense  a  mod- 
erate tax  was  imposed  in  proportion  to  the  fortunes  ot  the  citizens. 
From  this  period  the  Roman  system  of  war  assumed  a  new  aspect. 
The  senate  always  found  soldiers  at  command ;  the  army  was  under 
its  control;  the  enterprises  of  the  republic  were  more  extensive, 
and  its  successes  more  signal, and  important.  Veil,  the  proud  rival 
of  Rome,  and  its  equal  in  extent  and  population,  was  taken  by  Camil* 
lus,  after  a  siege  of  ten  years,  A.  IT.  C.  396.  The  art  of  war  was 
improved,  as  it  now  became  a  profession.  Instead  of  an  occasional 
occupation.  The  Romans  were,  from  this  circumstance,  an  over- 
match for  all  their  neighbours.  Their  dominion,  hitherto  confined 
to  the  territory  of  a  few  miles,  was  now  rapidly  extended.  It  was 
impossible  but  that  the  detached  states  of  Italy  must  have  given  way 
before  a  people  who  were  always  in  arms,  and,  by  a  perseverance 
alike  resolute  and  jadicious,  were  equal  to  every  attempt  in  whicti 
tiiey  engaged 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


I 


ANCIENT  mSTORT.  59 

4.  Hie  taking  of  Veil  was  succeeded  by  a  war  with  the  Gatib. 
This  people^  m  branch  of  the  great  nation  of  the  Celtae,  had  opened 
to  thonselTes  a  passage  through  the  Alps  at  four  diflerent  periods, 
and  were  at  this  time  established  in  the  country  between  those 
mountains  and  the  Appenincs.  Under  the  command  of  Brennus  they 
laid  siege  to  the  Etroscan  Qosium ;  and  the  people*  of  no  warlike 
tnra  themselTes.  solicited  the  aid  of  the  Romans.  The  circumstan- 
ces recorded  ot  this  war  with  the  Gauls  throw  over  it  a  cloud  of 
£ibie  and  romance.  The  formidable  power  of  Rome  is  said  to  have 
been,  hi  a  single  campaign,  so  ntterlv  exhausted,  that  the  Gauls  en- 
tereo  the  city  without  resistance,  and  burnt  it  to  the  ground,  385  A. 
C.  Though  thus  overpowered,  the  Romans,  in  a  singfe  engagement. 
retrieTe  tdl  their  losses,  and  in  one  day's  time  there  is  not  a  Gaul 
iel)  remaining  within  the  Roman  territory. 

To  the  burning  of  the  city  by  the  Gaols,  the  Roman  writers  attri- 
Dute  the  loss  of  ail  the  records  and  monuments  of  their  early  history. 

6.  It  is  singular,  that  most  of  the  Roman  revolutions  should  have 
<mtd  their  origin  to  women.  From  this  cause  we  have  seen  spring 
the  abolition  of  the  regal  office  and  the  decemvirate.  From  this 
cause  aiwe  the  chanee  of  the  constitution,  by  which  the  plebeians 
became  capable  of  hoTdine  the  highest  offices  of  the  commonwealth. 
Tbe  yoonger  dbiughter  of  Fabius  Ambustus,  married  to  a  plebeian, 
envious  of  the  honours  of  her  elder  sister,  tlie  wife  of  a  patrician, 
stimulated  bet  father  to  rouse  the  lower  order  to  a  resolute  purpose 
cf  asserting  their  equal  right  with  tlie  patricians  to  all  the  offices  and 
dignities  ot  the  state.  Attcr  much  turbulence  and  contest  the  final 
irtooe  was  the  admission  of  the  plebeians,  first  to  the  consulate,  and 
.literwaids  to  the  censorship,  the  pra;toi'shit>,  and  priesthood  (A.  U. 
i\  454,  and  A.  C.  300) .  a  aianec  beneficial  in  the  main,  as  consoU- 
datmg  the  strrngth  of  the  renubuc,  and  cutting  off  tbe  principal  source 
ct' intestine  disorder.  The  tactions  of  the  state  had  hitherto  confined 
(he  growth  of  its  power,  its  q>lendour,  and  prosperity ;  for  no  state 
can  at  once  be  prosperous  and  anarchical.  We  shall  now  mark  the 
rapid  elevation  of  the  Roman  name  and  empire. 


SECTION  XXIX. 

CONQUEST  OF  ITALY  BY  THE  ROMANS. 

1.  Tte  war  with  the  Samnites  now  began,  and  was  of  long  contin* 
uance ;  but  its  successful  termination  was  speedily  followed  by  the 
redoctioD  of  all  the  states  of  Italy.  In  the  course  of  this  important 
v^r  the  Tarentincs,  the  allies  of  the  Samnites,  soueht  the  aid  of 
ffrrhos  king  rf  Kpirus.  one  of  the  greatest  generals  ofTiis  age.  Pyn^ 
has  landed  in  Italy  with  30^000  men  and  a  train  of  elephants,  280  A. 
C.  He  was  at  fir^  successful,  but  no  longer  sd  than  till  a  short  ex** 
perience  reconciled  the  Romans  to  a  new  mode  of  war.  Sensible  at 
iTDgth  of  tlie  ditliculties  of  his  enterprise,  and  dreading  a  fatal  issue, 
he  embraced  an  invitation  from  the  Sicilians  to  aid  them  in  a  war 
with  Carthage.  On  this  pretext,  which  at  least  was  not  dishonoora* 
bte,  Pyrrfaus  withdrew  his  troops  from  Italy.  In  this  hiterval  the 
Romaai  redoced  to  extremity  the  Samnites,  the  Tarentinet,  and  the 
s«her  allied  sUtes.  Fyrrhus  returned,  and  made  a  last  effort  near 
BetteientuBi,  lie  was  totally  defeated,  lost  S6,p00  men,  and  abaD» 
dooiDg  at  once  all  further  views  to  Italy,  letnnied  with  precipttatlM 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


60  ANCIENT  mffTORY. 

to  hifl  own  dominions,  274  A.  C.  The  hostiie  states  submitted  to  tiie 
victorious  power;  and  Rome.  480  years  from  the  foundation  of  tiie 
city,  was  now  mistress  of  ali  Italy. 

2.  The  p|oIicy  observed  by  the  Romans,  with  respect  to  the  con- 
quered nations,  was  wise  and  judicious.  Thejr  removed  to  Rome 
all  the  leading  men  of  the  principal  conquered  cities,  admitting  them 
into  the  ancient  urban  and  rustic  tribes,  and  thus  sootning  the  pride  of 
the  vanquished,  by  giving  them  an  apparent  share  in  tneir  own  do- 
mestic government;  whi&,  in  arranging  the  constitution  of  the  cities, 
(hey  filled  their  magistracies  with  iOustrious  Romans,  whose  abilities 
and  influence  were  fitted  to  maintain  thoA  new  provinces  in  alle- 
giance to  the  Roman  government. 

3.  Sicily  had  long  oeen  considered  the  granary  of  Italy.  The 
Carthaginians  at  this  time  possessed  considerable  settlements  in  the 
Island,  and  were  ambitious  of  acquiring  its  entire  dominion.  An  ob- 
vious poUcy  led  the  Romans  to  dispute  with  them  this  important  ac- 
quisition, and  gave  rise  to  the  Punic  wars.  This  leads,  bv  a  natural 
connexion,  to  a  short  view  of  the  history  of  Carthage  and  of  Sicily. 


SECTION  XXX. 

HISTORY  OF  CARTHAGE. 

1.  Carihage,  according  to  the  most  probable  accounts,  was  founded 
by  a  colony  of  Tynans,  about  seventy  years  before  the  building  of 
Euome.  The  colony  had  the  same  language,  the  same  or  nearly 
similar  laws  and  constitution,  the  same  national  character,  with  tlie 
parent  state.  The  city  of  Cartliage  was,  at  the  period  of  the  Punic 
wars,  one  of  the  most  splendid  in  the  world,  and  had  under  its  domin- 
ion 300  of  the  smaller  aties  of  Africa  bordering  on  the  Mediterraneim 
sea. 

2.  The  constitution  of  the  republic  is  celebrated  by  Ailstotle  n& 
one  of  the  most  perfect  of  the  goveniments  of  antiquity  ;  but  we 
know  little  more  than  its  general  nature  from  ancient  writers.  Two 
magistrates,  named  s^jiffetes,  annually  chosen,  seem  to  have  possessed 
powers  akin  to  those  of  the  Roman  consuls ;  and  the  Carthaginian 
senate  to  those  of  the  senate  of  Rome;  with  this  remarkable  differ- 
ence, that,  in  the  former,  unanimity  of  opinion  was  requisite  in  all 
measures  of  import:mce.  A  divided  senate  transmitted  the  business 
to  the  assembly  of  the  people.  A  tribunal  of  104  judges  took  cog- 
nizance of  militarj  operations,  and  of  the  conduct  of  Uieir  gcncralL 
A  superior  council  of  hve  seems  to  have  controled  the  decisions  of 
the  larger  tribunaL  Two  peculiarities. of  the  Carthaginian  policy 
have  been  censured  by  Aristotle.  One  peculiarity  was.  that  the  sanne 
person  might  hold  several  employments  or  oihces  in  tne  state  ;  the 
other  that  the  poor  were  debaiTcd  from  all  offices  of  trust  or  import- 
ance. But  the  former  of  these  is  frequently  both  expedient  and 
necessary,  and  the  latter  seems  agreeable  to  the  soundest  poiicy ;  for 
m  offices  of  trust  poverty  offers  too  powerihl  an  incitement  to  deyia* 
tion  from  duty. 

3.  The  first  settlements  made  by  the  Carthaginians  were  entirely 
te  the  way  of  commerce.  Trading  to  the  coast  of  Spain  for  goid, 
they  built  Carthagena  and  Gades:  and  coasting  along  the  westtrn 
Bhore  of  Anica,  they  had  establishments  for  the  same  purpose  as&r 

88  the  25th  degree  of  noith  latitude.   The  Perip^  of  Hanno  affimi& 

/ 

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ANCIENT  HISTORY,  61 

%  proof  of  ardent  eoterpiise  and  policy.  Desirous  of  extending  a 
limited  territoiy  they  armed  against  tiic  Mauritanians,  Nomidians, 
and  all  the  nelghbouriag  natioos;  employiog  mercenary  troops^ 
which  they  levied,  not  only  in  Africa,  but  in  ^pain,  the  two  Gauls, 
and  Greece. 

4.  The  annals  of  the  Carthaginian  state  are  little  known  till  their 
wars  with  the  Romans.  The  first  of  their  wars  mentioned  in  history 
Is  that  with  the  Greek  colonies  of  Sicily.  Darius  courted  their  alh* 
ante  whea  he  meditated  the  conquest  of  Greece ;  and  Xerxes  re- 
newed that  treaty  when  he  followed  out  tlie  designs  of  his  &ther. 


SECTION  XXXI. 

HISTORY  OF  SICILY. 

1.  TlBe  ear!y  periods  of  the  history  of  Sicily  are  as  little  known  a5 
those  <^ Carthage.  The  Phoenicians  had  seat  colonies  to  Sicily  be- 
lore  tiie  Trojan  war.  The  Greeks^  in  alter  times,  made  considerable 
aetdements in  the  island.  The  Conntliians  founded  Syracuse,  which 
became^e  most  illustrious  of  the  Grcok  cities  of  Sicily;  and  from' 
Syracuse  arose  afterwanl:?  Agrigentum,  Acra,  Casmene,  Camarcne) 
andsereral  otlier  Sicilian  towns. 

8.  11»e  government  of  Syracuse  was  monarchical,  and  mi^ht  have 
kng  remamcd  so,  if  all  its  sovereigns  had  inherited  the  abilities  and 
▼irtues  of  Gelon.  But  his  successor?,  exercising  the  wor.*t  of  tyran- 
ny,  compelled  their  subjects  at  length  to  abolish  the  regal  govern- 
ment ;  and  their  example  wa-3  speedily  followed  by  all  I  lie  Grecian 
states  of  Sicily. 

3.  The  monarchy  of  Syracuse,  however,  was  revived  about  sixty 
years  after  in  the  person  of  Dionvsius,  a  man  of  obscure  origin,  but 
of  signal  ability.  Twice  expelled  for  atynmniral  exercise  ol  domin 
ioQ,TiC  as  often  found  means  to  overpoNver  his  eneuue.-?,  and  re-estab- 
lish him^slf  in  the  tlirono.  At  his  death  the  ciu;vn  pa^iod,  without 
oppMitioD,  to  hi^  son,  Diony<ius  tlie  youn^LT,  a  wc.ili  and  capricious 
tyrant,  whom  his  subj.^cts  judging  unworthy  to  r<  ivcn,  dethroned  and 
bani<hed,  357  A.  C.  The  criiwn  was  coni  rrcd  on  Dion,  bi'^  brother- 
in-law,  whose  amia'jle  chanicler  rentleiv.l  him  the  delight  of  his 
people.  But  after  a  sliort  \y\%\\  this  piinco  I'.Il  a  victim  to  treason. 
Aided  by  the  distractions  of  Syracuse  runs?qr*:iitori  thi-*  event,  Dio- 
aysitts  remoimted  the  tlr.-one  ton  years  afier  his  expulsion  ;  but  his 
tynnnical  disposition,  h^^ii^hti^ned  by  his  mi-.-^iluiKs,  became  at 
length  80  intolerabl*^  tlr.it  lie  was  expellvNi  a  ^ecend  lime,  and 
baniabed  to  Corinth,  where  he  ended  Wi^  days  in  povcriy  ;;ad  obscurity. 
The  aathor  of  this  revolution  was  the  iilt.-Urions  Tinioleon,  to 
wiio9e  abilities  and  virt'ies  his  couatiy  o^vtJ  e.j  •►;iUy  ils  liberty  and 
its  subsequent  happiness  and  prosperity,  M3  A.  C. 

The  signal  opposition  of  national  character  between  the  Romans 
aDd  ihe  Carthaginians  may  be  eii^ily  explained,  wlien  we  attend  to 
the  eflects  of  a  commercial  life  on  the  genius  and  manners  of  a  nation, 
'Hie  vices  of  a  commercial  people  arc  seltishne^s  cunning,  avarice, 
wttii  an  absence  of  every  heroic  and  patriotic  virtue.  The  favoora- 
Ue  eflects  of  commerce  arc  industry,  frugality,  general  courtesy  of 
BDBDneiS|  improvement  in  Uie  useful  arts.    Atiemling  to  these  coose* 

F  Digitized  by  ^^OOgie 


ei  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

qences  of  the  prevalence  of  the  commercial  spiiit,  we  ihaU  iee  ftin 
principal  features  of  the  Carthaginian  character  opposed  to  dM 
RomaiL 


SECTION  xxxn. 

THE  PUNIC.  WARS. 

1.  The  triumph  which  the  Romans  had  obtained  over  PVnrhm 
seemed  to  give  assurance  of  success  in  any  enterprise  in  which  they 
should  enrage.  The  Mamertines.  a  people  of  Campania,  obtained 
aid  from  the  Romans  in  an  unjustifiable  attempt  which  they  made  to 
seize  Messina,  a  Sicilian  town  allied  to  Syracuse.  The  Syracusans, 
at  first  assisted  by  the  Carthaginians^  opposed  this  invasion ;  but  the 
former,  more  alarmed  by  the  ambitious  encroachments  of  the  Caj^ 
thaeinians  on  Sicily,  soon  repented  of  this  rash  alliance,  and  joined 
the  Romans  in  the  purpose  of  expelling  the  Carthaginians  entirely 
from  the  island.  In  fact  the  Sicilians  seem  to  have  had  only  the  de»- 
perate  choice  of  final  submission  either  to  Rome  or  Carthage. 
They  chose  the  former,  as  the  alternative  least  dishonourable.  Iiie 
Romans  had  ever  been  their  friends,  the  Carthaginiaas  their  enemies. 

%  Agrigentum.  possessed  by  the  Carthaginians,  was  taken,  after 
ft  long  sie^e,  by  the  joint  forces  of  Rome  and  Syracuse.  A  Roman 
fleet,  the  farst  which  they  ever  had,  was  equipped  in  a  few  weeks, 
and  gained  a  complete  victorv  over  that  of  Carthage,  at  this  time  the 
greatest  maritime  power  in  the  world,  2G0  A.  C.  These  successes 
were  followed  by  the  reduction  of  Corsica  and  Sardinia.  In  a  second 
naval  engagement  the  Romans  took  from  tlie  Carthaginians  sixty  of 
theirshi^of  war,  and  now  resolutely  prepared  for  the  invasion  of 
Africa.  The  consul  Rcgulus  commanded  the  expedition.  He  ad* 
▼anced  to  the  gates  of  Carthage ;  and  such  was  the  general  conster* 
nation  that  the  enemy  proposed  a  capitulation.  Inspirited,  however, 
by  a  timely  aid  of  Greek  troops  under  Xantippus,  the  Carthaginians 
made  a  desperate  effort,  and,  defeating  the  Roman  army,  made  Regu* 
lus  their  prisoner.  Kut,  repeatedly  defeated  iu  Sicily,  they  were  at 
length  seriously  desirous  of  a  peace ;  and  the  Roman  general  was 
sent  with  their  ambassadors  to  Rome  to  aid  the  negotiation,  under  a 
solemn  oath  to  return  to  Carthage  as  a  prisoner,  if  the  treaty  should 
fail  It  was  rejected  at  the  urgent  desire  of  Rcgulus,  who  thus  sac- 
rificed his  life  to  what  he  judged  the  interest  of  his  country. 

3.  LilyboBum,  the  strongest  of  the  Sicilian  towns  belongins  to 
Carthage,  was  taken  after  a  siege  of  nine  years.  After  some  after* 
Date  successes  two  naval  battles  won  by  the  Romans  terminated  the 
war*  and  Carthage  at  last  obtained  a  peace  on  the  humiliating  terms 
of  anandoning  to  the  Romans  all  her  possessions  in  Sicily,  the  pay- 
ment of  3,200  talents  of  silver,  the  restitution  of  all  prisoners  without 
ransom,  and  a  solemn  engagement  never  to  make  war  agamst  Syra- 
cuse or  her  allies.    The  island  of  Sicily  was  now  declared  a  Roman 

Srovkice,  though  Syracuse  maintained  Its  independent  government. 
uU.C.Ml,andA.C.241. 

4.  The  ][)eace  between  Rome  and  Carthage  was  of  twenty-three 
years'  duration.  The  latter  power  was  recruiting  its  strength,  and 
meditated  to  revenge  its  losses  and  disgracev  The  second  Punic  war 
began  on  the  part  of  the  Carthaginians,  who  besieged  Saguntmm  a 
city  of  Spain,  in  alliance  with  toe  Homafiai    The  Toanc  ^*^r^| 


ANCIENl'  fflSTORT,  63 

took  Stgnntoni  after  a  siege  of  seven  months ;  the  desperate  inhafai 
taoli  settinc  fire  to  the  town,  and  perishing  amidst  the  flames.  Han 
tSM  now  lonned  the  bold  design  of  carrying  the  war  i  nto  Italy.  He 
nroTided  against  every  difficulty,  gamed  to  Bis  interest  a  part  of  the 
uaDic  trib^  passed  the  Pyrenees,  and  finally  the  Alm^*  in  a  toU- 


\  march  of  five  months  and  a  half  from  his  leaving  Carthagena ; 
and  arrived  in  Italy  with  20,000  foot  and  6,000  Horse. 

6.  In  the  first  engagement  the  Romans  were  defeated.  They  also 
lost  two  other  important  battles  at  Trebia,  and  the  lake  Thn^me 
DOS.  In  the  latter  of  these  the  consul  Flaminias  was  killed,  and  his 
■nny  cut  to  pieces.  Hannibal  advanced  to  Canns  in  Apulia,  where 
the  Romans  opposed  him  with  their  whole  force.  A  memorable 
defeat  ensued,  m  which  40«000  Romans  were  left  dead  upon  the 
fieJd,  and  amons  these  the  consul  ^^illus,and  almost  the  whole 
body  of  the  knights.  If  Hannibal  had  taken  advantage  of  this  great 
victory,  by  instantly  attacking  Rome,  the  fate  of  the  republic  waa 
inevitable;  but  he  deliberated,  and  the  occajsion  was  lost  The 
Romans  coorentrated  all  their  strength.  Even  the  slaves  armed  In 
the  common  cause,  and  victory  once  more  attended  the  standards  of 
the  repablic  Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  joined  his  forces  to  the 
Carthaginians,  but  defeated  by  LevinusL  speedily  withdrew  his  as- 
sistance. Hannibal  retreated  before  the  brave  Marcellus.  Syracuse 
lad  now  taken  part  with  Carthage,  and  thus  paved  the  way'tbr  the 
loss  of  its  own  lioerty.  Marcellus  besieged  the  city«  which  was  long 
defended  by  the  inventive  genius  of  Archhnedes;  but  was  taken  in 
the  third  year  by  escalade  m  the  night  This  event  put  an  end  to 
the  kingdom  of  Syracuse,  which  now  became  a  part  of  the  Roman 
province  of  Sicily,  A.  U.  C.  542,  A.  C.  212. 

6.  While  the  war  in  Italy  was  prosperously  conducted  by  the 
great  Fabiui^  who.  by  constantly  avoiding  a  general  engagement, 
found  the  true  method  of  weakening  his  enemy,  the  younger  Scipio 
accomplished  the  entire  reduction  of  Spain.  Asdrubal  was  seat 
into  Italy  to  the  aid  of  his  brother  Hannibal,  but  was  defeated  l^ 
the  consul  Claudius,  and  slain  in  battle.  Scipio,  triumphant  in  Spain, 
passed  over  Into  Africa,  and  carried  havoc  and  devastation  to  the 
gates  of  Carthage  Alarmed  for  tlie  fate  of  their  empire  the  Car- 
thaginians hastily  recalled  Hannibal  from  Italy.  The  battle  of 
Zena  decided  the  fkte  of  the  war,  by  the  utter  defeat  of  the  Cartha- 
ginians. They  entreated  a  peace,  which  the  Romans  ^ave  on  these 
conditions:  that  the  Carthaginians  should  abandon  Spam,  Sicily,  ami 
all  the  islands;  surrender  all  tlicir  priionera,  give  up  tne  whole  oi 
their  fleet  except  ten  gallies,  pay  10«(i00  talents,  and,  in  future^ 
nodertake  no  war  without  consent  of  the  Romans,  A.  U.  C.  562,  A. 

c.goe. 

7.  Every  thing  now  concurred  to  swell  the  pride  of  the  conquei^ 
Ofs,  and  to  extend  their  dominion.  A  war  with  Philip  of  Macedon 
mn»  terminated  by  \^  defeat ;  and  his  son  Demetrius  was  sent  to 
lUxne  as  a  hostage  for  the  payment  of  a  hc;ivy  tribute  imposed  on 
the  vanquished.  A  war  with  Antiochus,  king  of  Syria,  ended  in 
his  ceding  to  the  Romans  the  whole  of  the  Lester  Asia.  But  these 
ffdendkl  conquests,  while  they  enlarged  the  empire,  were  fatal  to  its 

*  The  pasnge  of  Haimibal  over  tixe  Alps  has  been  lately  illiutrated, 
ia  a  BBO»t  learned  and  iagfeoions  easay,  by  Mr.  Whitaker  (the  celebrated 
kbteriao  of  Manchetier,  and  rmdicator  of  Queen  Mary),  who  Im«,  witb 
freai  acntcaett,  traced  every  step  of  the  Carthaginian  general,  firoa  his 
'    ;  the  IUmds  to  his  final  anivalia  Italy. 

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e4  ANCIENT  HISTORY.' 

Tiitoes,  and  subyersire  of  the  pure  and  venerable  simplkit^  oi 
ancient  times. 

8.  The  third  Punic  war  began  A.  U.  C.  605,  A.  C.  149,  and  ended 
in  the  ruin  of  Carthage.  An  unsuccessful  war  with  the  Numtdians 
had  reduced  the  Carthaginians  to  great  weakness,  and  the  Romana 
meanly  laid  hold  of  that  opportunity  to  invade  Africa.  Conscious  oi 
their  utter  inability  to  resist  this  formidable  power,  the  Carthaginians 
o^red  every  submission,  and  consented  even  to  acknowledge  them- 
selves the  subjects  of  Konte.  The  Romans  demanded  300  hostages, 
for  the  strict  performance  of  every  condition  that  should  be  enjoioea 
by  the  senate.  The  hostages  were  given,  and  the  condition  reqiiir 
ed  was,  that  Carthage  itself  should  be  razed  to  its  foundation.    Bes- 

Sdr  gave  courage  to  this  miserable  people,  and  they  determined  to 
e  in  the  defence  of  their  native  city.  But  the  noble  effort  was  in 
▼ain.  Carthage  was  taken  by  storm,  its  inhabitants  massacred,  and 
the  city  burnt  to  the  ground,  A.  U.  C.  607,  A.  C.  146. 

9.  The  same  year  was  signalized  by  the  entire  reduction  of 
Greece  under  the  dominion  of  the  Romans.  This  wa>^  the  aera  of 
die  dawn  of  luxury  and  taste  at  Rome,  the  natural  fruit  of  foreign 
wealth,  and  an  acquaintance  with  foreign  manners.  In  the  unequal 
distribution  of  this  imported  wealth,  the  vices  to  which  it  gave  rise, 
the  corruption  and  venality  of  which  it  became  the  instrument,  we 
flee  the  remoter  caiises  of  those  fatal  disorders  to  which  the  republic 
owed  its  dissolution. 


SECTION  xxxm. 

THE  GRACCHI,  AND  THE  CORRUPTION  OF  THE  COMMON- 
WEALTH. 

1.  At  this  period  arose  Tiberius  ond  Caius  Gracchus,  two  noble 
youths,  whose  zeal  to  reform  the  growing  corruptions  of  the  state^ 
precipitated  them  at  length  into  measures  destructive  of  all  govern- 
ment and  social  order.  Tiberius,  tlie  elder  of  the  brothers,  urged 
the  people  to  assert  by  force  the  revival  of  an  ancient  law,  for  limit- 
ing property  in  land,  and  thu?  abridging  the  overgrown  estates  of  the 
pomncians.  A  tumult  was  the  consequence,  in  ^^'nich  Tiberius,  with 
300  of  hi3  friends,  were  killed  in  the  Ibmm.  This  fatal  example  did 
not  deter  his  brotner,  Caius  Gracchus,  from  pursuing  a  similar  career 
of  zeal  or  of  ambition.  Ailer  some  successful  experiments  of  his  pow 
er,  while  in  the  oflice  of  tribune,  he  directed  his  scrutiny  into  thecor- 
niptions  of  the  senate,  and  nre vailed  in  depriving  that  body  of  its  con 
■Ututional  control  over  all  the  inferior  magistrates  of  the  state.  Em- 
ploying, like  his  brotlier,  the  dangerous  engjine  of  tumultuary  force^ 
ne  feH  a  victim  to  it  hiniselfl  with  3,000  of  his  partisans,  who  were 
aianghtered  in  the  streets  oir  Rome.  The  tumults  attending  the  se- 
dition of  the  Gracchi  weie  the  prelude  to  those  civii  disorders  which 
DOW  followed  in  quick  succession  to  the  end  of  Uie  commonweahh. 

2.  The  circumstances  attending  the  war  with  Jugurtha  gave  deci- 
fllve  proof  of  the  corruption  of  the  Ronum  manners.  Jugurtha^ 
grancison  of  Blasinissa,  sought  to  usurp  the  crown  of  Numidia  by 
defltroying  his  cousins,  Hiemnsal  and  Adherbal,  the  sons  of  the  last 
king.  He  murdered  the  elaer  of  the  brothers;  and  the  younger 
apj^^^ing  for  aid  to  Rome,  Jugurtha  bribed  the  senate,  who  declared 
Um  iDnocent  of  all  culpable  act  or  design,  and  decreed  to  him  tte 

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ANCIENT  HISTORY.  66 

'  '^'(^nff  c/half  the  kingdom.    This  operated  onlj  na  an  incentive 
-•  rrimimJ  ambition,    fie  declared  open  war  agaiiii«t  his  cousin, 

*  j'i  him  in  his  capital  of  Cirta.  ana  finally  pUt  him  to  death. 
•»  rt  'A  threatened  war  Jugurlna  went  in  perion  to  Kome^ 

••  !  lii"  ovni  caiHe  in  the  senate,  and  once  more  by  bribery 
J.  J  \a*  icquittal  from  all  charge  of  criminiiiity.    A  perseverance, 

•  .  ;.  i-i  n  jiimi'ar  train  of  conduct  finally  drew  on  him  the  ven- 

•  i  rhe  Homms ;  and  bcln^  betrayecf  into  their  hands  by  his 
i  r-iu-laiv.  he  wa.^  broiignt  in  chains  to  Rome,  to  grace  the 

'  I  < :  :i)o  consul  M:iriu«,  contincd  to  a  dungeon,  and  starved  to 
.  V  I'.  C.051,A.  C.  J03. 

»  ;  aui!>iiio.i  ol'  the  aliiecJ  states  of  Italv  to  attain  the  rights 
.-lip  j>roiIuced  the  social  war,  which  ended  in  a  conces- 
'  :  iv-e  ri2;fiu  to  such  of  the  confederates  as  should  return 
.  \  to  fli»-'ir  allegiance.  This  war  with  tiie  allies  was  a  pre- 
'•.it  vT.ii:h  Ibllowed  f)etwoen  Rome  and  her  oivn  citizens. 
t,*  Minj*,  rival-,  and  thence  enemies,  were  at  this  time  the 

•  :* :  i..»  r  piMi :.  Sylla,  commanding  in  a  war  a2:aiu3l  iMithri- 
.  T.i  <:l^>.^'^»».j2 1,  and  recalled  from  Asiri.    He  refused  to  obey 

i:':l%  a:l  fo;nd  his  army  well  disposed  to  snnport  him. 
.•  .in-.:h  to  Iioaie,"  said  they,  with  one  voice;  "lead  us  on 
..'    I'm  cui-ic  of  oppressed  liberty."    Sylla  accordingly  led 

,  ,rri  tiM*y  ent'^rod  Rome  sword  in  hand.    Marius  and  his 

•  1  d  wiih  proci;)itaiion  from  the  city,  and  Sylla  ruled  for  a 
'. .  ;j;)!i  i.iL    H:it  the  faction  of  his   rival  suon  recovered 

\l  iriu-4  rotijrnin:*  to  Italy,  and  joining  his  forces  to  those 

.  ',  *  z  -a!  Jii5  p irii/.m,  laid  5?i..'go  to  Rom ^,  an  1,  wliile  Sylla 

. ..'  •  i  It  the  Mithri  latic  war,  compelled  the  city  to  abiolule 

-     Af:er  a  horrible  massacre  of  all  whom  tliey  esteemed 

.  .•-,  M  irUiA  w\l  Cinna   proclaimed  llu'im-elv'S  coasuN, 

•   r»riniljty  of  an  election  j  but  Marios  died  a  few  days 

.:  t  r  il'!,  Mich. 

,1   v>..)ri » i>  campaign  in  Asia,  Sylla  rolnrned  to  Italy, 
»y  C'.'tli^^MS,  Vcrre«5,  and  the  young  Fompey,  gave 

•  I  '  'jnrty  of  his  on?miv's.  and  ontiroly    defeated  tliem. 
-    .    :  •  K<'ne  was  j-ignalizoil  by  a  droadrul  ma^'^acre,  and  a 

.    .-. hij'i  h.i  1  (or  its  ohji^ct  the  extonniMalion  of  every 

:i    h?   hit  in  Italy.      Klectcd  dictator  for  an  unlimited 

•.  1  •  now  witliviat  a  rival  in  authority,  and  absolute  ma'^ter 

i;ri  ntj  wlii«:h,  of  coui'se,  was  no  longer  a  republic. 

J  iif  III'*  doniiaion  he  deserved  more  praise  than  in 

.1-' iji.-.n^  it.    He  ro-^tored  the  senate  to  its  judicial 

.    •  :-i:.!t"J    tiio  election  to  all   the  important  olVices  of 

;  -iJ   rii  !iiv  exc4'll<Mit  laws  against  oppression  and  the 

V    -'".      I'iaiUy,  he  gavp  demonstraiiun,  if  not  of  a  pure 

(    1  vi-t  ol*  Ji  magnaiiiaioiis  intrepidity  of  character,  by 

-i4Mi:i4    nil  command,  retiring  to  'the  condition  of  a 

:*.   ;i'j  1    o fieri  ig  publicly  to  give  an  account  of  his  con- 

-  J    %vi:liiri  n  sliort  tim-*  after  hi-*  r-^'Jignation.     He  was 

•  •  r»r  i^r^^nt  >trenglh  of  mind,  and  hulsom*  of  the qual- 
.c   ohti-sictcr;  but  ho  lived  in  evil  tunes,  when  it  WJis 

.     1  '..•  to  l>r»  great  anr!  to  be  virtuous. 
1  '»r  .S>  llu  ren?weii  tho  civil  war.    Lepidus,  a  man  ol 
'  /tr<rl    to  flur.ceod  him  in  power;  and  Pornpey,  i? ith 
--  »:!jori-*hr><l  the  s.im^*  ambiiion.     While  the  latter  was 

•  »•?    reiiuction  of  the  revolicd  provinces  of  Asiii,  the 

*  9 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


66  ANCIENT  HISTORT. 

conspiracy  of  Catiline  threatened  the  entire  destnictioQ  of  Rome 
It  was  extioffuished  by  the  provident  zeal  and  active  patriotiscr 
of  the  consm  Cicero.  Catiline  and  his  chief  accomplices  were 
attacked  in  the  field,  and  defeated  by  Antonius.  The  firaitor  made 
a  desperate  defence,  and  died  a  better  death  than  his  crunes  had 
merited. 

6.  Julius  Caesar  now  rose  into  public  notice.  Sylla  dreaded  his 
abilities  and  ambition,  and  had  numbered  him  among  the  proscribed. 
^  There  is  many  a  Marius,''  said  he,  ^  in  the  person  of  that  young 
man.^  He  liad  learned  prudence  from  die  danger  of  his  situation, 
and  tacitly  courted  popularity,  without  that  show  of  enterprise' 
which  gives  alarm  to  a  nvaL  While  Pompey  and  Crassus  contended 
for  the  command  of  the  republic«  Caesar,  who  Icnew  that,  by  attach- 
ing himself  to  cither  rival,  ne  infallibly  made  the  other  nis  enemy, 
showed  the  reach  of  his  talents  by  reconciling  them,  and  thu<« 
acquiring  the  friendship  of  both.  From  favour  to  their  mutual  friend 
they  a^n^ed  to  a  partition  of  power;  and  thus  was  formed  the  first 
triumvirate.  Caesar  was  elected  consul.  He  increased  his  popularity 
hj  a  division  of  lands  among  the  poorer  citizens,  and  strengthened 
his  interest  with  Pompey  by  giving  him  his  daughter  in  marriage. 
He  had  the  command  of  four  legions,  and  the  government  of  trans- 
alpine Gaul  and  lUyria. 

7.  The  military  glory  of  the  republic,  and  the  reputation  of 
Caesar,  were  nobly  sustained  in  Gaul.  In  the  first  year  of  nis  govern  • 
ment  he  subdued  the  Helvetii,  who.  leaving  their  own  country,  had 
attempted  to  settle  themselves  in  the  better  regions  of  the  Koman 
province.  He  totally  defeated  the  Germans  under  Ariovistus,  who 
had  attempted  a  similar  invasion.  The  Belgae,  the  Nervli,  the 
Celtic  Gauls,  the  Suevi,  Menapii.  and  other  warlike  nations,  were 
all  successively  brought  under  suojection.  In  the  fourth  year  of  his 
covemment  he  transported  his  army  into  Britain.  Landing  at  Deal, 
be  was  opposed  by  the  natives  with  equal  courage  and  mihta^  skilL 
He  gained,  however,  several  advantages,  £md,  binding  the  Britons  to 
■obmission,  withdrew  into  Gaul  on  the  approach  of  winter.  He 
returned  in  the  followine  summer  mth  a  greater  force,  and,  j^rose- 
cuting  his  victories,  reduced  a  considerable  portion  of  the  island 
under  the  Roman  dominion,  A.  C.  54.  But  the  pressure  of  afiairt 
in  Italy  suspended  for  a  time  the  progress  <^  the  Roman  arms  in 
Britain. 

8.  Caesar  dreaded  the  abilities  of  Cicero,  who  had  opposed  him 
in  his  views  of  ambition.     By  the  machinations  of  his  partizans^ 
while  he  was  absent  in  Gaul,  he  procured  the  iMinishment  of  Cicero, 
and  the  confiscation  of  his  estates,  on  the  pretence  of  illegal  meas^ 
ores  pm^ued  in  the  suppression  of  the   conspiracy  of  Catiline. 
During  an  exile  of  sixtsen  months  in  Greece.  Cicero  gave  way  to  a 
despondency  of  mind  utterly  unworthy  of  the  philosopher.    Poq>.  j 
pey  Jiad  abandoned  him,  and  this  unerateful  desertion  bore  most 
heavily  upon  his  mind.    In  the  wane  otnis  reputation  Pompey  soon 
became  desirous  to  prop  his  own  sinking  fortunes  by  the  anibties  of ; 
Cicero,  and  eagerly  promoted  his  recal  from  exile.    The  death  of  I 
Crassus,  in  an  expedition  agamst  the  Parthians,  now  dieolved  the 
biumvirate ;  and  Caesar  and  Pompey,  whose  union  had  no  other  bond 
Chan  interest,  began  each  to  conceive  separately  the  view  of  uodivid* 
•d  dominion. 


y  Google 


ANCIENT  mSTORT. 


SECTION  XXXIV. 


f ROORESS  OF  THE  CIVIL  WARS.    SECOND  TRIUMVIRATE. 
FALL  OF  THE  REPUBUC. 

1.  Tub  ninbition  of  Cssar  and  of  Pompey  had  now  evideDtly  the 
tame  object ;  and  it  seemed  to  be  the  only  question,  in  tliose  degen- 
erate timers  to  which  of  these  aspiring  leaders  the  republic  should 
Kurender  its  Ubertios.  The  term  of  Caesar's  government  was  near 
espiring.  To  secure  himself  against  a  deprivation  of  power,  he 
procured  a  proiposal  to  be  made  in  the  senate  by  one  of  his  partizans, 
which  wore  the  appearance  of  great  moderation,  namely,  that 
Caesar  and  Pompey  should  either  both  continue  in  their  govem- 
meotSL  or  both  be  deprived  of  them,  as  they  were  equally  capable 
of  enaangering  the  public  liberty  by  an  abuse  of  power.  The  mo- 
tion passed,  and  Cxsar  immediately  offered  to  resign,  on  condition 
that  nu  rival  should  do  so ;  but  Pompey  rejected  the  accommodation. 
The  term  of  his  government  had  yet  several  years'  duration,  and 
be  suspected  the  proposal  to  be  a  snare  laid  for  him  by  Ca^ar.  He 
resolved  to  maintain  nis  right  by  force  of  arms,  and  a  civil  war  was 
the  necessary  con<^quence.  The  consuls  and  a  great  part  of  the 
senate  were  the  friends  of  Pompey.  Caesar  had  on  his  side  a  victo- 
rioosarmy,  consisting  of  ten  le^ioa<s,  and  the  body  of  tl)e  Roman  cit- 
izetB,  whom  he  had  won  by  his  liberality.  Mane  Antony  and  Cas- 
sias, it  that  time  tribunes  of  the  people,  left  Rome,  and  repaired  to 
Czsar\  camp. 

2.  The  senate,  apprehensive  of  his  designs,  pronounced  a  decree. 
hnoBag  with  the  crime  of  parricide  any  commander  who  should 
dare  to  |MtS3  the  Rubicon  (the  boundaiV  between  Italy  and  the 
Gaols)  with  a  single  cohort,  without  their  permission.  Cssar 
infringed  the  prohibition,  and  marched  straight  to  Rome. — Pompey, 
to  whom  (he  senate  committed  the  defence  of  the  state,  had  no 
anny.  He  quitted  Home,  followed  by  the  consuls  and  a  part  of  the 
w^nafie,  aod  endeavoured  hastily  to  levy  troops  over  all  Italy  and 
breece;  while  Caesar  triumphantly  entered  the  city  amidst  the 
ardamations  of  the  people,  seized  the  public  treasury,  and  possessed 
LioMelf  of  the  supreme  authority  without  opposition.  Having  se- 
cured the  capital  of  the  empire,  he  set  out  to  take  the  field  against 
bor  enemies.  The  lieutenants  of  Pompey  liad  possession  of  Spain* 
Caeaar  marched  thither,  and  subchicd  the  whole  country  in  the 
•fiace  of  forty  days.  He  returned  victorious  to  Rome,  where,  in  his 
atj^cace,  he  had  been  nominated  dicUitor.  In  the  succeeding  elec- 
lijo  of  magistrates  he  was  chosen  consul,  and  was  thus  invested,  by 
a  dooble  (Hie,  with  the  right  of  acting  in  the  name  of  the  republic. 
FcQipey  had  by  this  time  raised  a  numerous  army,  and  Caesar  was 
anijoQS  to  bring  him  to  a  decisive  engagcmenL  The  two  armies 
nwtt  in  illyria,  and  the  first  conflict  was  of  doubtful  issue.  Caesar 
l^'i  Ub  anny  into  3racedonia,  where  he  found  a  large  reinforcement 
He  ca?e  battle  to  Pompey  in  the  field  of  Pharsalia^  and  entirely 
«i»^  t'cied  hhn.  Fifkcn  tliousand  of  Pompey's  army  were  slain,  and 
i^.*  *00  fUTTendered  themselves  prisoners  to  tlie  victor,  A.  U.  C.  706, 
A-C.49. 

3  The  frte  of  Pompey  was  miserable  in  the  extreme.  With  his 
m£t  Comelia,  the  companion  of  his  misfortmies,  he  fled  to  E^ypt  Id 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


m  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

a  single  ship^  trusting  to  the  protection  of  Ptolemy,  whose  fiither 
had  owed  to  nlm  his  settlement  on  the  throne.    But  the  ministers  of 
this  young  prince,  dreading  the  power  of  Caesar,  basely  courted  his 
favour  by  the  murder  of  bis  rivaL    Pompey  was  brought  as^bore  in  I 
a  small  boat  bj  the  guards  of  the  king ;  and  a  Koman  centurion,  h 
who  had  fought  under  bis  banners,  stabbed  him,  eyen  m  the  sight  or  1 
Cornelia,  and  cutting  off  his  head,  threw  the  body  naked  on  the 
sands.    Caesar  pursued  Pompey  to  Alexandria^  where  the  head  of 
that  unhappy  man.  presented  as  a  grateful  offering^  gave  him  the 
first  intelligence  of  nis  fate.    He  wept,  and  turned  with  horror  from 
the  sight.    He  caused  every  honour  to  be  paid  to  his  memory,  and 
from  that  time  showed  the  utmost  beneficence  to  the  partizans  of 
his  unibrtunate  rival. 

4.  The  sovereignty  of  Egypt  was  in  dispute  between  Ptolemy 
and  his  sister  Cleopatra.  The  fatter,  though  married  to  her  brother, 
and  joint  heir  by  her  father^s  will,  was  ambitious  of  undivided  author- 
ity ;  and  Caesar,  captivated  by  her  charms,  decided  the  contest  in 
favour  of  the  beauteous  queen.  A  war  ensued,  in  which  Ptolemy 
was  killed,  and  Egypt  subdued  by  the  Roman  anns.  In  tins  war  the 
famous  library  of  Alexandria  was  burnt  to  ashes,  A.  C.  48.  A  revolt 
of  the  Asiatic  provinces,  under  Phamaces,  the  son  of  Mithridates, 
was  signally  chastised ;  and  the  report  was  conveyed  by  Caesar  to 
tlie  Roman  senate  in  three  words.  Fent,  ridf,  vici  The  conqueror 
returned  to  Rome,  which  needed  nis  presence ;  for  Italy  vras  divid- 
ed, and  Uie  partizans  of  Pompey  were  yet  extremely  formidable. 
His  two  sons,  with  Cato  and  Scipio.  were  in  aims  in  Africa.  Csesar 
pursued  them  thither,  and  proceeuing  with  caution  till  secure  of  his 
advantage,  defeated  them  m  a  decisive  engagement  at  Thapsuiv. 
Sci[)io  perished  in  his  passage  to  Spain.  Cato,  shutting  himself  up 
in  Litica,  meditated  a  brave  resistance;  but  seeing  no  hope  of  suc- 
cess, he  finally  determined  not  to  survive  the  liberties  of  his  country. 
and  fell  deliberately  by  his  own  hand.  Mauritania  was  now  addeii 
to  tlie  number  of  the  Roman  provinces ;  and  Caesar  returned  to 
Rome,  absolute  master  of  the  empire. 

5.  From  that  moment  his  attention  was  directed  solely  to  the 
prosperity  and  happiness  of  the  Roman  people.  He  remembered 
no  longer  that  there  had  been  opposite  parties;  beneficent  alike  to 
the  friv^ds  of  Pompejr  as  to  his  own.  He  laboured  to  reform  every 
61)ecics  of  abuse  or  grievance.  He  introduced  order  into  every  de- 
partment of  the  state,  defining  the  separate  rights  of  all  its  magistrates, 
and  extending  his  care  to  the  regulation  of  its  most  distmt  provinces. 
The  reformaiion  of  the  kaiendar,  the  draining  of  the  marshes  of 
Italy,  the  navigation  of  the  Tiber,  the  embellishment  of  Rome,  the 
coniplete  survey  and  delineation  of  the  empire,  alternately  em- 
ploye J  his  liberal  and  capacious  mind.  Returning  from  tlie  tiiuil 
overihrow  of  Pompey's  party  in  Spain,  he  was  hailed  the  father  o  f 
his  country,  was  created  consul  for  ten  years,  and  perpetual  dio- 
tator.  His  person  was  declared  sacred,  his  title  henceforth  vnperaior^ 
A.U.C.709,A.C.45. 

t>.  The  Roman  republic  had  thus  finally  resigned  its  liberties,  by 
its  own  acts.  Thev  were  not  extinguished,  as  Montesquieu  bm 
well  remarked,  by  the  ambition  of  a  Pompey  or  of  a  Caesar.  If  the 
sentiments  of  Caesar  and  Pompev  bad  been  the  same  with  those  of 
Cato,  others  would  have  had  the  same  ambitious  thoughts;  9nd, 
since  the  commonwealth  was  fated  to  fall,  there  never  would  liave 
been  wanting  a  hand  to  drag  it  to  destruction.    Yet  Caesar  had  ^v 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  60 

fefoe  fliibdiied  hit  country;  and  therefore  was  a  Qsarper.  If  it  had 
been  posnUe  to  restore  tne  liberties  of  the  republic,  aiid  with  these 
its  happmess,  by  the  sappi>essioD  of  his  usurpation,  tlie  attempt 
would  oave  merited  the  praise  at  least  of  ^od  design.  Peihaps  so 
thought  his  morderen;  and  thus,  however  weiik  their  policy,  now- 
evcr  Dase  and  treacherous  their  act,  they  will  ever  fixxl  apologists. 
They  expected  an  impossible  issue,  as  the  event  demonstrated. 

7.  A  coaspiracT  was  formed  bjr  sixty  of  the  senators,  at  the  head 
of  whom  were  Brutus  and  Cassius ;  the  former  a  man  beloved  of 
C£sar,  who  had  saved  his  life,  and  heaped  upon  him  numberless 
beo^ls.  It  was  rumoured  that  the  dictator  wished  to  add  to  his 
numeroos  titles  that  of  king,  and  that  the  ides  of  March  was  fixed 

I  ID  for  investing  him  with  tiie  diadem.  On  that  day,  when  taking 
hJ4  seat  in  the  senate-house,  he  was  suddenly  assailed  by  the  con- 
cpiraton.  He  defended  himself  for  some  time  against  their  daggeis* 
tiii,  seeing  Brutus  among  the  number,  he  faintly  exclaimed,  ^  Ana 
vou,too,my  son!^  and  covering  his  face  with  his  robe,  resigned 
himself  to  his  fate.  He  fell,  pierced  by  twenty-three  wounds.  A.  U. 
a  711,  and  A.  C.  43. 

8.  The  Roman  people  were  struck  with  horror  at  the  deed. 
Ther  loved  Cssar,  nmster  as  he  was  of  their  lives  and  liberties. 
Mirk  Antony  and  Leuidus,  ambitious  of  succeeding  to  the  power  of 
the  dictator,  resolved  to  pave  the  way  by  avengine  bis  deatk 
C'£$ar,  by  his  testament,  had  bequeathed  a  great  pan  of  his  fortune 
to  the  people ;  and  they  were  pcnetrate(r  with  gratitude  to  hia 
memory.  A  public  harangue  by  Antony  over  the  bleeding  body,  ex- 
posed m  the  forum,  inflTuncd  them  with  the  utmost  mdignatioD 
against  his  murderers,  who  must  have  mot  with  instant  destruction 

II  they  had  not  escaped  with  precipitation  from  the  city.  Antony 
protited  b^  these  dispositions ;  and  the  avenger  of  Caesar,  of  coune 
the  &vourite  of  the  people,  was  in  the  immediate  prospect  of  attaiop 
ing  a  similar  height  o(  dotninion.  In  thi^,  however,  he  found  a  foi^ 
midaUe  competitor  in  Octavius,  the  grand-nephew  and  the  adopted 
beir  of  Casar,  who,  at  this  critical  moment,  arrived  in  Rom& 
AvaiUne  himself  of  these  titles,  Oct-ivi  us  gained  the  senate  tohisinteiw 
eat,  ana  divided  with  Antony  the  favour  of  the  people.  The  rivab 
•ooQ  perceived  that  it  was  tneir  wisest  plan  to  unite  their  interests; 
and  tney  admitted  LepiJus  into  their  association,  whose  power,  as 
g^iremor  of  Gaul,  and  immense  riches,  giive  him  a  title  to  a  share 
oi  aothority.  Thus  was  formed  the  second  triumvirate,  the  efiects 
of  whose  union  were  beyond  measure  dreadful  to  the  republic 
The  triumviri  divided  among  themselves  the  provinces,  and  cement- 
ed their  onion  by  a  deliberate  8acn6ce  made  by  each  of  his  best 
frieadi  to  the  vcogeance  of  his  associates.  Antony  consigned  to 
death  his  uncle  Lucius ;  Lepidus  his  brother  Paulus ;  and  Octayiia 
his  goBidian  Toranius  and  nis  friend  Cicero.  In  this  horrible  pio* 
•crifboo  diX)  senators  and  3,000  knichts  were  put  to  death. 

9.  Octavius  and  Antony  now  marched  againsi  the  conspiratore,  who 
had  a  fbrmidable  army  in  the  field  in  Thrace,  commanded  by  Brutus 
and  Ctetus.  An  engagement  ensued  at  PhUippi,  which  decided 
the  fite  of  the  empire.  Antony  obtafaied  the  victory,  for  Octaviua 
Lad  no  military  talents.  He  was  destitute  even  of  personal  bravery 
■Dd  htt  conduct  after  the  victorr  was  stained  %v  \*h  tnat  cruelty  whkh 
■  erer  th3  attendant  of  cowaioice.  Brutus  anii  Cassios  escaped  the 
venceaiice  of  their  enemies  by  a  voluntary  death.  Antony  noir 
•Qo^  a  ivcorapeDBe  for  his  troops  by  the  plunder  of  the  east 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


10  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

While  in  Cilicia,  he  STimmoned  Cleopatra  to  answer  for  her  condact 
In  dethroning  an  infant  brother,  and  in  openly  favouring  the  'pBTty  of 
Brutus  and  Cassius.  The  queen  came  to  Tarsus,  and  made  a  com- 
plete conquest  of  the  triumvir.  Immersed  In  luxury,  and  intoxicated 
with  love,  he  forgot  glory,  ambition,  fame,  and  every  thing,  for 
Clec^atra.  Octavius  saw  this  phrensy  with  delight  as  the  prepara- 
tive of  his  rival's  ruin.  He  had  nothing  to  dread  from  Lepidns, 
whose  insigniticant  character  first  drew  on  him  the  contempt  of  his 
partisans ;  and  whose  foUV;  in  attempting  an  invasion  of  the  province 
of  his  colleague,  was  punished  by  his  deposition  and  banishment 

10.  Antony  had  in  nis  madness  lavished  the  provinces  of  the  em 
pire  in  gifls  to  his  paramour  and  her  children.  The  Roman  people 
were  justly  indignant  at  these  enormities ;  and  the  divorce  of  bis 
wife  Octavia,  the  sister  of  his  colleague,  was  at  length  the  sigwd  of 
declared  hostility  between  them.  An  immense  armament,  chiefly 
naval,  came  at  length  to  a  decisive  conflict  near  Actium,  on  the 
coast  of  Epirus.  Cleopatra,  who  attended  her  lover,  deserted  him 
with  her  galleys  in  the  heat  of  the  engagement ;  and  such  was  the 
in&tuation  of  Antony,  that  he  abandoned  his  fleet,  and  followed  hec 
Ailer  a  contest  of  some  hours,  they  yielded  to  the  squadron  of  Octavius, 
A.  U.  C.  723,  A.  C.  31.  The  victor  pursued  the  fugitives  to  Egypt ; 
and  the  base  Cleopatra  profiered  terms  to  Octavius,  including  the 
surrender  of  her  kmgdom,  and  the  abandonment  of  Antony.  After 
an  unsuccessful  attempt  at  resistance,  Antony  anticipated  his  (ate 
by  falling  on  his  sword.  Cleopatra  soon  after,  eitlier  from  remorse^ 
or  more  probably  from  mortifled  ambition,  as  she  found  it  was  Octa* 
vius^s  design  to  lead  her  in  chains  to  Rome  to  grace  his  triumph,  had 
courage  to  follow  the  example  of  her  lover,  and  put  herself  to  oeath 
by  the  poison  of  an  asp.  Octavius  returned  to  Kome  sole  master  <^ 
the  Roman  empire,  A.  U.  C.  727,  A.  C.  27. 

SECTION  XXXV. 

CONSIDERATIONS  OF  SUCH   PARTICULARS  AS  MARK  THK 
GENIUS  AND  NATIONAL  CHARACTER  OF  THE  ROMANS. 

SYSTEM  OF  ROMAN  EDUCATION.    * 

1.  A  vmTvotJS  but  rieid  severity  of  manners  wns  the  characterisfiB 
of  the  Romans  under  meir  kings,  and  in  the  first  ages  of  the  repub- 
lic. The  private  life  of  the  citizens,  frugal,  temperate,  and  labori- 
ous, had  its  influence  on  their  public  character.  The  {palria  pjttstas) 
txxUmal  authority  gave  to  eveiy  head  of  a  family  a  sovereign  author- 
ity over  all  the  members  that  composed  it;  and  this  power,  felt  as  a 
right  of  nature,  was  never  abused.  Plutarch  has  remarked,  as  a  defect 
in  the  Roman  laws,  that  they  did  not  prescribe,  as  those  of  Lacedas- 
mon,  a  system  and  rules  for  the  education  of  youth.  But  the  truth 
is,  the  manners  of  the  people  supplied  this  want  The  utmost  at- 
tention was  bestowed  m  the  early  formation  of  the  mind  and  charao* 
ter.  The  excellent  aath<>rof  the  dialogue  De  Ckaloribus  {concerning 
oraion)  presents  a  valuable  pic  hire  of  the  Roman  education  in  the 
eaily  ages  of  the  commonwealth,  contrasted  with  the  less  virtuous 
practice  of  the  more  refined  ages.  The  Roman  matrons  did  not 
abandon  their  infants  to  mercenary  i  ises.  They  regarded  (he 
careful  nurture  of  their  offiprmg,  the  rudiments  of  theix  educatlooi 

Digitized  by  CjOOQIC 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  Tl 

■Ml  the  neoenuy  oocumUods  of  tbenr  household,  as  the  highest 
points  of  female  merit  Next  to  the  care  bestowed  in  the  iDstilment 
of  TirtooQS  morab,  a  remarkable  degree  of  attention  seems  to  hare 
been  given  to  the  language  of  children,  and  to  the  attainment  of 
a  correctneas  and  purity  of  expression.  Cicero  informs  us  that  tho 
Graakif  the  sons  of  Coinelia,  were  educated,  non  tarn  in  gneamo 
fwMi  ta  $erfmme  miilm,  in  tht  ipetdi  mere  than  in  the  boom  tf  thtir 
moiher.  That  urbanity  which  diaracterized  the  Roman  atizeoi 
showed  itself  particulany  in  their  speech  and  gesture. 

2.  The  attention  to  the  language  of  the  voutn  had  another  sourot 
It  was  by  eloquence,  more  than  by  any  other  talent,  that  the  young 
Roman  could  rise  to  the  highest  offices  and  dignities  of  the  state. 
The  iindia  fontima  (fonmic  studia)  were,  therefore,  a  principal  ob- 
ject of  the  Roman  education.  Plutarch  infonns  us,  that  among  the 
sports  of  the  children  at  Rome,  one  was  pleading  causes  betore  a 
mock  tribunal,  and  accusing  and  defending  a  criminal  in  the  usual 
ibnns  of  jodicial  procedure. 

3.  The  exercises  of  the  body  were  likewise  particolariy  attended 
to;  whatever  might  harden  the  temperament,  and  confer  strength 
■nd  agility.  These  exercises  were  dally  practised  by  the  youthy 
ttoder  the  eye  of  their  elders,  in  the  Campus  Martins. 

4.  At  scYenteen  the  youth  assimied  the  manly  robe.  He  wai 
ccssigoed  to  the  care  of  a  master  of  rhetoric,  wnom  he  attended 
constantly  to  the  forum,  or  to  the  courts  of  justice ;  for,  to  be  an 
«xomplished  gentleman,  it  was  necessary  for  a  Roman  to  be  an  ao- 
compltthed  orator.  The  pains  bestowed  on  the  attainment  of  this 
charKter,  and  the  best  instructions  for  its  acquisition,  we  lean  from 
the  writinga  of  Ckero,  Quintilian,  and  the  younger  rliny. 


SECTION  XXXVl 


or  THE  PROGRESS  OF  LITERATURE  AMONG  THE  ROMAm^ 

1.  Boons,  the  intercourse  with  Greece,  which  took  place  after 
the  Pnic  wars,  the  Roman  people  was  utterly  rude  and  illiterate. 
An  among  all  nations  the  first  appearance  ot  the  literary  spirit  li 
«hown  ki  poetical  composition,  the  Roman  warrior  had  probablyi 
iiip  the  Indian  or  the  Celtic,  his  war  songs,  which  celebrated  hia 
triumphs  in  battle.  Religion  likewise  employs  the  earliest  poetry 
«f  most  nations;  and  if  a  people  subsist  by  agriculture,  a  plentiful 
Wrest  is  celebrated  in  the  rustic  sons  of  the  husbandman.  Tha 
^tnmjtteetmim  {Jtscenmmt  vena\  mentioned  by  Livy,  were  proba* 
Mt  oTtiie  nature  d*  a  poetical  dialogue,  or  alternate  verses  sungbr 
tit  hboorera.  m  a  strain  of  coarse  merriment  and  raiUeiy.  Thia 
9hf3m%  a  dawnmg  of  the  drama. 

L  About  the  390th  year  of  Rome,  oo  occasion  of  a jpestllence| 
kiaoMt  (drolb  or  stage  dancers)  were  brought  from  Etruria,  ^ms 
ai  Idiont  modm  jatowfet,  hand  wdtcom  motiu  more  TuseodailatUf 


miupimtctdtothetwMa^amunekn.imd^fnthe  Tutoan  foMon^  taA^ 


hiudwBiioinMlhai  were  not  vngraeeful  Livv  tells  us  that  the  Roman 
yoQth  onitnled  these  performances,  and  aoded  to  them  rude  and  joo» 
shr  ywn&s  probably  the  fcscennine  dialogues.  The  regular  drama 
*»  introduced  at  Hone  from  Greece  by  Lrrioi  Andromcus,  A.  U  9, 

Digitized  byCjOOQlC 


n  ANCIENT  mSTGRY. 

S14.    The  earliest  Roman  plays  were  therefore,  we  may  presmn^ 
translations  from  the  Greek. 

£t  post  punica  bella  quietus  quserere  coepit, 

Quid  Sophocles,  et  Thespis,  et  JSlschjlus  utile  ferrent. 

Uor.  £pist.  Lib.  IT,  L 

And  being-  at  peace  after  the  Punic  wars,  tbe  Romans  began  to  inqulr 
what  advantages  might  be  derivedfrom  the  writings  of  Sophocles,  Thtspi: 
and  J^schylus. 

3.  Of  the  early  Roman  drama,  Ennius  was  a  groat  ornament,  an 
from  his  time  the  art  made  rapid  advancement.  The  comedies  c 
Plautus,  the  contemporary  of  Lnnius,  with  great  strength  and  spir 
of  dialogue,  display  a  considerable  knowledge  of  hmnan  nature 
and  are  read  at  this  day  with  pleasure. 

4.  Caecilius  improved  so  much  on  the  comedy  of  Plautus,  tliat  h 
ia  mentioned  by  Cicero  as  perhaps  the  best  of  the  Roman  conii 
writers.  Of  his  compositions  we  have  no  remains.  His  patronag 
fostered  the  ri-ing  genius  of  Terence,  whose  tirsl  comedy,  the  W/i 
dria^  was  performed  A.  U.  C.  507.  The  merit  of  tlie  comedies  c 
Terence  lies  in  that  nature  and  simplicity  which  are  observable  ii 
the  structure  of  his  fables,  and  in  the  delineation  of  his  characters 
The V  are  deficient,  however,  in  comic  energy;  and  are  not  ca leu 
latea  to  excite  ludicrous  emotions.  They  are  chietly  borrowed  froc 
the  Greek  of  Menander  and  Apollodoru?. 

6.  The  Roman  comedy  was  of  four  dilferent  species:  the  corned t 
to^aia  or  pru^lcxtata^  the  comcdia  tobernaritu  the  aUellanc^  and  th 
mtmi  The  first  admitted  serious  scenes  ana  personnges,  and  was  c 
the  nature  of  the  modem  sentimental  comedy.  The  second  was 
representation  of  ordinary  life  and  manners.  The  anellan<e  wer 
pieces  where  the  dialogue  was  not  committed  to  writing,  but  th 
subject  of  the  scene  was  prescribed,  and  the  dialogue  filled  up  b 
the  talents  of  the  actors.  The  iniwi  were  pieces  ol  comedy  oi  tli 
lowest  species;  farces,  or  entertainments  of  buffoonery;  thoug 
Bometimes  admitting  the  serious,  and  even  the  pathetic. 

6.  The  Roman  tragedy  kept  pace  in  its  advancement  with  th 
comedy.  The  best  of  the  Roman  tnigic  jioets  were  Actius  an 
Pacuvius,  of  whom  we  have  no  remains*  Ihe  tragedies  publishci 
under  the  name  of  Seneca  are  generally  esteemed  ihe  work  of  dil 
ferent  hands.    They  are  none  ol'  them  of  superlative  merit. 

7.  Velleius  Paterculus  remarks,  that  the  ajra  of  tlie  perfect!  o 
of  Roman  literature  was  the  age  of  Cicero,  comprehending  all  th 
Uterary  men  of  the  preceding  times  whom  Cicero  might  have  seer 
and  all  tliose  of  the  succeeding  who  might  have  seen  him.    Cicen 

a,uintilian,  and  Pliny  celebrate,  in  high  terms,  the  writings  of  ih 
dcr  Cato,  whose  principal  works  were  historical,  and  have  entire! 
perished.  We  have  his  liragments,  de  Re  Rustica  {on  agriculture)^  i 
which  he  was  imitated  by  Varro,  one  of  the  earliest  of  the  goo 
writers  among  tiic  liomans,  and  a  man  of  universal  erudition.  O 
the  variety  of  his  talents  we  may  judge,  not  only  from  the  splendi; 
eologium  of  Cicero,  but  from  the  circumstance  of  Pliny  having  re 
course  to  his  authority  in  every  book  of  his  ]^atural  History. 

8.  Saliust,  in  order  of  time,  comes  next  to  Varro.  This  wrifei 
Introduced  an  inportant  imi>rovement  on  history,  as  treated  by  Mu 
Oceek  historians,  by  applymg  (as  Dionysius  ol  Halicamassus  says 

Digitized  by  CjOOQIC 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  73 

•'  ccieoce  of  pbiloeophy  to  the  study  of  &ct8.  SaUust  is  therefore 
V  coffiJdereJ  as  the  &tber  of  philosophic  histoiy ;  a  species  of 

W'-.^  whkh  has  been  so  succe^foUy  cultivated  in  modem  times. 
.N  aa  adaiirable  writer  for  the  matter  of  his  compositions,  which 
'  e  ^reat  jodflnent  and  knowledge  of  human  nature,  but  by  no 
'  •  commendable  for  his  style  and  manner  of  writing.    He  anects 

:  i  my  of  expression,  an  antiquated  phraseology,  and  a  petulant 

>.'}  lad  «%oteolioasnes8,  which  has  nothing  of  the  dignity  of  the 

.  r-  su*  hits  much  more  purity  of  style,  and  more  correctness 
'  '^.plidty  of  expression;  but  his  Commentaries,  wantmg  that 
/■A'  of  diction  and  fulness  of  illustration  which  is  essential  to 
rs .  are  rather  of  the  nature  of  annals. 

ia  :ill  the  requisites  of  a  historian,  Livy  stands  umlvalled 

.  'le  Romans;  possessing  consummate  judgment  in  the  selec- 

<  t'tiA\  per?picmtT  of  arrangement,  sagacious  reflection,  sound 

•   i  DdiicT,  with  the  most  copious,  pure,  and  eloquent  expres- 

;:  lis  been  olyected,  that  nia  speeches  derogate  from  the 

:  hi.-tory:  but  this  was  a  prevalent  taste  with  the  ancient 

;  nr«J  a*  those  speeches  are  always  known  to  be  the  compo- 

.'  uie  historian,  the  reader  is  not  misled.    As  to  the  style  of 

.  "i^h  in  general  excellent,  we  sometimes  perceive  in  it,  and 

'  ..ijonly  in  the  speeches,  an  aflectation  of  the  pointed  sen- 

•/it'  TibroTites  senUntiola)  and  obscurity  of  the  declaimers, 

.  sxei  the  pernicious  influence  acquired  by  those  teachers 

>  ^./ice  the  time  of  Cicero  and  Sallust. 

:i.e  decline  of  Roman  litei:ature  Tacitus  is  a  historian  of 

•n  merit  He  successfully  cultivated  the  method  pointed 
-  /.' a -t,  of  applying  philosophy  to  history.    In  this  he  dis 

'f  knowiecige  of  human  nature,  and  penetrates,  with  sin- 
N  ms^  into  the  secret  springs  of  policy,  and  the  motives 
•.     iifjt  bis  fault  is,  that  he  is  too  much  of  a  politician, 

*  characters  after  the  model  of  his  own  mind;  ever  as- 
i":H  and  events  to  preconceived  scheme  and  dcsi^,  and 
«)  iittie  for  the  operation  of  accidental  causes,  which  oflen 
1 « :itei>t  influence  on  human  afiiurs.     Tacitus,  in  his  style, 

i/nitated  that  of  Sallust;  adopting  all  the  ancient  phra« 
wlU  as  the  new  idioms  introduced  into  the  Roman  lan- 

'f  writer.     To  his  brevity  and  abruptness  he  added  most 

>  of  the  declaiming  school.  His  expression,  therefore, 
r**mely  forcible,  is  often  enigmatically  obscure;  the 
.  ^y  thut  style  can  possess. 

^  ihe  eminent  Roman  poets  (afler  the  dramatic^  Lucre- 

ijist  to  be  noticed.  He  has  creat  inequality,  oein^  at 
'  rhosG^  rugged,  and  perplexed,  and  at  others  displaying 

•»j  us  well  as  the  fire  of  poetry.  This  may  be  in  great 
J  ta  his  subject   Philosophical  disquisition  is  unsuitable 

dcmaxtds  a  dry  precision  of  thought  and  expression, 
\oarsive  &mcy  and  ornament  of  diction.    That  loxuri* 
:  v<»   whjcli  is  the  soul  of  poetry,  is  raving  and  imper- 
.  pplled  to  philosophy. 
^  tbe  contemporary  of  Lucretius,  is  the  earliest  of  tne 

/^'ts.      His  Epigrams  are  pointed  and  satirical,  but  too 

I  <  tylla  tender,  natural,  and  picturesque.  He  flourished 

ijUus  CUieflar. 

rceeding  age  of  Augustus,  poetry  attaine  i  to  its  high 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  It 


74  ANCIENT  fflSTORY. 

est  elevation  amoDg  the  Romans.  Virgil,  Horace,  Ovid^  and  Tibu1« 
los,  were  all  contemporaries.  Virgil  is  allowed  the  same  rank  among 
the  Roman  poets^  as  Homer  among  the  Greek.  If  Homer  excel 
Virgil  in  the  sublime,  the  latter  surpasses  the  former  in  the  temper 
and  elegant.  The  transcendent  merits  of  Homer  are  sullied  by  oc^ 
casionaf  defects.  Virgil  is  the  model  of  a  coirect  taste.  The  dif- 
ference of  manner  in  the  Bucolics,  the  Georgic*,  and  the  iEneid, 
shows  that  Virgil  was  capable  of  excelling  in  various  departments  oi 
poetry ;  and  such  is  the  opinion  of  Martial,  who  affirms  that  he 
could  have  surpassed  Horace  in  lyric  poetry,  and  Varius  in  tragedy. 

15.  Horace  excels  as  a  lyric  poet,  a  satirist  and  a  critic  In  his 
odes  there  is  more  variety  than  in  those  of  either  Anacreoti  or 
Pindar.  He  can  alternately  display  the  sublimity  of  the  latter,  and 
the  jocose  vein  of  the  former.  His  Satires  have  that  charactefihtic 
slyness  and  obliquity  of  censure,  associated  with  humour  and  pleas- 
antry, which  strongly  distinguisn  them  from  the  stem  and  cutting 
sarcasm  of  Juvenal.  As  a  critic,  his  rules  are  taken  chiefly  from 
Aristotle ;  but  they  contain  the  elements  of  a  just  taste  in  poetical 
composition,  and  therefore  do  not  admit  of  variation.  The  Satin^i^ 
of  Juvenal,  compared  with  those  of  Horace,  are  deficient  in  face- 
tiousness  and  urbanity ;  but  they  are  superior  in  acuteness  of  thought, 
and  in  manly  vigor  of  sentiment 

16.  In  variety  of  talent,  without  supreme  excellence,  and  in  ease 
and  elegance  ot  numbers,  no  Roman  poet  has  exceeded  Ovid.  In 
his  Metamorphoses,  particularly,  with  great  fancy,  we  have  speci- 
mens of  the  pathetic,  the  descriptive,  the  eloquent,  and  even  the 
sublime.  His  Elegies  have  more  of  nature  and  of  real  passion^ 
than  those  of  either  Tibullus  or  Propertius.  His  amatory  verse*« 
have  much  tenderness,  but  are  too  frequently  loose,  and  even  grossly 
licentious. 

17.  There  is  nothing  more  elegant  than  the  compositions  of  Tin 
bullus,  nothing  more  delicate  than  the  turn  of  his  expression ;  but 
it  is  not  the  language  of  passion.  The  sentiments  are  tender,  but 
their  power  of  affecting  the  heart  is  weakened  by  the  visible  care 
and  solicitude  of  the  poet  for  refined  phraseology  and  polished  nun>^ 
bers ;  nor  is  there  either  much  fancy  or  variety  of  thought  A  sin- 
gle elegy  exhibits  the  sentiments  of  the  whole. 

18.  IMartial  is  the  last  of  the  Roman  poets  who  can  be  mentione<l 
with  high  approbation.  His  Epigrams,  Independent  of  their  art  and 
ingenuity,  are  valuable,  as  throwmg  light  upon  the  Roman  manners. 
He  possesses,  above  every  other  poet,  a  ntxhete  of  expression^ 
whicn  is  chiefly  observable  m  his  serious  epigrams.  He  is  well  char^ 
acterized by  the  younger  Pliny.  Ingenioam^  acer^  etqtiiin  Kribendo ei 
9aks  haberet  etfelm^  ntc  candons  minus,  Epist  3.  21.  His  writings  an 
ingenious  asid  acuU  ;  they  possess  humour  and  satire^and  no  less  candour^ 

19.  Luxuriance  of  ornament,  and  the  fondness  for  (koints,  and  brlK 
liancj  of  thought  and  expression,  are  certain  indications  of  the  de- 
cline of  sood  taste.  These  characters  strongly  maik  the  Latin 
poets  of  the  succeeding  ages.  Lucan  has  some  scattered  examples 
of  genuine  poetic  imagery,  and  Persius  tome  happy;  strokes  of  enin 
mt&d  satire ;  but  they  scarcely  compensate  the  affected  obscurity 
of  one,  and  the  bombast  of  the  other.  The  succeeding  poets,  Statiui^ 
Stilus  ItaUcus,  and  Valerius  Flaccus,  in  their  attempts  at  the  mo> 
difficult  of  an  species  of  poetry,  the  epic,  have  only  more  signallji 
displayed  the  inferiority  of  their  genios,  and  the  manifest  decay  oi 
tiieait 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  71 

SECTION  XXXVIL 

STATE  or  PHILOSOPHY  AMONG  THE  ROMANS. 

1.  Tin  Romans,  in  the  earlier  periods  of  the  republic,  had  little 
leisnre  to  bestow  on  the  caltivation  of  the  sciences^  and  had  no  idea 
<rf'  phikMophlcal  speculation.  It  was  not  till  the  end  of  the  sixth 
century  from  the  building  of  the  city,  and  in  the  bterval  between 
the  war  with  Perseus  and  the  third  Punic  war,  that  philosophy  made 
its  fint  appearance  at  Rome.  A  few  learned  Acnxans,  banished 
from  tbeir  country,  had  settled  in  various  parts  of  Italy,  and  apptly- 
10^  themselves  to  the  cultivation  of  literature  and  the  education 
oi  youth,  diffused  a  taste  for  those  studies  hitherto  unknown  to  the 
Romans.  The  elder  citizens  regarded  those  pursuits  with  an  unfa* 
T<  >arable  eye.  Jealous  of  the  introduction  of  Toreigp  manners  with 
!<  reign  studies,  the  senate  banished  the  Greek  philosophers  from 
R«»m€.  But  an  Athenian  embassy,  arriving  soon  after,  brought 
•in'herCameadesandCritolaus,who  revived  the  taste  for  me  Greek 
pSiI.>:>oph3r,  and  left  behind  them  many  able  disciples,  who  publidy 
u:ii;bt  their  doctrines. 

t  It  was  natural  that  those  systems  should  be  most  generally 
•Of  pled  which  were  most  suitable  to  the  national  character.  While 
't>*'  manners  of  the  Romans  had  a  tincture  of  ancient  severity,  the 
<  icAi  system  prevailed.  Scipio,  LaDlius,  and  the  younger  Cato  rank 
iinCTjjjita chief  partisans. 

^  The  phOosophy  of  Aristotle  was  little  known  in  Rome  till  the 
a?c  of  Cicero.  At  that  time  Cratippus  and  Tyrannion  taught  his 
'T^tem  With  great  reputation.  Yet  Cicero  complains  that  the  peri- 
;>..:eCic  philosophy  was  little  understood  at  Rome ;  and  therefore,  he 
^nt  his  »n  to  study  its  doctrines  in  the  schools  of  Athens. 

4.  Locullos,  whose  stay  in  Greece  gave  him  an  opportunity  of 
^^log  aciraalnted  with  all  the  different  sects,  disseminated,  on  hb 
nttim  to  Rome,  a  very  general  taste  for  philosophy.  His  patronage 
^  learned  men,  and  his  liberality  in  allowing  his  library  to  be  open 
}>r  Che  pnbUc  use,  contributed  greatly  to  me  promotion  of  litera- 
tan?. 

,  5i  Tlie  Old  and  New  Academy  had  each  its  partisans.  Of  the 
-•nner^  whkrh  may  be  termed  the  Stoico-Platonic,  the  most  illus- 
U'.  >TM  disciples  were  Marcus  Brutus  and  Terentius  Varro.  To  the 
:-:  liosophicd  talents  of  Brutus,  and  the  universal  erudition  of  Varro, 
'^'  wntines  of  Cicero  bear  ample  testimony.  Cicero  himself  must 
^  <leeiBed  the  most  eminent  or  all  the  Roman  philosophers.  He  is 
^l2s«d  among  the  principal  supporters  of  the  New  A<^emy; 
^'"^  it  seems  to  have  been  his  purpose  to  elucidate  the  Greek 
p^udmftf  m  general,  rather  than  to  rank  himself  among  the  disci- 
\*ifi  of  aoy  particular  sect 

^  Tile  cultivation  of  i^ysics,  or  natural  philosophy,  seems  to 
l^ve  been  little  attended  to  either  by  the  Greeks  or  Romans^  Un- 
•'7^  amnltiire  shoold  be  classed  under  this  description,  we  know 
^'t'  DO  Boman  authors,  except  Varro  and  the  elder  Pliny,  who  seem 
'  *  have  besiotred  much  attention  on  the  operations  of  nature.  Tlie 
"«  rks  of  Varro  have  perished,  except  a  few  fragments.  The  Nat- 
'^  History  of  Piinv  is  a  most  valuable  store-house  of  the  knowl- 
^'i^  of  the  «y.ient8  m  physics,  economics,  and  the  arts  and  sciences. 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


76  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  style  is  unsuitable  to  the  matter,  being 
too  frequeDtiy  florid,  declamatory,  and  obscure. 

7.  The  philosophy  of  Epicurus  was  unknown  in  the  early  ages 
of  the  Roman  commonwealth.  It  was  introduced  with  luxury,  and 
kept  pace  in  its  advancement  with  the  corruption  of  manners.  Cin- 
neas  naving  discoursed  on  the  tenets  of  Epicurus  at  the  table  of 
Fyrrhiw,  Fabricius  exclaimed-  "May  the  enemies  of  Rome  ever 
entertain  such  principles  f  Yet  these  principles  were,  in  a  short 
time  from  that  period,  too  current  among  the  citizens  of  Rome. 


SECTION  XXXVIII. 

OF  THE  PUBLIC  AND  PRIVATE  MANNERS  OF  THE  ROMANS. 

1.  The  manners  of  the  Ronums  in  the  early  ages  of  the  republic 
were  so  different  from  those  of  the  latter  times,  that  one  should  be 
led  to  suppose  some  very  extraordinary  causes  to  have  co-operated 
to  produce  so  remarkable  a  change ;  yet  the  transition  is  eaisy  to  be 
accounted  for.  A  spirit  of  temperance,  of  frugalitv,  and  probity,  is 
the  characteristic  of  every  infant  establishment  A  virtuous  simpli- 
city of  manners,  and  a  rigour  of  military  discipline,  paved  the  way 
for  the  extension  of  the  Koman  arms,  and  for  their  prodigious  con- 
quests.   These  conquest  introduced  wealth,  luxury,  and  corruption. 

2.  In  the  early  times  of  the  republic  the  patricians^  when  m  the 
country,  forgot  the  distinction  of  ranks,  and  laboured  m  the  cultiva- 
tion ot  meir  fields,  like  the  meanest  plebeians.    We  have  the  exam- 

?les  of  Cincinnatus,  Curiiis,  the  elder  Cato,  and  Scipio  A£rH:anui!. 
^he  town  was  visited  only  every  ninth  day,  which  was  the  market 
day.  In  those  times  of  virtuous  simplicity,  says  Sallust,  Doini  mili- 
titeque  boni  mores  colebantur,  Duahus  artUnis^  audacia  in  beUoj  vbi  pax 
eoenerat^  csquitate^  seque  remque  publicam  airabanU  Good  manners  Zi-ere 
cuUivated  ootli  in  veace  and  war.  By  two  means^  valour  in  war^  ami 
equity  in  peace^  ikey  supported  themselves  and  the  commonweahL  But 
when  the  Romans  Had  extended  their  dominion,  in  consequence  of  this 
very  discipline  and  these  manners,  they  imported  with  the  wealth  of 
the  conquered  nations  their  tastes,  their  manners,  and  their  vices. 

3.  The  Romans  had  no  natural  taste  in  the  fine  arts.    On  the  con- 

2uest  of  Greece  an  immense  field  opened  at  once  to  their  eyes,  and 
le  masteivpieces  of  art  poured  in  upon  them  in  abundance.  But 
they  could  not  appreciate  their  excellences.  The  Roman  luxury,  as 
^ir  as  the  arts  were  concerned,  was  in  general  displayed  in  an 
awkward,  heavy,  and  tasteless  magnificence. 

4.  The  public  and  private  life  of  the  Romans  will  be  best  eluci- 
dated by  a  short  account  of  the  manner  in  which  the  day  was  pars- 
ed at  Romej  both,  by  the  higher  and  lower  ranks  of  me  people. 
By  a  part  ot  the  citizens  the  momine  hours  were  spent  m  visitiug 
the  temples,  by  others  in  attending  the  levees  of  the  great  llie 
ckeiUes  (clients)  waited  on  their  patroni  (patrons) ;  the  patricians 
tisited  one  another,  or  paid  their  compliments  to  the  leaders  of  the 
republic.  Popularity  was  always  the  first  object  of  ambition  at 
Rome,  as  paving  the  way  to  all  advancement  From  the  levee  they 
proceeded  to  the  forum,  either  to  assist  m  the  public  business,  or  for 
amusement  There  the  time  was  spent  till  noon^  which  was  the! 
hour  of  dinner  among  the  Romans.  This  was  chiefly  a  very  light 
fepait,  of  which  it  was  not  customary  to  invite  any  guests  to  partaik«. 

Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  7' 

After  dimer  the  jouth  repaired  to  the  Campus  IVIartius,  where  they 
orcupied  themselves  in  athletic  exercises  and  sports  till  sunset.  The 
elder  class  retired  for  an  hour  to  repose,  and  then  passed  the  after 
TunAi  in  their  porticoes,  ^leries  or  libraries,  where  they  enjoyed  the 
rciversation  o[  their  mends,  or  heard  recitations  of  literary  works ; 
others  repaured  to  the  theaies,  or  to  the  shows  of  the  circus  and 
amphitheatre. 

o.  Combats  of  gladiators  were  introduced  for  the  first  time  about 
±i'  400th  jearofthe  city.  These  and  combats  with  wild  beasts  soon 
I .  ciune  a  iuvourite  amusement  among  the  Romans.  The  spirit  ot 
luxury,  which  in  general  is  not  unfavourable  to  humanity,  showed  its 
;>:  vcress  among  the  Romans  by  an  increasing  ferocity  and  inhumanity 
*a  Uie  pabiic  spectacles.  Theatrical  entertainments  were  in  high 
jvquest.  (Sect  XXXVL  §  2.  3,  4,  5,  6.)  The  taste  for  pantomime 
r.irne  to  siich  a  height,  that  the  art  was  taught  in  public  schools,  and 
the  nobility  and  people  were  divided  into  parties  in  £ivour  of  the 
rr.al  pertbnners;  an  abuse  which  called  at  length  for  the  interposi- 
ti  Q  of  the  laws* 

•-.  From  the  porticoes,  or  from  the  theatre  and  amphitheatre,  it  was 
(  >*ontarj  to  go  to  the  baths,  of  which  there  were  many  for  the  use 
••i'  ihc  pabiic.  The  rich  had  baths  in  their  own  houses,  vying  with 
» J'  h  otner  in  this  as  in  every  other  article  of  luxury  or  magnificence 
1 1-  ru  the  bath  they  went  immediately  to  supper,  generally  about  the 
ninin  or  tenth  hour,  counting  from  sunrise.  At  table  they  reclined 
<»n  coaches.  The  luxury  of  the  Roman  suppers  feir  exceeded  every 
iLiag  known  among  the  modems.  An  anUcamwm  of  pickles  an'd 
-pjres  was  presented  to  prepare  and  sharpen  the  appetite.  Cook- 
i'sy  became  a  science.  The  number  and  costliness  of  the  dishes 
were  incredible.  The  entertainment  was  heightened  by  every  thing 
gritiffing  to  the  senses;  by  male  and  female  dancers,  musicians, 
p  intomlmes,  and  even  shows  of  gladiators. 

T.  In  the  end  of  the  republic  pleasure  and  amusement  were  the 
dirling  obJiect  of  all  ranks  of  the  citizens :  they  sought  no  more  than 
}rjinn  el  oircefues  {bread  andgamts  in  the  circus). 


SECTION  XXXIX. 

or  THE  ART  OF  WAR  AMONG  THE  ROMANS. 

! .  Fbom  the  prodigious  success  which  attended  the  arms  of  the 
(.'•mans,  and  the  dominion  which  they  acquired  over  the  greater 
;  -.1  of  the  known  world,  it  seems  a  natural  mference  that  they  must 
1 ATC  excelled  all  the  contemporary  nations  in  the  military  art  Vege« 
t  It  expressly  assigns  their  extensive  conquests  to  that  cause  alone, 
li  .«  cbe  discipline  of  an  army  that  makes  a  multitude  act  as  one  maa 
ir  likewise  increases  the  courage  of  troops ;  for  each  individual  con 
/I  >*  is  the  steady  co-operation  of  his  fellows. 

i.  From  the  constant  practice  of  athletic  exercises,  the  Romans, 
were  fnored  from  in&ncy  to  hardiness  and  fatigue,  and  bred  to  that 
-.'ccies  of  life,  which  a  soldier  leads  in  the  most  active  campaign  in 
'SiC  field. 

.-i.  The  levies  were  made  annually,  by  the  tribes  caQed  out,  and 
'.^iJed  into  their  respective  number  of  centuries;  each  century  pie- 
^tit^i^  fay  rotatioa,  as  many  soldiers  as  there  were  legions  intcMed 
L;  Ik  ralnrd;  and  the  tribunes  of  the  several  legions  taking  their  turn 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


78  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

by  rotation  in  the  selection  of  the  men  presented  by  the  centuries. 
(Sect.  XXIV,  &  16.)  The  number  of  soldiers  in  tiie  iegiaa  was  vari- 
ous at  different  periods,  from  3,000  to  10,000  and  1 1,000. 

4.  Among  the  ancient  nations  there  were  usually  two  different 
arrangements  of  the  troops  in  order  of  battle.  One  the  phalanx, 
or  close  arrangement  in  a  rectangular  form,  intersected  only  by 
great  divisions ;  a  disposition  commonly  used  by  the  Greeks,  and 
by  most  of  the  barbarous  nations.  The  other  the  quincunx  or 
cnequer,  consisting  of  small  companies  or  platoons,  disposed  in  three 
straight  lines,  wil£  alternate  spaces  between  the  companies  equal 
to  the  space  occupied  by  each  company.  In  the  first  line  were  the 
hagUxtii  m  the  second  the  principes^  and  in  the  third  the  triarH  On 
the  flanks  of  the  first  line  were  the  cavalry,  m  detached  companies ; 
and  in  front  of  the  line  were  the  veUtcs^  or  light-armed  troops,  who 
usually  began  with  a  skirmishing  attack,  and  then  were  withdrawn,  to 
make  way  for  the  main  body  to  come  into  action.  The  advantages 
of  this  arrangement  were,  that  the  line  of  battle  could  be  three 
times  formed  with  fresh  troops,  and  that  it  was  more  adapted  than 
any  other  for  rapid  changes  of  movement.  In  the  Roman  legion, 
the  arms  of  the  kastcUiiina  principes  were  the  jnlwn  or  heavy  jave- 
Ifai,  and  the  sword  and  buckler;  and  of  the  triariii  the  long  spear, 
with  the  sword  and  buckler. 

5.  Notwitiistanding  these  advantages  the  quincunx  went  into  disuse 
toward  the  end  of  the  republic,  and  from  that  time  various  arrange- 
ments of  the  legion  were  used  according  to  circumstances.  Tlie 
Roman  tactics  are  supposed  to  have  been  at  their  greatest  pitch  of 
excellence  durmg  the  runic  wars.  Hjumibal  was  a  great  master  of 
the  science  of  tactics ;  and  the  Romans  profited  by  the  experience 

■  of  his  ability.  Ttie  battle  of  Cann®,  as  described  by  Polybius, 
affoids  signal  evidence  of  tiie  great  talents  of  the  Carthaginian  gen- 
eral. The  description  of  that  battle  has  been  misrepresented  by 
Folard ;  but  it  is  accurately  explained  in  the  Memmres  Militaires  of 
3ML  Guischaidt  If  the  quincunx  disposition  had  been  kept  by  the 
Roma^  army  in  that  engagement^  the  event  might  have  been  very 
different ;  for  it  would  nave  disappointed  the  effect  of  an  artful 
manceuvre  planned  by  Hanmbal,  on  observmg  his  enemy^s  army 
arranged  in  the  unusual  order  of  the  phalanx. 

6.  The  art  of  intrenchment  was  carried  to  perfection  by  the  Ro- 
mans, particulariy  by  Julius  Caesar.  With  60,000  men  he  defended 
himself  in  his  intrenchments  before  Alexia,  while  the  lines  of  cir- 
cumvallation  were  attacked  by  240,000  Gauls,  and  the  tines  of  counter- 
▼allation  by  80,000,  witiiout  effect  These  intrenchments  consisted 
of  a  ditch  from  nine  to  fifteen  feet  in  depth  and  width,  fenced  on  the 
inside  by  the  mound  of  excavated  earth,  and  on  the  outside  by  strong 
stsdces  with  pointed  branches. 

7.  In  besieging  a  town  several  camps  were  formed  round  the 
place,  joined  to  one  another  by  lines  of  circumvallation  and  coun- 
tervallation.  A  mound  of  earth  {agger)  was  raised,  beginning  by  a 
ffentle  slope  from  one  of  the  camps^  and  gradually  rising  in  elevation 
as  it  approached  the  city.  The  front,  where  the  workmen  were 
employed,  was  defended  by  a  curtain  of  hides  fixed  on  strong  posts. 
On  thw  mound  the  engines  of  attack,  caiapuUx  and  balislm^  were 
advanced,  till  they  played  on  the  very  spot  which  the  besiegers  wish- 
ed to  assaU.  The  catapuUtB  discharged  heavy  stones,  the  baliskB 
arrows.  The  same  machines  were  used  by  the  besieged  for  anrioy- 
ing  the  enemy.   When  the  engines  on  the  terrace  had  driven  the 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


AI^CIENT  HISTORY.  79 

besieged  from  the  walls,  the  battering-ram  {aries)  was  then  brought 
apoDder  acent-hoase  Uestudo)  ;  and,  ii  it  once  reached  tlie  wall,  was 
f  enenllT  decisive  d*  the  fate  of  the  town.  The  main  object  of  the 
besieged  was  therefore  to  prevent  its  approach  by  every  power  of 
anooTaoce.  Stones,  daxts,  and  combustible  matters  were  continually 
launched  upon  the  assailants;  and  sometimes  a  mine  was  dug  from 
the  city  to  scoop  away  the  terrace  and  ail  its  engines.  These  arts 
d*  attack  and  defence  of  fortitied  places  were  in  general  use  among 
the  nations  of  antiquity,  and  continued  down  to  modem  times,  till  the 
iorenti<m  of  gunpowder. 

Q.  The  naval  military  art  was  utterly  unknown  among  the  Ro* 
mans  till  the  first  Punic  war.  A  Carthaginian  galley  was  the  first 
model  of  a  vessel  of  war.  In  the  space  of  two  months  they  equipped 
n.  fleet  of  100  gallies  of  five  banks  of  oars,  and  20  of  three  banks. 
The  structure  of  those  gallies,  and  the  mode  of  arranging  the  row- 
ers, may  be  learned  from  the  ancient  sculptures  and  medals.  The 
combatants  at  sea  assailed  at  a  distance  with  javelins,  missile  com- 
bustibles, and  sometimes  with  caiapukiz  and  balisttB;  but  the  serious 
attack  was  made  in  boarding,  when  the  vessels  were  grappled  by 
nie:iDS  of  a  crane  let  down  from  the  prow. 

^.  In  the  times  of  the  empire,  the  Romans  maintained  their  distant 
conquests,  not  only  by  their  armies,  but  by  their  fleets.  The  ships 
wore  moored  in  the  large  rivers  and  bays ;  and  both  the  legions  and 
the  fleets  generally  preserved  a  fixed  station. 


SECTION  XL. 

REFLECTIONS  ARISING  FROM  A  VIEW  OF  THE  ROMAN  HIS 
TORY  DURING  THE  COMMONWEALTH. 

1.  The  history  of  all  nations  evinces,  that  there  is  an  inseparable 
cocmexion  between  the  morals  of  a  people  and  their  political  pros- 
perity. But  we  bave  no  stronger  demouiitration  of  this  truth  than 
the  amals  of  the  Roman  commonwealth.  To  limit  to  republics  alone 
the  necessity  of  virtue  as  a  principle,  is  a  chimerical  notion,  fraught 
with  dangerous  consequences.  Quid  leges  sine  rnoribus  vatuB  profici' 
tmi  ?  {lass  wUhoui  morals  avail  noUiin^'^  is  a  sentiment  equally  appli- 
rahlc  to  all  governments ;  and  no  political  system,  however  excellent 
it-  tabric,  can  possess  any  measure  of  duration,  without  that  power- 
Til  ceroenti  virtue,  in  the  principles  and  manners  of  the  people.  (Sect. 
XIX,  6  4.) 

2.  The  love  of  our  country,  and  the  desire  for  its  rational  liberty, 
nrc  noble  and  virtuous  feelings ;  and  their  prevalence  is  ever  a  test 
<if  the  integrity  of  the  national  morals.  But  no  term  has  been  more 
prcfitftoted  tlian  the  word  liberty.  In  a  corrupted  people  the  cry  for 
Itl^erty  is  heard  the  loudest  among  the  most  protiigate  of  the  commu- 
nity. With  these  its  meaning  has  no  relation  to  patriotism ;  it  in>- 
pofls  no  more  than  the  aversion  to  restraint ;  and  tne  personal  char- 
acter of  the  demagogue,  and  the  private  morals  of  his  disciples,  are 
always  suflkient  to  unmask  the  counterleit.  The  spirit  oi  patriot- 
vm  and  a  general  corruption  of  manners  cannot  possibly  be  coexis- 
tent in  the  same  age  ana  nation. 

3i.  On  the  other  hand,  while  the  morals  of  a  people  are  pure,  no 
pubfic  misfortune  is  irretrievable,  nor  any  political  situation  so  de»- 
5>er9le,  that  bo|ie  mav  not  remain  of  a  favourable  change.  In  such 
fitmliais  the  spirit  ot  patriotism  pervading  all  ranks  of  Uie  state  will 


y  Google 


80  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

soon  recover  the  national  prosperity.  The  history  of  the  Roman  peo 
pie,  and  that  of  the  Grecian  states,  in  various  crises,  both  of  honour 
and  of  disgrace,  affords  proofi  alike  of  this  position  and  of  its  converse. 

4.  The  national  character  of  the  Romans  seems  to  have  under^ 
gone  its  most  remarkable  change  for  the  worse  from  the  time  of  the 
destruction  of  their  rival,  Cart&ge.    Sallust  assigns  the  cause.    Ante 

Cartha^mem  dektam^ metus  hostilia  in  bptm  artiSus  cwitcUeni  rt^dnebat, 

Sed  uin  iUaformido  rneniibui  decessit^  scilicet  ea  qiuz  secundcB  res  atnaiUn 
lascivia  ataue  superbia  itvoasere.  Before  the  destniction  qfCartha^e^^—^ 
the  fear  oftJteir  enemy  kept  the  people  in  the  practice  of  virtue:  out  zvhen 
the  restraifvt  of  fear  ceased  to  v{/iuence  their  conduct^  Ihey  abandoned  ther/t- 
selves  to  profiigacy  and  arrogance^  the  usual  concomitants  of  prosperity. 

5.  In  the  Rist  ages  of  tne  conunon wealth,  avarice  and  ambition* 
unrestrained  by  moral  principle,  were  the  chief  motives  of  the  Ro- 
man conquests.  It  was  sufficient  reason  for  going  to  war,  that  a 
country  offered  a  tempting  object  to  the  rapacity  and  ambition  of 
the  militarj^  leaders.  The  conquest  of  Italy  paved  the  way  for.  the 
reduction  of  foreign  nations.  Hence  the  Romans  imported,  with  their 
wealth,  the  manners,  the  luxuries,  and  the  vices  of  the  nations  which 
they  subdued.  The  generals  returned  not  as  formerly,  after  a  suc- 
cessful war,  to  the  labours  of  the  field,  and  to  a  life  of  temperance 
and  industry.  They  were  now  the  governors  of  kingdoms  and  prov- 
inces ;  and  at  the  period  of  their  command  abroad,  disdaining  the 
restraints  of  a  subject,  they  could  be  satisfied  with  nothing  less  than 
sovereignty  at  home.  The  armies,  debauched  by  the  plunder  of 
kingdoms,  were  completely  disposed  to  support  them  in  ail  their 
schemes  of  ambition ;  and  the  populace,  won  by  corruption,  always 
took  part  with  the  chief  who  best  could  pay  for  their  &vour  and 
support  Force  or  bribery  overruled  every  election ;  and  the  in- 
habitants of  distant  states,  now  holding  the  right  of  citizens,  were 
brought  to  Rome,  at  the  command  of  the  demagogue,  to  innuence 
any  popular  cdntest,  and  turn  the  scale  in  his  favour.  In  a  govern- 
ment thus  irretrievably  destroyed  by  the  decay  of  those  springs 
which  supported  it,  it  was  of  little  consequence  by  what  particular 
tyrant,  usurper,  or  demagogue,  its  ruin  was  finally  accomjilished. 

6.  From  a  consideration  of  tne  rise  and  fall  of  the  principal  states 
of  antiquity,  it  has  been  a  commonly  received  opinion,  that  the  con- 
stitution  of  empires  has,  like  the  human  body,  a  period  of  growth, 
maturity,  decline,  and  extinction.  But  arguments  from  analog  are 
extremely  deceitful,  and  particularly  so  when  the  analogy  is  from 
physical  to  moral  truths.  The  human  body  is,  from  its  fabric,  natu- 
rally subject  to  decay,  and  is  perpetually  undergoing  a  change  from 
time.  Its  organs,  at  first  wealc,  attain  gradually  their  perfect 
strength,  and  thence,  by  a  similar  gradation,  proceed  to  decay  and 
dissolution.  This  is  an  immutable  law  of  its  nature.  But  the  springs 
of  the  body  politic  do  not  necessarily  undergo  a  perpetual  change 
from  time.  It  is  not  regularly  progressive  from  weakness  to  strength, 
and  thence  to  decay  and  dissolution ;  nor  is  it  under  the  infiuence 
of  any  principle  of  corruption  which  may  not  be  checked,  and  even 
eradicated,  by  wholesome  laws.  Thus  the  beginning  of  the  cor- 
ruption of  Sparta  is  attributed  to  Lysander's  breach  of  the  institu- 
tions of  Lycurgus,  in  introducing  gold  into  the  treasury  of  the  state 
rostead  of  its  iron  money.  But  was  this  a  necessary,  or  an  unavoid- 
able measure  ?  Perhaps  a  single  vote  in  the  senate  decreed  its  adop- 
tion, and  therefore  another  suffrage  might  have  prevented,  or  long 
postponed,  the  down^  of  the  commonwealth.    The  Roman  repuh. 

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ANCIENT  HISTORY  81 

lie  owed  its  dissolution  to  the  extension  of  its  dominions.  If  it  had 
been  a  capital  crime  for  any  Roman  citizen  to  have  proposed  to 
carry  the  arms  of  the  republic  bevond  the  limits  of  Italy,  its  consti 
tutioQ  might  have  been  presenreafor  many  ages  beyond  the  period 
of  its  actual  duration.  "Accustom  your  mind,^^  said  Phocion  to 
Aristias,  ^  to  discern,  in  the  fate  of  nations,  that  recompense  which 
the  great  Author  of  nature  has  annexed  to  the  practice  of  virtue. 
No  state  ever  ceased  to  be  prosperous,  but  in  consequence  of  having 
departed  from  those  institutions  to  which  she  owed  her  prosperity.** 
liisitory  indeed  has  shown  that  all  states  and  empires  have  had  their 
period  of  duration ;  but  history,  instructing  us  m  the  causes  which 
have  produced  their  decline  and  fall,  inculcates  also  this  salutary 
lessdv,  that  nations  are  in  general  the  masters  of  their  own  destiny^ 
and  that  they  may,  and  most  certainly  ought  to,  aspire  at  immortality. 
7.  It  was  a  great  desideratum  in  ancient  nolitics,  that  a  eovemment 
should  possess  within  itself  the  power  ol  periodical  reformation;  a 
capacity  of  checking  any  overgrowth  of  authority  in  any  of  its 
branches,  and  of  winding  up  the  machine,  or  bringing  back  the  con- 
stitution to  its  first  principles.  To  the  want  of  such  a  power  in  the 
"States  of  antiquity  (which  they  ineflectually  endeavoured  to  supply 
by  such  partial  contrivances  as  the  ostracism  and  petalisni)  we  may 
rertainly  ascribe,  in  no  small  degree,  the  decay  of  those  states ;  lot 
.n  their  governments,  when  the  balance  was  once  destroyed,  the 
e>  il  |;rew  worse  from  day  to  day,  and  admitted  no  remedy  out  a 
revolution,  or  entire  change  of  the  system.  The  British  constitu- 
tKjn  posesses  this  inestimable  advantige  over  all  the  governinents 
J*olh  of  ancient  and  modem  times,  with  the  single  exception  of  the 
eovenmient  of  the  United  State'*  of  America,  ifesides  the  perpetual 
f>ower  of  reform  vested  in  pari  in  mo  nt,  the  constitution  may  be  puri- 
fwd  of  every  abuse,  and  brought  back  to  its  first  principles,  at  the 
rcmoiencement  of  every  reign.  But  of  this  we  shall  afterwards 
treat  in  its  proper  place. 


SECTION  XLI. 
ROME  UNDER  THE  EMPERORS. 

1.  TnE  battle  of  Actium  decided  the  fate  of  the  commonwealth, 
:;Qd  Octavius,  now  named  Augustus,  was  master  of  the  Roman 
rmpire.  He  possessed  completely  the  sagacity  of  discerning  what 
character  was  l)0st  fitted  for  gaming  the  aflfections  of  the  people 
«i)om  lie  governed,  and  the  versatility  of  temper  and  genius  to  as- 
STOte  \L  His  virtue-^,  tlioiigh  tlie  result  of  policy,  not  of  nature,  were 
certaiuly  favoumble  to  the  happiness,  and  even  to  the  liberties  of 
hB  subjects.  The  fate  of  Caesar  warned  him  of  the  ui.«ecurity  of  a 
UMTped  dominion ;  and  iherefore,  while  he  8tudiou.<ly  imitated  the 
rtigagtng  manners  and  clemency  of  his  great  predecep-^or,  he  affecl- 
e<i  a  moch  higher  degree  of  moderation,  and  respect  for  the  rights  of 

2.  Tne  temple  of  Janus  was  shut,  which  had  been  open  for  1C8 
rem,  siiice  tKe  beginning  of  the  second  Punic  war  j  an  event  pro- 
doctiTe  of  oniversaljoy.  *^  The  Romans  (says  Condillac)  now  be- 
beved  themselves  a  free  people,  since  they  nao  no  loneer  to  fight  for 
tbeir  liberty.^*  The  sovereign  kept  up  this  delusion,  by  maintaining 
tfse  aDcaeot  forma  of  the  republican  constitution,  in  the  election  ol 

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6£  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

magistrates,  &c.,  though  tfaev  were  nothing  more  than  forms.  He 
even  pretended  to  consider  nis  own  function  as  merely  a  temporary 
administration  for  the  public  benetit.  Invested  with  the  consulate 
and  censorship,  he  went  through  the  regular  forms  of  periodical 
election  to  those  offices,  and  at  the  end  of  the  seventh  year  of  liin 
government  actually  announced  to  the  senate  his  resignation  of  all 
authority.  The  consequence  was  a  general  supplication  of  the  sen- 
ate and  people,  that  he  would  ilbt  abandon  the  republic,  which  he 
had  saved  from  destruction.  "  Since  «t  must  be  so,"  said  he, "  I  accept 
the  emfjlre  for  ten  years,  unless  the  public  tranquillity  shall,  before 
the  expiration  of  that  time,  peni±  me  I:  ei^oy  retirement,  which 
1  passionately  long  for."  He  repeated  the  same  mockery  five  time^ 
in  the  course  of  his  government,  accepting  the  administratioD  some- 
times for  ten,  and  sometimes  only  for  nve  years. 

3.  It  was  much  to  the  credit  of  Augustus,  that  in  the  government 
of  the  empire  he  reposed  unlimited  confidence  in  Mecsnas,  a  most 
able  minister,  who  had  sincerely  at  heart  the  interest  and  happiness 
of  the  people.  By  his  excellent  counsels  all  public  affairs  were  con^ 
ducted,  and  the  most  salutary  laws  enacted  for  the  remedy  of  public 

fievances,  and  even  the  correction  of  the  morals  of  the  people, 
o  his  patronage  literature  and  the  arts  owed  their  encouragement 
and  advancement  By  his  infiuence  and  wise  instructions  Augustus 
assumed  those  yirtues  to  which  his  heart  was  a  stranger,  and 
which,  in  their  tendency  to  the  happiness  of  his  subjects,  were 
equally  effectual  as  if  they  had  been  the  genuine  fi*uits  or  his  nature. 

4.  (5n  the  death  of  Marcellus,  the  nephew  and  son-in-law  of  An- 
EQstus,  and  a  prbce  of  great  hopes,  23  A.  C,  the  emperor  bestowed 
Eis  chief  favour  on  Marcus  Agnppa,  giving  him  his  daughter  Julia, 
the  widow  of  Marcellus,  in  marriage.  Agrippa  had  considerable 
military  talents,  and  was  successful  in  accomplishing  the  reduction  of 
Spain,  and  subduing  the  revolted  provinces  of  Asia.  Augustus  as* 
flociated  Agrippa  with  himself  in  the  office  of  censor,  and  would  prob- 
ably have  given  him  a  share  of  the  empire,  if  his  death  had  not 
occsisioned  a  new  arrangement  JuUa  now  took  for  her  third  husband 
Tiberius,  who  became  the  son-in-law  of  the  emperor  by  a  double 
tie,^  for  Augustus  had  previously  married  his  mother  Li  via.  This 
artlul  woman,  removing  all  of  the  imi)erial  family  who  stood  betwixt 
her  and  the  ooject  of  her  ambition,  thus  made  room  for  the  succes- 
sion of  her  son  Tiberius,  who,  on  his  part,  bent  all  his  attention  to  gain 
the  favour  and  confidence  of  Augudtus.  On  the  return  of  Tiberius 
from  a  successful  campaign  against  tlie  Germans,  the  people  were 
made  to  solicit  the  emperor  to  confer  on  him  the  government  of  the 
provinces  and  the  command  of  tlie  armies.  Augustus  now  gradually 
withdrew  himself  from  the  cares  of  empire.  He  died  soon  alter  at 
N'ola,  in  Campania-  in  the  7i)t[i  year  of  his  age,  and  the  44tli  of  hia 
imperial  reign,  A.  U.  C.  767,  and  A.  D.  1 4. 

5.  A  considcralile  part  of  the  lustre  thrown  on  the  reign  of  Augus- 
tus is  owing  to  the  splendid  colouring  bestowed  on  his  character  tiv 
the  poets  and  other  authors  who  adorned  his  court,  and  repaid  his 
fevours  by  their  adulation.  Other  sovereigns  of  much  higher  meriu 
have  been  less  fortunate  in  obtaining  the  applause  of  posterity. 

Illaciymabiles 
Urguentur,  ig^otique,  longa 
Nocte,  carent  quia  vate  eacro.    HoR.  Car*  Lib.  IV,  9. 

Unlamented  and  unknown  they  link  into  oblivion,  became  they  have  no 
ilifpiitd  bard  to  celebrate  their  praise. 

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ANCIENT  HISTORY.  83 

One  i^reat  erent  distinguished  the  reien  of  Augusttis,  the  birth  oi 
our  Lord  and  Savioar  Jescs  Christ,  which,  according  to  the  besr 
authorities,  happened  A.  U.  C.  734,  and  four  years  before  the  vulgar 
date  of  the  christian  aera.* 

o.  Augustus  had  named  Tiberius  his  heir,  togetlier  with  his  moth 
er  Livia ;  and  had  substituted  to  them  Drusus,  the  son  of  Tiberius 
a'hl  Gennanicus.  Tiberius  was  vicious,  debauched^  and  cruel ;  yei 
:1»«^  very  dread  of  his  character  operated  in  securing  an  easy  suc- 
i-'.^'v-ioo  to  the  empire.  An  embassy  from  the  senate  entreated  him 
t»  accept  the  government,  wiuch  he  modestly  affected  to  decline, 
!>ut  sudered  himself  to  be  won  by  their  supplications.  Notwithstand- 
ing these  symptoms  of  moderation,  it  soon  appeared  that  the  power 
enjoyed  by  his  predecessor  was  too  limited  for  the  ambition  of  Ti- 
berius. It  was  not  enough  that  the  substance  of  the  republic  was 
l^one ;  the  very  appearance  of  it  was  now  to  be  demolished.  The 
p«'Ople  were  no  longer  assembled,  and  the  magistrates  of  the  state 
were  supplied  by  the  imperial  will. 

6.  Gerxnaoicas,  the  nephew  of  Tiberius,  became  the  object  of  his 
jeakMsy,  from  the  glory  which  he  had  acquired  by  his  military  ex- 

Koits  m  Germany,  and  the  hi^h  favour  in  which  he  stood  with  the 
oman  people.  He  was  recalled  in  the  midst  of  his  successes,  and 
despatched  to  the  oriental  provinces,  where  he  soon  after  died ;  and  it 
was  ceDerally  believed  that  he  was  poisoned  by  the  emperor's  com* 
maDcU 

7.  JEXixa  Seianus,  praefect  of  the  praetorian  f;uards,  the  fiivourite 
cooDseilor  of  Tiberius,  and  tlie  obsequious  minister  of  his  tyranny 
and  crimes,  conceivea  the  daring  project  of  a  revolution,  whicn 
sboold  place  himself  on  the  throne,  by  the  extermination  of  the  whole 
imperial  &mily.  Drusus,  the  son  of  the  emi>eror,  was  destroyed  by 
pc^HOOL  Agrippiiia,  the  widow  of  Gennanicus,  with  her  elder  son, 
was  bantshed;  and  the  younger  son  was  confined  in  prison.  Tibe- 
nt*»  was  persuaded  by  Sejanus,  umier  the  pretence  ot  tlie  discovery 
of  plofci  for  his  assassination,  to  retire  from  Rome  to  the  Isle  of 
Capreas,  and  devolve  the  government  unon  his  faithful  minister. 
But  while  Sejanus^  thus  far  successful,  meditited  the  \i\si  step  to  the 
accomptishment  oi  his  wishes,  by  the  murder  of  his  sovereign,  his 
tn»50O  was  detected ;  and  the  emperor  despatched  his  mandate  to  the 
«eaate,  which  was  followed  by  his  immediate  sentence  and  execution. 
The  pabUc  indication  was  not  satistied  with  his  death .  the  populace 
'x>e  b»  body  to  pieces,  and  dung  it  into  the  Tiber. 

a  Tiberius  now  became  utterly  nejjligent  of  the  cares  cf  govern- 
ment, and  the  imperial  power  was  dLspTayed  only  in  public  execu- 
tiOOB,  coofhcations,  and  scenes  of  cruelty  and  nipine.  At  length  the 
tiraotEilling  sick  was  strangled  in  his  6ed  by  iNracro.  the  pntfect  of 
tlie  pneiorian  guards,  in  the  73th  year  of  his  age,  ana  the  2:id  of  his 

d.  la  the  13th  year  of  Tibnrius  our  I^rd  and  Saviour  Je«us  Christ, 
C^  ^rine  author  of  our  religion,  sufl'ered  death  upon  the  cross,  a 
tcrridc^  and  propititilirm  for  ll»o  siris  of  maukiiul,  A.  D.  33. 

10.  Tiberius  ha^l  nominated  Ibr  his  heir,  Caligula  the  son  of  GeF- 
tn4DicQs,  liis  erci!^oii  by  adoption ;  and  had  jtJined  with  him  Tibe- 
Kia  ihewm  ofDrusiH,  hU  ^nnl-^on  by  blood.  The  former  enjoyed, 
oTs  \ui  £iSher»  nccouiU,  tue  ilivoar  of  tho  people ;  and  the  senate,  to 

•  See  Dr,  Playfair's  System  of  Chronology,  p.  49,  50,  a  work  of  great 
nmu<h  and  accurj.cy,  :ukI  ly  lUr  the  lest  on  that  subject. 

Digitized  by  CjOOQIC 


84  ANCIENT  HIS1X)M . 

gratify  them,  set  aside  the  rieht  of  his  colleague,  and  conferred  on 
him  the  empke  undivided.  The  commencement  of  his  reign  was 
signalized  by  a  few  acts  of  clemency,  and  even  good  policy.  He 
restored  the  privileges  of  the  comitia,  and  abolished  arbitrary  prose- 
cutions for  crmies  oT  state,  fiut,  tyrannical  and  cruel  by  nature,  he 
substituted  military  execution  for  le^  punishment  The  provinces 
were  loaded  with  the  most  oppressive  taxes,  and  daUy  confiscatioru? 
filled  the  imperial  coffers.  The  follies  and  absurdities  of  Caligula 
were  equal  to  his  vice&  and  it  is  hard  to  say  whether  he  was  most  the 
object  of  hatred  or  ot  contempt  to  his  sulgects.  He  perished  by 
assassination  in  the  fourth  year  of  his  reign,  the  twenty-ninth  of  his 
age,  A.  U.  C.  794,  A.  D.  42. 

11.  Claudius,  the  uncle  of  Calisula,  was  saluted  emperor  by  the 
prastorian  guards,  who  had  been  the  murderers  of  his  nephew.  He 
was  the  son  of  Octavia,  the  sister  of  Augustus ;  a  man  of  weak  in- 
tellects, and  of  no  education.  His  short  reign  was  marked  by  nn 
enterprise  of  importance.  He  undertook  the  reduction  of  Britain, 
and  alter  visiting  the  island  in  person,  left  his  generals,  Piautius  and 
Vespasian,  to  prosecute  a  war  which  waa  carried  on  for  several  years 
with  various  success.  The  Silures  or  inhabitants  of  South  Wales, 
^er  their  king  Caractacus  (Caradoc),  made  a  brave  resistance,  but 
were  finally  defeated;  and  Caractacus  was  led  captive  to  Rome, 
where  the  magnanimity  of  his  demeanour  procured  him  respect  and 
admiration. 

12.  The  civil  administration  of  Claudius  was  weak  and  contempt- 
ible. He  was  the  slave  even  of  his  domestics,  and  the  dupe  of  hi<»  in- 
famous wives  Messalina  and  Agrippina.  The  former,  abandoned  to 
the  most  shameful  profiigacy,  was  at  length  but  to  death  on  suspi- 
cion of  treasonable  designs.  The  latter,  who  was  the  daughter  of 
Germanicus,  bent  her  utmost  endeavours  to  secure  the  succession  t(» 
the  empire  to  her  son  Domitius  Oenobardus,  and  employed  every 
engine  of  vice  and  inhumanity  to  remove  the  obstacles  to  the  accom- 
plishment of  her  wishes.  Having  at  length  prevailed  on  Ciaudius  to 
adopt  her  son,  and  confer  on  him  the  title  ofC^sar,  to  the  exclusion 
of  his  own  son  Britannicus,  she  now  made  room  for  the  immediate 
elevation  of  Domitius.  by  poisoning  her  husband.  Claudius  was 
put  to  death  in  the  15th  year  of  his  reign,  and  the  63d  of  his  age. 


SECTION  XUI. 

1.  The  son  of  Agrippina  assumed  the  title  of  Nero  Claudius.  He 
had  enjoyed  the  benelit  of  a  good  education  under  the  philosopher 
Seneca,  out  reaped  from  his  instructions  no  other  fruit  than  a  j^edan^ 
tic  affectation  of  taste  and  learning,  with  no  real  pretension  to  either. 
While  controledby  his  tutor  Seneca,  and  by  Burrhus,  captain  of 
the  praetoriiin  guards,  a  man  of  worth  and  ability,  Nero  maintained 
for  a  short  time  a  decency  of  public  conduct ;  but  the  restraint  was 
intolerable,  and  nature  soon  broke  out  His  real  character  was  a 
compound  of  every  thing  that  is  base  and  inhuman.  In  the  murder 
of  hw  mother  Agrippina  he  revenged  the  crime  which  she  had 
committed  in  raising  him  to  the  throne ;  he  rewarded  the  fidelity 
of  Bui^us,  by  poisoning  him ;  and  as  a  last  kindness  to  his  tutor 
Seneca,  he  allowed  him  to  choose  the  mode  of  his  death.  It  was  hi« 
daiiing  amusement  to  exhibit  on  the  stage  and  amphitheatre  as  aa 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  85 

actor,  mu^iciaik  or  gladiator  At  length,  become  the  object  of 
universal  hatrea  and  contempt,  a  rebellion  of  his  subjects,  headed  by 
Vlndex.  an  illustrious  Gaul,  hurled  this  monster  from  the  throne. 
He  haa  not  conraee  to  attempt  resistance:  and  a  slave,  at  his  own 
request,  despatched  him  with  a  dagger.  Nero  perishea  in  the  30th 
year  of  his  age,  after  a  reign  of  fourteen  years,  A.  D.  69. 

2.  Galba,  the  successor  of  Nero,  was  of  an  ancient  and  illustrious 
family.  He  was  in  the  73d  year  of  his  age  when  the  senate,  ratify- 
ing the  choice  of  the  pnetorian  bands,  proclaimed  him  emperor. 
But  an  impolitic  rigour  of  discipline  soon  disgusted  the  army ;  the 
a^-arice  ot  his  disposition,  grudging  the  populace  their  fiivoMte 
^iTies  and  spectacles,  depnved  him  of  their  affections;  and  some 
iTiq^iitous  prosecutions  and  confiscations  excited  general  discontent 
.u. )  mutiny.  Galba,  adopted  and  designed  for  his  successor  the  able 
i:.i  virtuon<»  Piso;  a  measure  which  excited  the  jealousy  of  Otho, 
'.li^  )^^ner  iavourite,  and  led  him  to  form  the  daring  plan  of  raising 
liini-elf  to  the  throne  by  the  destruction  of  both.  He  found  the 
iJ-^Ltoriaft?  apt  to  his  purpose.  They  proclaimed  him  emperor,  and 
!)r^«eritcd  him,  as  a  grateful  offering,  the  heads  of  Galtm  and  rise. 
uMo  were  slain  in  quelling  the  insurrection.  Galba  had  reignea 
<i<\  en  month:?.  Major  jprtoato  visus^mn  pnvatus/uU^  et  omniurn  cmv- 
*t  \\u  Ciipax  imperii^  nin  imperasseL  Tacitus.  He  appeared  to  be  greater 
I'ijn  a  prroaU  tnan^  while  he  yeas  jm  a  prtvaie  station  ;  and  hy  the  consent 
'•ill  'upo*  capable  of  governing^  if  he  had  not  governed, 

.».  Otho  had  a  formidable  rival  in  Vitellius,  who  haJ  been  pro* 
2  iim'^l  emperor  by  his  army  in  Germany.  It  is  hard  to  say  which 
A  I  lie;  competitors  was,  in  point  of  abilities,  the  more  despicable,  or 
D  Character  the  more  infamous.  A  decisive  battle  was  fought  at 
Hjjn:icum,  near  Mantua,  where  Otb**  was  defeated,  and  in  a  fit  of 
•l*  >piiir  ended  his  life  by  his  ownhanr^  afler  a  reign  of  three  months, 
A  i>.  TO, 

I.  The  reign  of  Vitellius  was  o^  eight  months'  duration.  He  is 
•.^iil  in  liave  proposed  Nero  for  lis  model,  and  it  was  just  that  he 
-houl'J  resemble  him  in  his  fate.  V^espasijm  had  obtained  from  N^ro 
the  charge  oC  the  war  again*'*  the  Jews,  which  he  had  conducted 
with  ability  and  success,  a«^(^  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  his  troops 
ia  th<*  o.i^t  A  great  par*  ol  Italy  submitted  to  Vespasian's  generals ; 
«x  *\  Vitellius  mcpnly  capitulated  to  save  his  life,  by  a  resignation  of 
the  empire.  Tbe  people,  indignant  at  his  dast.irdly  spuit,  compelled 
Jiira  to  DO  ^^'orf  ^f  resistance ;  but  the  attempt  was  fruitless.  Priscus. 
«j«e  of  ^H-  generals  of  Vespasian,  took  pos:?ossion  of  Rome;  and 
\'il-I*h»<  »r»5  ma«^'Krcd,  and  his  body  flung  into  the  Tiber. 

-.  \  e«pasian.  though  of  mean  descent,  wa^  worthy  of  the  rmpire, 
joi!  reifOicd  witli  high  popularity  for  ten  yean?.  He  pos^ios-^ed  greiil 
iemency  of  disposition.  His  manners  were  affable  and  engaging, 
•r*l  hi-f  in'>«!n  of  lif<»  was  characterized  by  simplicity  and  fi-ugality. 
lit  re<ptct<^d  the  ancient  forms  of  the  constitution,  restored  the  sen- 
.  le  t«>  its  ili-Jiberative  right?,  and  acted  by  its  anthority  in  the  admin- 
z  itTJtion  of  alt  ptil^Uc  atmirs.  The  only  blemish  in  his  character  was 
a  tincture  of  avarice,  and  even  that  is  greatly  extenuated  bv  the 
ta*idibie  and  patriotic  u<e  which  he  made  of  his  revenues.  C'nder 
hi^  i^ign.  and  by  the  arms  of  his  son  Titus,  was  terminated  the  war 
A<;4U»t  the  Jews.  Thev  had  been  brought  under  the  yoke  of  Home 
sir  Pcmpcy,  who  took  Jerusalem.  They  were  governed  for  some 
wnp'  bv  >lerod,  as  viceroy  under  Augustus.  The  tyranny  of  his  son 
.\rcliehnB  was  the  cause  of  his  banishment,  and  of  the  reduction  ol 

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86  ANCIENT  fflSTORY. 

Judaea  into  the  ordinary  condition  of  a  Roman  province.  The  Jewt 
rebelled  on  every  slight  occasion,  and  Nero  had  sent  Vespasian  to 
reduce  them  to  order.  He  had  just  prepared  for  the  siege  of  Jeru- 
salem, when  he  was  called  to  Rome  to  assume  the  government  of  the 
empire.  Titus  wislied  to  spare  the  city^  and  tried  every  means 
to  prevail  on  the  Jews  to  surrender ;  but  m  vain.  Their  ruin  was 
decreed  by  Heaven.  After  an  obstinate  blockade  of  six  months 
Jerusalem  was  taken  by  storm,  the  temple  burnt  to  ashes,  and  the 
city  burled  in  ruins.  The  Roman  empire  was  now  in  profound 
peace.  Vespasian  associated  Titus  in  the  imperial  dignity,  and 
8oon#after  died,  universally  lamented,  at  the  age  of  sixty-nine,  A. 

6.  The  chardcter  of  Titus  was  humane,  munificent,  dignified,  and 
splendid.  His  short  reign  was  a  period  of  great  happiness  and 
prosperity  to  the  empire,  and  his  government  a  constant  example  of 
virtue,  justice,  and  beneficence.  In  his  time  happened  that  dreadful 
eniptionof  Vesuvius,  which  overwhelmed  tlie  cities  of  Herculaneom 
and  PompeiL  The  public  losses  from  these  calamities  he  repaired 
by  tlie  sacrifice  of  his  fortune  and  revenues.  He  died  in  the  thir6 
year  of  his  reign,  and  fortieth  of  his  age  ;  ever  to  be  remembered 
by  that  most  exalted  epithet,  deHdoR  humani  generis  {Vie  delight  of 
inankind), 

7.  Domitian,the  brother  of  Titus,  was  suspected  of  murdering  him 
by  poison,  and  succeeded  to  the  empire,  A.  I).  81.  He  was  a  vicious 
and  inhumiui  tyY*ant.  A  rebellion  in  Germany  gave  him  occasion  to 
signalize  the  barbarity  of  his  disposition ;  and  its  consequences  were 
•ong  felt  in  the  sanguinary  punishments  inflicted  under  the  pretence 
•f  justice.  The  prodigal  and  voluptuous  spirit  of  this  reign  was  a 
singular  contrast  to  its  tyranny  and  inhumanity.  The  people  were 
loaded  with  insupportable  taxes  to  furnish  spectacles  and  games  for 
their  amusement  The  successes  of  Agricola  in  Britain  threw  a 
lustre  on  the  Roman  arms,  no  part  of  v/hicn  reflected  on  the  emperor, 
for  he  treated  this  eminent  commander  with  the  basest  ingratitude. 
After  fifteen  tedious  years  this  monster  fell  at  last  the  victim  of  as^^as- 
simition,  Uie  empress  herself  conducting  the  plot  for  his  murder,  A. 
D.  96.  • 

8.  Gocceius  Ner\'a,  a  Cretan  by  birth,  was  chosen  emperor  by  tho 
senate,  from  respect- to  the  probity  and  virtues  of  his  character. 
He  was  too  old  tor  the  burden  of  goveniment,  and  of  a  temper  too 
placid  for  the  restraint  of  rooted  corruptions  and  enormities.  His 
reign  was  weak,  inefficient,  and  contemptible.  His  only  act  of  real 
merit  as  a  sovereign,  was  the  adoption  of  the  virtuous  Trajan  as  his 
successor.    Nerva  died  after  a  reign  of  sixteen  months,  A.  D.  90. 

9.  Ulpius  Trajanus  possessed  every  talent  and  every  virtue  thnt 
can  adorn  a  sovereign.  Of  great  military  abilities,  and  an  indefutiga 
ble  spirit  of  enterprise,  he  raised  the  Roman  arms  to  their  ancient 
splendour,  and  greatly  enlarged  the  boundaries  of  the  empire,  lie 
subdued  Uie  Dacians,  conquered  the  Parthiiuis,  and  brought  under 
subjection  Assyria,  Moi^opotamia,  and  Arabia  Felix.  Nor  was  lie  I'^^s 
eminent  in  promoting  the  happincssof  his  subjects,  and  the  intern;:! 
prosperity  of  the  eminre.  His  largesses  were  humane  and  munifi- 
cent He  was  the  friend  and  support  of  the  virtuous  indigent,  and 
the  liberal  patron  of  every  useful  art  and  talent.  His  bounties  \\  oiv 
ooppUed  by  well  judged  economy  in  his  private  fortune,  and  a  M>«t?. 
administration  of  the  public  finances.  In  tiis  own  life  he  w>is  a  niitn 
^  simple  m?mners«  modest,  a£&ble,  fond  of  the  familiar  intercouTMj 

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ANCIENT  HISTORY.  87 

of  his  friends,  and  seDsible  to  all  the  social  and  benevolent  aflectioa<). 
He  merited  the  surname  universally  bestowed  on  him,  Trajat^a 
Optinnis.  He  died  at  the  age  of  sixty-three,  after  a  glorious  reigu  uf 
nineteeo  years,  A.  D.  118. 

10.  iEOcis  Adrianus,  nephew  of  Trajan,  and  worthy  to  fill  his  ^if^^ 
was  chosen  emperor  by  the  army  m  the  east,  and  his  titie  wns 
acknowledged  by  all  orders  of  the  state.  He  adopted  a  polxv  differ* 
«iit  from  that  oi  his  predecessor.  Judging  the  Dmlts  of  Uie  empire 
too  extensive,  fy^  abandoned  all  the  conauests  of  Tn^an  botioding 
the  eastern  provinces  by  the  Euphrates.  He  visited  in  persoo  all  the 
provinces  ot  the  empire,  reforming  in  his  progress  all  abuses,  reliev- 
ing lus  subjects  of  every  oppressive  burden,  rebuildine  the  rulne<i 
atics,  and  establishing  every  where  a  regular  and  mild  adi\iinistr.i 
ti<ja»  under  magistrates  of  approved  probity  and  humanity.  He  gave 
a  discharge  to  the  indigent  debtors  of  the  state,  and  appointed  libenil 
tn^tutions  for  the  emication  of  the  children  of  the  poor.  To  the 
talents  of  an  able  politician  he  joined  an  excellent  taste  in  the  liberal 
artjb  His  reign,  which  was  of  twenty-two  years'  duration,  wai  an  sbim 
boCb  of  pubBc  happiness  and  splendour.  In  the  last  year  of  his  iile 
he  beaueathed  to  the  empire  a  double  ie^^acy,  in  adopting  for  his 
immediate  successor  Titas  Aurelius  Antonmus,  and  substituting  An- 
niw  Vems  to  succeed  upon  his  death.  These  were  the  Anionines, 
who  during  forty  years  ruled  the  Roman  empire  with  consunmat(! 
wiadom,  ability,  and  virtue.  Adrian  died  A.  JD.  138,  at  the  age  of 
iixty4wo. 

SECTION  XLUL 

AGE  OF  THE  ANTONINES,  &c 

1.  Trb  happiest  reigns  furnish  the  fewest  events  for  the  pen  of 
hiMory.  Antoninus  was  the  father  of  his  people.  He  preferred 
peace  to  the  ambition  of  conquest;  yet  in  every  necessary  war 
the  Roman  arms  bad  their  wonted  renown.  The  British  province 
was  enlarged  by  the  conquests  of  Urbicus,  and  some  formidable 
rebellions  were  subdued  in  Germany,  Dacia.  and  the  east.  The 
domestic  administration  of  the  sovereign  wus  dignified,  splendid,  and 
hwmne.  With  all  the  virtues  of  Numa,  his  love  of  religion,  pouce, 
and  jostice,  he  had  the  superior  advantage  of  dilTusing  these  bied>ings 
over  a  great  portion  of  tfie  world.  He  died  at  the  age  of  scveou- 
fotir,  after  a  reign  of  twenty-two  vears,  A.  D.  101. 

2.  Annius  Verus  assumed,  at  Jus  accession,  the  name  of  MarcMr* 
Anrelius  Antoninus,  and  bestowed  on  his  brother  Lucius  Verus  a  joint 
«d;mai«tmtion  of  tlie  empire.  The  former  was  as  eminent  for  ilw 
worth  and  virtues  of  his  character,  as  the  latter  was  remarkaM.^  P  r 
profligacy,  meanof^Bs,  aud  vice.  xMarcus  Aurelius  was  attiicheil  Ix  :it 
ty  ail'ir?  and  educiition  to  the  Stoical  philosophy,  which  ho  h:.^  a;;- 
jciniMy  taught  and  illustrated  in  his  J\Jalita4ions,  His  own  li(o  w.  y 
Itk?  licst  commentary  on  his  precepts.  The  Parthians  were  i\.'i  u!<  tl 
iw4n  attack  upon  Uic  empire,  and  a  rebellion  of  the  Gennatts  m^.^^ 
cnbdoed.  In  these  wars  the  mean  and  worthless  Verus  brought  xlU- 
fnce  apoQ  the  Roman  name  in  every  region  where  he  commanded ; 
hut  fertunately  relieved  the  empire  of  its  fears  by  an  early  deatS. 
The  residue  of  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius  was  a  continued  blc  >>- 
ng  In  his  subjects.  He  reformed  the  internal  policy  of  the  siwu-^ 
fe^idatad  the  government  of  the  provuices,  apd  visited  himself,  for 

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88  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

the  purposes  of  beneficence,  the  most  distant  quarters  of  his  domin- 
lODS.  ^^ lie  iippeared,^'  says  an  ancient  author,  ^  like  some  benevo- 
lent deity,  dimisin^  around  him  universal  peace  and  happiness,^'  He 
died  in  rannonia,  m  the  59th  year  of  his  age,  and  19th  of  his  reign, 
A.  D.  180. 

3.  Commodus,  his  most  unworthy  son,  succeeded  to  the  empire 
on  his  death.  He  resembled  in  character  his  motlier  Faustina,  a 
woman  infamous  for  all  manner  of  vice.  Her  profligacy  was  known 
to  ail  but  her  husband  Marcus,  by  whom  she  was  regarded  as  a  para- 
gon of  virtue.  Commodus  had  an  aversion  to  every  rational  and 
nberal  pursuit,  and  a  fond  attachment  to  the  sports  of  the  circus  and 
amphitheatre,  the  hunting  of  wild  beasts,  and  the  combats  of  boxers 
and  gladiators.  The  measures  of  this  reign  were  as  unimportant  ?m 
the  character  of  the  sovereign  was  contemptible.  His  concubine  and 
some  of  his  chief  officers  prevented  their  own  destruction  by  assas- 
sinating the  tyrant,  in  the  32d  year  of  his  age,  and  13th  of  his 
reign,  A.  D.  193. 

4.  The  prsBtorian  guards  gave  the  empire  to  Publius  Helvius 
Pertinax,  a  man  of  mean  birth,  who  had  risen  to  esteem  by  his  vir- 
tues and  military  talents.  He  applied  himself  with  zeal  to  the  cor- 
rection of  abuses;  but  tlie  austerity  of  his  government  deprived  him 
of  the  affections  of  a  corrupted  people.  He  had  disappointed  the 
army  of  a  promised  reward,  ancf,  atter  a  reign  of  eignty-six  days, 
was  murdered  in  the  imperial  palace  by  tlie  same  hands  which  ma 
placed  him  on  the  throne. 

3.  The  empire  was  now  put  up  to  auction  by  the  pnetorians,  and 
was  purchased  by  Didius  Julianus ;  while  Pescenius  Niger  in  Asia, 
Ciodius  Albinus  in  Britain,  and  Septimius  Severus  in  llTyria,  were 
each  chosen  emperor  by  the  troops  which  they  commanded.  Se- 
verus marched  to  Rome,  and,  on  his  approach,  the  prastorians  aban- 
doned Didius.  who  had  failed  to  pay  the  stipulated  price  for  his  ele- 
vation :  and  tne  senate  formally  deposed  to  put  him  to  death.  Seve- 
rus being  now  master  of  Rome,  prepared  to  reduce  the  provinces 
which  had  acknowledged  tlie  sovereignty  of  Ni^er  and  Albino.-. 
These  two  rivals  were  successively  subdued.  Niger  was  slain  iu 
battle,  and  Albinus  fell  by  his  own  hands.  The  administration  of  Se- 
vefus  was  wise  and  equitable,  but  tinctured  with  despotic  rigour. 
It  was  his  purpose  to  erect  the  fabric  of  absolute  monarchy,  and  all 
his  institutions  operated  with  able  policy  to  that  end.  lie  possessed 
eminent  military  talents.  He  gloriously  boasted,  that,  having  re- 
ceived the  empire  oppressed  with  foreign  and  domestic  wars,  he  left 
it  in  profound,  universal,  and  honourable  peace.  He  carried  with 
him  into  Britain  his  two  sons,  Caracalla  and  Geta,  whose  unpromis- 
ing dispositions  clouded  his  latter  days.  '  In  this  war  the  Caledonian^ 
xxoaer  Ftogal  are  said  to  have  defeated,  on  the  banks  of  the  Currou, 
Caraculy  the  son  of  the  king  of  the  world.  Severus  died  at  York,  in 
the  66th  year  of  his  age,  after  a  reign  of  eighteen  years,  A.  D.  21 1, 

G.  The  mutual  hatred  of  Caracalla  and  Geta  was  increased  by 
their  association  in  the  empire ;  and  the  former,  with  brutal  inhu- 
manity, caused  his  brother  to  be  openly  murdered  in  the  arms  of  his 
mother.  His  reign,  which  was  of  six  years'  duration,  and  one  con- 
tinued series  of  atrocities,  was  at  length  terminated  by  assassinatiao, 
A.D.217. 

7.  Those  disorders  in  the  empire  which  began  with  Commodus 
continued  for  about  a  century,  till  the  accession  of  Diocletian.  That 
interval  was  filled  by  the  reigns  of  Heliogabalus,  Alexander  Severua 

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ANCIENT  HISTORY.  80 

Maxiinkk  Goidian,  Deciua,  Gallos,  Valerianus,  GallieDus^  Claudius, 
Auretianus,  T^tus,  Probus,  and  Cams ;  a  period  of  which  the  an- 
nab  furnish  neither  amusement  nor  useful  information.  The  single 
exception  is  the  reign  of  Alexander  Severus,  a  mild,  beneficent,  and 
•uiligmened  prince,  whose  character  shines  the  more  from  the  con- 
tr^-i  of  those  who  preceded  and  followed  him. 
rt.  Diocletian  began  his  reign  A.  D.  284,  and  introduced  a  new 

•  v^tem  of  administration,  dividing  the  empire  into  four  governments, 
•iuT  as  many  princes.  Maximian  shju'cd  with  him  the  title  of 
\uic;i^ti5,  and  Galcrius  and  Const;intius  were  declared  Cjesars.  Each 
\uui  hi*  separate  dcixirtment  or  province,  all  nominally  supreme,  but 
i!>  re;ility  under  the  direction  of  the  superior  talents  and  authority  of 
I»ioclrti.m:  an  unwise  policy,  which  depended  for  its  efficacy  on 
indivi  laid  ability  alone.  Diocletian  and  Maximian.  trusting  to  the 
r.rnrinoance  of  that  order  in  the  empire  which  tneir  vigour  had 

•  -tiiMi^ied^  retired  from  sovereignty,  and  lef^  the  government  in  the 
i.mr^  of  the  Caesars;  but  Constantius  died  soon  alter  in  Britain,  and 
ir-  s*xj  Constantino  was  proclaimed  emi>eror  at  York,  thou^i  Uale- 
r  ius  did  not  acknowledge  his  title.  Maximian,  however,  havmg  once 
more  resumed  the  purple,  bestowed  on  Constantino  his  daughter  in 
Liarriage,  and  thus  invested  him  with  a  double  title  to  empire.  On 
itie  death  of  Maximian  and  Galerius,  Constantine  had  no  other  com- 
;>t  titor  bot  Maxentius,thc  son  of  the  former,  and  the  contest  between 

!iem  was  decided  by  the  sword.    Maxentius  fell  in  battle,  and  Con- 
stantine remained  sole  master  of  the  empire. 

IV  The  ddministration  of  Constantine  was.  in  the  beginning  of  his 
reiga»  mikl,  equitable,  and  politic.  Though  zealously  attached  to 
the  christian  fiiith,  he  made  no  violent  innovations  on  tne  reUgion  of 
the  state.  He  introduced  order  and  economy  into  the  civil  govern* 
meat,  :md  repressed  every  species  of  oppression  and  corruption. 
Lit  hi*  natural  temper  was  severe  and  cruel,  and  the  latter  part  of 
hi*  neign  ^vas  as  much  deformed  by  intolerant  zeal  and  sanguinary 
neonr,  as  the  former  had  been  remarkable  for  equity  and  benignity. 
iVom  thi*  unfavourable  change  of  character  he  lost  the  affections  of 
h:<  subjects ;  and,  from  a  feeling  probably  of  reciprocal  disgust,  he 
r«'iiio\'ed  the  seat  of  the  Roman  empire  to  Byzantium,  now  termed 
'\>asUntinopIe.  The  court  followed  the  sovereign;  the  opnlent 
proprietors  were  attended  by  their  slaves  and  retainers.  Rome  was 
tn  a  few  years  greatly  depopulated,  and  the  new  capital  s^velled  at 
ctice  to  enormous  magmtude.  It  was  characterized  by  eastern 
ftpleodour,  Inxunf,  and  voluptuousness;  and  the  cities  of  Greece 
wi^rev  dejipoilcd  for  its  embellishment^.  Of  the  internal  policy  of 
::.<.'  empire  we  shall  treat  in  the  next  section.  In  an  expedition 
4;^ost  the  Persians,  Constantine  died  at  Nicomedia,  In  the  30th 
\  »•  IT  of  his  reign,  and  63d  of  his  age,  A.  D.  337.  In  the  time  of 
t*jQ6tantine  the  Goths  had  made  several  irruptions  on  the  empire, 
.uid,  diongh  repulsed  and  beaten,  began  gradually  to  encroach  on 
i:mc  pfOTinces^ 

•H2  12 


y  Google 


90  ANCIENT  fflSTORY 


SECTION  XLIV. 

STATE   OF  THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE   AT   THE   TIME    OF   CON- 
STANTINE.    HIS  SUCCESSORS. 

1.  In  li^a  of  the  ancient  republican  distinctions,  which  were 
founded  chiefly  on  personal  merit,  a  rigid  subordination  of  rank  and 
office  now  went  ttirough  all  the  orders  of  the  state.  The  magis- 
trates were  divided  into  three  classes,  distinguished  by  the  uconean- 
Ine  titles  of^  1 9 (he  illustrious;  2,  the  respectable;  3,  the  darissimi. 
The  epithet  or  illustrious  was  bestowed  on,  1,  the  consuls  and  patri- 
cians ;  2,  the  praetorian  prefects  of  Rome  and  Constantinople ;  3,  the 
masters-general  of  the  cavalry  and  infantry ;  4,  the  seven  ministers 
of  the  p^ace.  The  consuls  were  created  by  the  sole  authority  ot 
the  emperor :  their  dignity  was  inefficient ;  they  had  no  appropriate 
functifiin  in  the  state,  j^id  their  names  ser\'ed  only  to  give  the  legal 
date  to  the  year.  The  dignity  of  patrician  was  not,  as  in  ancient 
times,  a  Iiereditary  distinction,  but  was  bestowed,  as  a  title  of  honour, 
by  the  emperor  on  his  favourites.  From  the  time  of  tlie  abolition  of 
the  prstorian  bands  by  Constantine,  the  dignity  of  praetorian  prae 
feet  was  conferred  on  the  civil  governors  of  the  four  departments  of 
the  empire.  These  were,  the  Eiist,  Illyria,  IttUy,  ana  the  Gauls. 
They  had  the  supreme  administration  of  justice  and  of  the  finances, 

he  power  of  supplying  all  the  inferior  magistracies  in  their  district, 
and  an  appellative  jurisdiction  from  all  its  tribunals.  Independent 
of  their  authority,  Rome  and  Constantinople  had  each  its  own  prae- 
tct,  who  was  the  chief  magistrate  of  the  city.  In  the  second  class, 
tiie  respectable,  were  the  proconsuls  of  Asia,  Achaia,  and  Africa, 
and  the  military  comites  and  duces^  generals  of  the  impieriai  armies. 
The  third  class,  clarisaimi^  comprehended  the  inferior  governors 
and  magistrates  of  the  provinces,  responsible  to  the  praefects  and 
their  deputies. 

2.  The  intercourse  between  the  court  and  provinces  was  main- 
tained by  the  construction  of  roads,  and  the  institution  of  regular 
posts  or  couriers ;  under  which  denomination  were  ranked  the  num- 
berless spies  of  government,  whose  duty  was  to  convey  all  sort  of 
intelligence  from  the  remotest  quarter  of  the  empire  to  its  chief 
seat  Every  institution  was  calculated  to  support  the  fabric  of  des- 
potism. Torture  was  employed  for  the  discovery  of  crimes.  Taxes 
and  impositions  of  every  nature  were  prescribed  and  levied  by  the 
sole  authority  of  the  emperor.  The  quantity  and  rate  were  fixed  bv  a 
censuf  made  over  all  the  provinces,  and  part  was  generally  paiJ  in 
money,  part  in  the  produce  of  the  lands ;  a  burden  frequently  found 
FO  grievous  as  to  prompt  to  the  neglect  of  agriculture.  Evei-y  ol:- 
ject  of  merchandise  and  manufacture  was  Rkewise  highly  taxed. 
Subsidies,  moreover,  were  exacted  from  all  the  cities,  under  the 
name  of  tree  gifts,  on  various  occasions  of  public  concerns ;  as  the 
accession  of  an  emperor,  his  consulate,  the  birthof  a  prince,  a  victory 
over  the  barbarians^  or  any  other  event  of  similar  importance. 

3.  An  impolitic  distinction  was  made  l>etween  the  troops  stationed 
in  the  distant  provmces  and  those  in  the  heart  of  the  empire.  The 
latter,  termecf  jjalatines^  enjoyed  a  higher  pay  and  more  peculiar 
favour,  and,  having  less  employment,  spent  their  time  in  idleness  and 
luxury    while  the  former,  termed  the  borderers^  who,  In  fiict,  h^*^  «^- 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  01 

care  of  tlie  empire,  and  were  exposed  to  perpetual  hard  service,  had^ 
with  an  inferior  reward,  the  mortitication  of  feeling  themselves  re- 
garded as  of  meaner  rank  than  their  fellow-soldiers.  Constantine  like- 
wise, from  a  timid  policy  <^  guarding  against  mutinies  of  the  troops. 
reduced  rhe  legion  from  its  ancient  complement  of  5.000,  6,000^ 
7,000,  and  8,0UU,  to  1/KX)  or  1,500;  and  debased  the  l)ody  of  the 
army  by  the  intermixture  of  Scythians,  Goths,  and  Germans. 

'1.  This  immcniie  mass  of  heterog^eous  parts,  which  internally 
L^Hiured  with  the  seeds  of  di^olution  and  corruption,  was  kept  to- 
gotl>er  for  some  time  by  the  vigorous  exertion  ol  despotic  authoi't^'. 
The  tibric  Wiis  splendid  and  august ;  but  it  wanted  both  that  energy 
ot' constitution  and  that  real  dignity,  which,  in  former  times,  it  derived 
from  the  exerci^  of  heroic  and  patriotic  virtues. 

a.  Constantine,  with  a  destructive  policy,  had  divided  the  empire 
among  6ve  princes,  three  of  them  his  sons,  and  two  nephews ;  but 
(*on>tantius,  the  youngest  of  the  sons,  tinaliy  got  rid  of  all  his  com- 
pelitors,  and  ruled  the  empire  alone  with  a  weak  and  impotent  scep- 
tre. A  variety  of  domestic  broils,  and  mutinies  of  the  troo]^  against 
their  generals,  had  Ictt  the  western  frontier  to  the  mercy  ot  the  bar- 
tmrtan  nations.  The  Franks,  Saxons.  Alemanni,  and  Sarmatiani«,  laid 
waste  all  the  fine  countries  watered  oy  the  Rhine,  and  the  Persians 
made  dreadful  incursions  on  the  provinces  of  the  east.  Constant! us 
indolently  wasted  his  time  in  theological  controversies,  but  was  i)i*e 
vailed  on  to  adopt  one  prudent  measure,  the  appointment  of  hi^ 
cousin  Julian  to  tlie  dignity  of  Caesar. 

6.  Julianpa<-Jos*ed  many  heroic  qualities,  and  his  mind  wpjs  formed 
by  natnre  for  the  sovereignty  of  a  great  people ;  but,  educated  at 
Athens,  in  the  schools  of  the  Platonic  pTiiJosophy ,  he  had  unfortunatelv 
cooceiveti  a  rooted  antipathy  to  the  doctrines  of  Christianity.  W  ith 
every  talent  of  a  general,  and  possessing  the  confidence  and  ailec- 
livin  of  his  troops,  he  once  more  restored  the  glory  of  the  Roman 
ani»,  anil  successfully  repressed  the  invasions  of  the  barbariaa«. 
Hi*  victories  excited  the  jealousy  of  Constantius,  who  meanly  re- 
solved to  remove  from  his  command  the  better  part  of  his  troops.  Tlie 
coQse<|uence  was  a  declaration  of  the  army,  that  it  was  their  choice 
that  Julian  should  be  their  emperor.  Constantius  escaped  the  igno- 
miay  that  awaited  him  by  dyhig  at  this  critical  juncture,  and  Julian 
was  immediately  acknowledged  so ve re ijgn  of  the  Roman  empire. 

7.  The  reformation  of  civil  abuses  formed  the  tint  object  of  his 
attention,  which  he  next  turned  to  the  reformation,  as  he  thought, 
of  religion,  by  tlie  suppression  of  Christianity,  i^e  beean  by  reform- 
ing the  pagan  theology,  and  sought  to  raise  the  character  of  its 
pnests,  by  inculcating  purity  of  life  and  sanctity  of  morals;  thus 
(learing  involuntary  testimony  to  the  superior  excellence,  in  those 
n*spcct^  of  that  religion  which  he  laboured  to  abolish.  Without 
persecuting  he  attacked  the  christians  by  tlie  more  dangerous  policy 
ol  treating  them  with  contempt,  and  removing  them,  as  visionaries, 
from  all  employments  of  public  trust.  He  refused  them  the  benefit 
cf  the  laws  to  decide  tlieir  differences,  liccause  their  religion  forbade 
all  diasensioQS :  anJ  they  were  dobiured  the  studies  of  literature  and 
pbiksophy,  which  they  could  not  Icam  but  from  pagan  authors.  He 
w-w  himself,  as  a  pagan,  tlu^  slave  of  the  most  bigoted  superstition, 
believing  in  omens  and  auguries,  and  fancying  himself  tavoured  with 
an  actoau  intercourse  with  the  gods  and  gtHiJesses.  To  avenge  the 
iDJoxies  which  the  empire  had  sa'^tained  t'rom  the  Persians.  Julian 
mairhfd  into  the  heart  of  A^ia,  and  was  for  some  time  in  the  train 

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92  ANCIENT  fflSTORY. 

of  conquest,  when,  in  a  fatal  enfa^ement,  though  crowned  with 
victory,  he  was  slain,  at  the  age  of  mirty^>ne,  after  a  reign  of  three 
years,  A.  D.  363. 

8.  The  Roman  army  was  dispirited  by  the  death  of  its  commander. 
They  chose  for  their  emperor  Jovian,  a  captain  of  the  domestic 
guards,  and  purchased  a  free  retreat  from  the  dominions  of  Persia 
bj  the  ignommious  surrender  of  five  provinces,  which  had  been  ceded 
by  a  former  sovereign  to  Galerius.  The  short  reign  of  Jovian,  a 
period  of  seven  months,  was  mild  and  equitable.  He  favoured  Chris- 
tianity, and  restored  its  votaries  to  all  their  privileges  as  subjects. 
He  died  suddenly  at  the  age  of  thirty-three. 

9.  Valentinian  was  chosen  emperor  by  the  army  on  the  death  of 
Jovian ;  a  man  of  obscure  birth  and  severe  manners,  but  of  consider- 
able military  talents.  He  associated  with  himself  in  the  empire  his 
brother  Vaiens,  to  whom  he  gave  the  dominion  of  the  eastern  prov- 
inces, reserving  to  himself  the  western.  The  Persians,  under  Sapor, 
were  making  mroads  on  the  former,  and  the  latter  was  subject  to 
continual  invasion  from  the  northern  barbarians.  They  were  suc- 
cessfully repelled  by  Valentinian  in  many  battles ;  and  his  domestic 
administration  was  wise,  equitable,  and  politic.  The  christian  reli 
gion  was  favoured  by  the  emperor,  though  not  promoted  by  the 
persecution  of  its  adversaries;  a  contrast  to  the  conduct  of  his 
Brother  Valcns,  who,  intemperately  supporting  the  Arian  heresy,  set 
the  whole  provinces  in  a  flame,  and  drew  a  swarm  of  invaders  upon 
the  empire  in  the  guise  of  friends  and  allies,  who  in  the  end  entirely 
subverted  it.  These  were  the  Goths,  who,  migrating  from  Scandi- 
navia, had,  in  the  second  century,  settled  on  the  hxD&B  of  the  Palus 
Moeotis,  and  thence  gradually  extended  their  territory.  In  the  reign  of 
Valeas  they  took  possession  of  Dacia,  and  were  known  by  the  distinct 
appellation  of  Ostroeoths  and  Visigoths,  or  eastern  and  western  Goths ; 
a  remarkable  people,  whose  manners,  customs,  government,  and 
laws,  are  afterwards  to  be  particularly  noted. 

10.  Valentinian  died  on  an  expedition  against  the  Alemanni,  and 
vvas  succeeded  in  the  empire  of  the  west  by  Gratian,  his  eldest  son, 
a  boy  of  sixteen  years  of  age,  A.  D.  367.  Vaiens,  in  the  east,  was 
the  scourge  of  his  people.  The  Huns,  a  new  race  of  barbarians,  bf 
Tartar  or  Siberian  origin,  now  poured  down  on  the  provinces  both 
of  the  west  and  east  The  Gotns,  comparatively  a  civilized  people, 
lied  before  them.  The  Visigoths,  who  were  first  attacked,  requested 
protection  from  the  empire,  and  Vaiens  imprudently  gave  them  a 
settlement  in  Thrace.  The  Ostrogoths  made  the  same  request,  and, 
on  refusal,  forced  their  way  into  &e  same  province.  Volens  gave 
them  battle  at  Adrianoole.  His  army  was  defeated,  and  he  was  slain 
in  the  engagement  The  Goths,  unresisted,  ravaged  Achaia  and  Pan- 
Qonia. 

11.  Gratian,  jiyouth  of  great  worth,  but  of  little  energy  of  char- 
acter, assumed  Theodosius  as  his  colleague.  On  the  early  death  of 
Gratian,  and  the  minority  of  his  son  valentinian  ii,  Theodoeius 
governed,  with  great  ability,  both  the  eastern  and  western  empire. 
The  character  of  Theodosius,  deservedly  sumamed  the  greedy  was 
worthy  of  the  best  ages  of  the  Roman  state.  He  auccessfiuly  repell- 
ed the  encroachments  of  the  barbarians,  and  secured,  by  wholesome 
laws,  the  prosperity  of  his  i>eople.  He  died,  alter  a  reign  of 
eighteen  years,  assigning  to  his  sons,  Arcadius  and  Honorius,  the 
separate  sovereignties  ofoast  and  west,  A.  D.  395. 


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ANCIENT  HISTORY  9S 


SECTION  XLV. 

PROGRESS  OF  THE  CHRISTIAN  RELIGION,  FROM  ITS  INSTl 
TUTION  TO  THE  EXTINCTION  OF  PAGANISM  IN  THh 
REIGN  OF  THEODOSIUS. 

1.  Tbb  reign  of  Theodosias  was  signalized  by  the  downfal  of  the 
pagan  superstition,  and  the  full  establishment  of  the  christian  religioa 
in  we  Roman  empire.  This  ereat  revolution  of  opinions  is  bigoly 
worthy  of  attention,  and  naturally  induces  a  retrospect  to  the  condi- 
tion 01  the  christian  church  from  its  institution  down  to  this  period. 

It  has  been  frequentljr  remarked  (because  it  is  an  obvious  truth), 
that  at  the  time  ot  our  Saviour's  birtii  a  divine  revelation  seemed  to 
be  more  pecoliariy  needed ;  and  that^  from  a  concurrence  of  circum- 
stances, tne  state  of  the  worid  was  then  uncommonly  flivourable  for 
the  extensive  dissemination  of  the  doctrines  which  it  conveyed.   The 
•mion  of  so  many  nations  under  one  power,  and  the  extension  of  civ- 
liuntioa,  were  favourable  to  the  progress  of  a  religion  which  pre- 
scribed univereal  charity  and  benevolence.    The  grobs  superstitions 
..f  paganism,  and  its  tendency  to  corrupt  instead  of  punfying  the 
moraK  contributed  to  explode  its  influence  with  every  thinkmg  mind. 
i>en  the  prevalent  philosophy  of  the  times,  epicurism,  more  easily 
.nden'tood  than  the  retinenienU  of  the  Platonists.  and  more  grateful 
.i)40  the  severities  of  the  Stoics,  tended  to  dcgraae  human  nature  to 
tie  Itrvel  of  the  brute  creation.    The  christian  religion^  thus  nece&- 
.fry  for  the  reformation  of  the  world,  foimd  its  chief  partisans  in  those 
^«ho  were  the  friends  of  virtue,  ana  its  enemies  among  the  votaries 
t  vice. 

i.  The  persecution  which  the  christians  suffered  from  the  Romans 
.ins  been  deemed  an  exception  to  that  spirit  of  toleration  which 
they  showed  to  the  religions  of  other  nations ;  but  they  were  toler- 
•itit  onlr  to  those  whose  theologies,  were  not  hostile  to  their  own. 
The  religion  of  the  Romans  was  interwoven  with  their  political  co&- 
MitntioD.  The  zeal  of  the  christians,  aiming  at  the  suppression  of  all 
vlobtry,  was  naturally  regarded  as  dangerous  to  the  state ;  and  hence 
rhey  were  the  object  of  hatred  and  persecution.  In  the  first  century 
xhc  christian  church  suffered  deeply  under  Nero  and  Domltian; 
vet  those  persecuttons  had  no  tendency  to  check  the  progress  of  iti 
loctrines. 

y.  It  b  matter  of  question  what  was  the  form  of  the  primitive 
•:biiich«  and  the  nature  of  its  government ;  and  on  this  head  much 
•aderence  of  opinion  obtain^  not  only  between  the  catholics  and  prot- 
•r-tants,  bat  between  the  different  classes  of  the  latter,  as  the  Luthei* 
-iim  and  Calvini-^ts.  It  is  moreover  an  opinion,  that  our  Saviour  and 
»u*  apfifitles^  confining  tlieir  precepts  to  the  pure  doctrines  of  religion, 
n  ive  lefl  all  christiim  societies  to  regulate  their  frame  and  govern 
nmot  in  the  manner  best  suited  to  the  civil  constitutions  of  the  cooi^ 
I  -i.  *  in  which  thcv  are  established. 

4.  In  tlie  i>ecood  century  the  books  of  the  New  Testament  were 
oQected  into  a  volume  by  the  elder  fathers  of  the  church,  and  re- 
vived w  a  canon  of  faitli.    The  Old  Testament  had  been  tranabt- 
'-I  frnm  the  iiebn^w  into  Greek,  by  order  of  Ptolemv  PhiladelphuB, 
.  :  I  years  before  Christ.    The  early  church  sufferen  much  from  an 
ai/foid  ctvit^avour  of  the  more  leanied  of  its  votaries  to  reconcile  lit 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


94  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

doctrines  to  the  tenets  of  the  pagan  philosophers :  hence  the  sects  of 
the  Gnostics  and  Ammonians,  and  the  Platonising  christians.  In  the 
second  century  the  Greek  churches  began  to  form  provincial  associ- 
ations, and  to  establish  general  rules  of  government  and  discipline. 
Assemblies  were  held,  termed  tfynodoi  and  condlitLf  over  which  a  me- 
tropolitan  presided.  A  short  time  after  arose  the  superior  order  of 
patriarch,  presiding  over  a  large  district  of  the  christian  world ;  and 
a  subordination  takmg  place  even  among  these,  the  bishop  of  Rome 
was  acknowledged  the  chief  of  the  patriarchs.  Persecution  sUll  at- 
tended the  early  church,  even  under  those  excellent  princes.  Trajan, 
Adrian,  and  th<*.  Antonines ;  and,  in  the  reign  of  Severus,  all  the  prov- 
inces of  the  empire  were  stained  with  the  blood  of  the  martyrs. 

5.  The  third  century  was  more  favourable  to  the  progress  of  Chris- 
tianity and  the  tranquillity  of  its  disciples.  In  those  times  it  suffered 
less  from  the  civil  arm  than  from  the  pens  of  the  pagan  pliilosopers. 
Porphyry,  Philostratus,  &c. ;  but  these  attacks  called  forth  the  zeai 
and  talents  of  manv  able  defenders,  as  Origen,  Dlonysius«  and  Cy- 
prian. A  part  of  tne  Gauls,  Germany,  and  Britain,  received  the  light 
of  the  gospel  in  this  century. 

6.  In  the  fourth  century  the  christian  church  was  alternately  per- 
secuted and  cherished  by  the  Roman  emperors.  Among  its  oppi-es* 
sors  we  rank  Diocletian,  Galerius,  and  Julian ;  among  its  favourers, 
Constantine  and  his  sons,  Valentinian,  Valens,  Gratian,  and  the  excel- 
lent Theodosius,  in  whose  reign  the  pagan  superstition  came  to  its 
final  period. 

7.  From  the  age  of  Numa  to  the  reign  of  Gratian  the  Romans 
preserved  the  regular  succession  of  the  several  sacerdotal  college?, 
the  pontiff  augurs,  vestals,  Jimnmes^  satiL  &c.,  whose  authority, 
though  weakened  in  the  latter  ages,  was  still  protected  by  the  laws. 
Even  tlie  christian  emperors  held,  like  their  pa^an  predecessors,  the 
office  of  pontifex  maxrmus,  Gmtian  was  the  nrst  who  refused  that 
ancient  aienity  as  a  profanation,  in  the  time  of  Theodosius  the 
cause  of  Christianity  and  of  paganism  was  solemnly  debated  in  the 
Roman  senate  between  Ambrose^  archbishop  of  Milan,  the.  chammon 
of  the  former,  and  SymmachuJ.  the  defender  of  the  latter.  The 
cause  of  Christianity  was  triumphant,  and  the  senate  issued  its  de- 
cree for  the  abolition  of  paganism,  whose  downfal  in  the  capital  was 
soon  followed  by  its  extinction  in  the  provinces.  Tbeodasius,  witl^ 
able  policy,  permitted  no  persecution  of  the  ancient  religion,  which 
perished  witii  more  rapidity,  because  its  fail  was  gentic  and  un- 
resisted. 

8.  But  the  christian  church  exhibited  a  superstition  in  srme  re- 
spects little  less  irrational  than  polytheism,  in  the  worship  of  saints 
and  relics;  and  many  novel  tenets,  unfounded  in  the  precepts  nt 
our  Saviour  and  his  apostles,  were  manifestly  borrowed  from  the 
pagan  schools.  The  doctrines  of  the  Platonic  philosoj^hy  seem  lo 
have  led  to  fhe  notions  of  an  intermediate  state  of  purification,  ce- 
libacy of  the  priests,  ascetic  mortifications,  penances,  and  inonusUc 
seclusion. 


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ANCIENT  HISTORY 


SECTION  XLVL 

EXTINCTION  OF  THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE  IN  THE  WEST. 

1.  In  the  reigns  of  Arcadius  and  Honorius.  the  sons  and  saccesson 
of  Theodosias,  the  barbarian  nations  established  themselves  in  the 
(rootier  provinces  both  of  the  east  and  west  Theodosius  had  com- 
mitted the  government  to  Rudnus  and  Stilicho  durine  the  nonage  of 
his  sods;  and  their  &tal  dissensions  gave  everj^  advantage  to  the 
enemies  of  the  empire.  The  Huns,  actually  invited  by  Ruiinus, 
ovenpread  Armenia,  Cappadocia,  and  Syria.  The  Goths,  under 
Alaric,  ravaged  to  the  borders  of  Italy,  and  laid  waste  Achaia  to  the 
PelopoDDesas.  Stilicho,  an  able  general,  made  a  noble  stand  against 
these  invaders ;  but  his  plans  were  frustrated  by  the  machinations 
cit'  his  rivals,  and  the  weakness  of  Arcadius,  who  purchased  an 
ignomioioos  peace,  by  ceding  to  Alaric  the  whole  of  Greece. 

S.  Alaric,  now  styled  king  of  the  Visigoths,  prepared  to  add  Italy 
to  hii  new  dominions.  He  passed  the  Alps^  and  was  carrying  all 
kMore  him,  when,  amused  by  the  politic  Stihcho  with  the  prospect 
of  a  new  cession  of  territory,  he  was  attiicked  unawares,  and  defeated 
^»y  that  general,  then  commanding  ttie  armies  of  Honorius.  The 
<>:nperor  triumphantly  celebrated,  on  that  occasion,  the  eternal  defeat 
'  {  ihc  Gothic  nation ;  an  eternity  bounded  by  the  lapse  of  a  few 
:n  inth^.  In  this  interval,  a  torrent  of  the  Goth^  breaking  down  upon 
(ft'noEiny  forced  the  natioas  whom  they  dispossessed,  the  Suevi^ 
Vi:ioi,  and  Vandals,  to  precipitate  themselves  upon  Italy.  They 
j>;3ed  their  arms  to  those  of  Alaric,  who,  thus  re intorced,  determined 
t  •  overwhelm  Rome.  The  policy  of  Stilicho  made  him  change  his 
i  irpone.  on  the  promise  of  4,000  pounds  weight  of  gold ;  a  promise 
r^-peateoly  broken  by  Honorius,  and  its  violation  fin<illy  revenged  by 
\lAric,  by  the  sack  and  plunder  of  the  city,  A.  D.  410.  With  gene- 
nHM  magnanimity  he  spared  the  lives  of  the  vanquished,  and,  with 
«tn^ar  liberality  of  spirit,  was  anxious  to  preserve  every  ancient 
c<!itice  from  destruction. 

'X  Alaric,  preparing  now  for  the  conquest  of  Sicily  and  Africa, 
died  at  this  era  of  his  highest  jglory;  and  Honorius,  instead  of  profit- 
ing bj  this  event  to  recover  his  lost  provinces^  noade  a  treaty  with 
h»  8iiccesM>r  Ataulfus,  gave  him  in  marriage  his  sister  Placidla.  and 
«v<»red  his  friendship  by  ceding  to  him  a  portion  of  Spain,  while  a 
%waX  put  of  what  remained  h£A  before  been  occupied  by  the  Van- 
iaia.  He  allowed  soon  aAer  to  the  Burgundians  a  just  title  to  their 
cooqnesto  in  GauL  Thus  the  western  empire  was  passing  by  de- 
grees from  the  dominion  of  its  ancient  masters. 

4.  The  mean  and  dissolute  Arcadius  died  in  the  year  408,  leavlof 
the  easteni  empire  to  his  in&nt  son  Theodosius  U.  Theodosius  was 
a  weak  prince,  and  his  sister  Pulcheria  governed  the  empire,  with 
pnsdoice  and  ability,  for  the  space  of  forty  years.  Hononus  died  ia 
the  year  423.  The  laws  of  Arcadius  and  Honorius  are,  with  a  few 
exoeptkxis,  remarkable  for  their  wisdom  and  equity;  which  is  a 
fkirueolar  circomstance,  considering  the  personal  character  of  those 


princes  and  evkices  at  least  that  they  employed  some  able  mioisteA 
5.  Tbe  Vandals,  under  Genseric,  subdued  the  Roman  proyinoe 
«,.,_...  .     ,  •  their  conquwts  fri 

AttUa  they  laid  w» 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


m  Africa.    The  Huns,  hi  tlie  east,  extended  their  conquests  from 
die  boBtfen  of  China  to  the  Baltic  sea.    Under  Attila  they  laid  vraste 


96  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

Moesia  and  Thrace ;  and  Theodosiud.  afler  a  mean  attempt  to  mur- 
der the  barbarian  general,  in^loriously  submitted  to  pay  Eim  an  an- 
nual tribute.  It  f^as  in  this  cnsis  of  universal  decay  that  the  Biitoos 
implored  the  Romans  tc  defend  them  against  the  Picts  and  Scots,  but 
received  for  answer,  that  they  had  nothing  to  bestow  on  them  bi:t 
compassion.  The  Britons,  in  'despair,  sought  aid  from  the  Saxons 
and  Angles,  who  seized,  as  their  proi)erty,  the  country  which  they 
were  invited  to  protect,  and  founded,  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries, 
the  kingdoms  of  the  Saxon  heptarchy.    (See  Part  II,  Sect.  Xli,  6  5.) 

6.  Atlila,  with  an  army  of  500,000  men,  threatened  the  total  de- 
struction of  the  empire.  He  was  ably  opposed  by  iEtius,  general  of 
Valentinian  III.,  now  emperor  of  the  west  Valentinian  ivas  shut  up 
in  Rome  by  the  arms  ot  tlie  barbarian,  and  at  length  compelled  to 
purchase  a  peace.  On  the  death  of  Attila  his  dominions  were  dis- 
membered by  his  sons,  whose  dissensions  gave  temporary  relief  to 
the  failing  empire  of  Rome. 

7.  Alter  Valentinian  III.  we  have  in  the  west  a  succession  of 
princes,  or  rather  names,  for  the  events  of  their  reigns  merit  no 
detail.  In  the  reign  of  Romulus,  sumamed  Aueustulus,  the  son  ot 
Orestes,  the  empire  of  the  west  came  to  a  final  period.  Odoacer^ 
prince  of  the  Heruli,  subdued  Italv,  and  spared  the  life  of  Aueustulas 
on  condition  of  his  resigning  the  throne,  A.  D.  476.  From  the  build- 
ing of  Rome  to  the  extinction  of  the  western  empire,  A.  I).  476,  is 
a  period- of  1224  years. 

8.  We  may  reduce  to  one  ultimate  cause  the  various  circum- 
stances that  produced  the  dechne  and  fall  of  this  once  magnificent 
fabric.  The  ruin  of  the  Roman  empire  was  the  inevitable  conse- 
quence of  its  greatness.  The  extension  of  its  dominion  relaxed 
the  vigour  of  its  frame ;  tlie  vices  of  the  conquered  nations  infected 
the  victorious  legions,  and  foreign  luxuries  corrupted  their  command- 
ers ;  selfish  interest  supplanted  the  patriotic  anection ;  the  martial 
spirit  was  purposely  debased  by  the  emperors,  who  dreaded  its 
etfects  on  their  own  power;  and  the  whole  mass,  thus  weakened 
and  enervated,  fell  an  easy  prey  to  the  torrent  of  barbarians  which 
overwhehned  it 

9.  The  Herulian  dominion  in  Italy  was  of  short  duration.  Theo- 
doric,  prince  of  the  Ostrogoths  (afterwards  deservedly  sumamed 
Jie  greai)^  obtained  permission  of  Zeno,  emperor  of  the  east,  to  at- 
tempt the  recovery  of  Italy,  and  a  promise  of  its  sovereignty  as  the 
reward  of  his  success.  The  whole  nation  of  the  Ostrogoths  attend- 
ed the  standani  of  Theodoric,  who  was  victorious  in  repeated  en- 
nigements,  and  at  length  compelled  Odoacer  to  surrender  all  Italy  to 
the  conqueror.  The  Romans  had  tasted  happiness  under  the  govern- 
ment of  Odoacer;  but  their  happiness  was  mcreased  under  the  do- 
minion of  Theodoric,  who  possessed  every  talent  and  virtue  of  a  sov- 
ereign. His  equity  and  clemency  rendered  him  a  blessing  to  his 
subjects.  He  allied  himself  with  all  the  surrouodinfi:  nations,  the 
Franks,  Visigoths,  Burgundians,  and  Vandals.  He  leTt  a  peaceable 
sceptre  to  his  grandson  Athalaric.  during  whose  infancy  his  mother 
Amalasonte  governed  with  such  admirable  wisdom  and  moderation,  as 
left  her  subjects  no  real  cause  of  regret  for  the  loss  of  her  father. 

10.  While  such  was  the  state  of  Gothic  Italy^  the  empire  of  the 
east  was  under  the  govenunent  of  Justinian,  a  prmce  of  mean  ability, 
iraiD,  capricious,  a^  tyrannical.  Yet  the  Roman  name  rose  for  a 
while  finom  its  abasement  kj  the  merit  of  his  generaK  Bellsarius  leas 
the  support  of  his  throne    yet  Justinian  treated  him  with  the  most 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


ANQENT  HISTORY.  91 

fhockiiis  faigntitode.  The  Penians  were  at  this  time  the  mott  finv 
fflidable  enemies  of  the  empire,  under  their  soyereiEDS  Cabades  and 
Cixrhoes:  and  from  the  latter^  a  most  able  prince*  Justinian  meanly 
purchased  a  peace,  b]^  a  ceaaion  of  territory,  ana  an  enormous  trib- 
t.te  in  gold.  The  civil  Actions  of  Constantinople,  arising  from  the 
tiMrit  contemptible  of  causes*  the  disputes  of  the  performers  in  the 
r.rcus  and  amphitheatre,  tnreatened  to  hurl  Justinian  from  the 
\ii:  nne^  but  were  fortunately  composed  by  the  arms  and  the  policy  of 
I  Li^.irtus.  This  great  eeneral  overwhemied  the  Vandal  sovereignty 
m  Vfnca,  and  recovered  that  province  to  the  empire.  He  wrested 
uily  trom  its  Gothic  sovereign^  and  once  more  restored  it  for  a  short 
(ime  to  the  dominion  of  its  ancient  masters. 

1 1.  Italy  was  recovered  to  the  Goths  by  the  heroic  Totila,  who 
t) -Meged  and  took  the  bity  of  Rome,  but  forebore  to  destroy  it  at 
ilie  request  of  Bellsarius.  The  fortunes  of  Belisarius  were  now  in 
tiie  wane.  He  was  compelled  to  evacuate  Italy,  and,  on  bis  return 
t.)  Coostentinople,  his  long  services  were  repaid  with  disgrace.  He 
kas  superseded  in  the  command  of  the  armies  by  the  eunuch  Nances, 
«^bo  defeated  Totila  in  a  decisive  engaeement,  in  which  the  Gothic 
»rince  was  slain.  Narses  govemed  Ita^  with  great  ability  for  tliir- 
etA  years,  when  he  was  ungratefully  recalled  by  Justin  it  tho  sue- 
evoE  of  Jostlniaa  He  invited  the  Lombards  to  avenge  his  injarioH ; 
azxl  this  new  tribe  of  invaders  overran  and  conquered  the  country, 
A.  D.  568. 


SECTION  XLVU. 

or  THE  ORIGIN,  MANNERS,  AND  CHARACTER  OF  TI?K 
GOTHIC  NATIONS,  BEFORE  THEIR  ESTABLISHMENT  IN 
THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE. 

1.  The  history  and  manners  of  the  Gothic  nations  are  curious 
objects  of  inquiry,  from  their  influence  on  the  constitutions  and  u.t- 
tjofial  character  of  most  of  the  modem  kingdoms  of  Europe.  M  the 
present  Inhabitant  of  these  kin,*{doms  are  a  mixed  race,  compounded 
of  the  Gxjiba  and  of  the  nations  whom  thev  subdued,  the  laws,  ninn- 
oera,  and  iostitutions  of  the  modem  kinedoms  are  tne  result  of  this 
cifojunction  \  and  in  so  far  as  these  are  di&rent  from  the  u^c^gci  prev- 
alent before  tiiis  intermixture,  they  are,  in  a!)  probability,  to  !>«; 
traced  from  the  ancient  manners  and  institutions  of  tiiose  noilhoni 
tribes.  We  purpose  to  consider  the  original  character  of  the 
Gothic  natioDS,  and  the  change  of  their  manners  on  their  establisii- 
meoi  fai  the  Roman  empire. 

2.  The  Scandinavian  chronicles  attribute  to  the  ancient  inhabitants 
of  that  coontry  an  Astatic  origin,  and  inform  ns  that  the  Goths  were 
a  cokqy  of  Scythians,  who  migrated  thither  from  the  banks  of  the 
Black  tea  and  the  Caspian:  but  these  chronicles  do  not  fix  the  period 
of  this  migration,  wbuch  some  later  writers  suppose  to  have  been 
I  .(XXI  yean,  and  others  only  70,  before  the  christian  sra.  Odin,  the 
chief  deity  of  tlie  Scandinavians,  was  the  god  of  the  Scythians 
bigg^a, «  Scythian  prince,  b  said  to  have  undertaken  a  distant  exped^ 
UoQ,  Mid,  after  he  had  subdued  several  of  the  Samatian  trll>e8,  to 
have  penetrated  into  the  northern  parts  of  Germany,  and  thence 
mo  ScaodinaTia.  tie  assuned  the  honours  of  divinity,  and  tlw  title 
«(  OAmUi  »ai<na  fo.L   H.  cooqaered  Denm^Swein,^^ 


98  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

Norway,  and  gave  wise  and  salutary  laws  to  the  nations  which  he 
had  subdoed  by  his  anns. 

3.  The  agreement  in  nianners  between  the  Scythians  and  the 
ancient  Scandinavian  nations,  corroborates  the  accounts  given  in  the 
northern  chronicles  of  the  identity  of  their  origin.  The  description 
of  the  manners  of  the  Germans  by  Tacitus  (though  this  people  ivas 
probably  not  of  Scythian,  but  of  Celtic  origin)  may^  in  many  partic- 
ulars, be  applied  to  the  ancient  nations  of  Scandmavia ;  and  the 
«ame  description  coincides  remarkably  with  the  account  given  by 
Herodotus  of  the  manners  of  the  Scythians.  Their  life  was  spent 
m  hunting,  pasturage,  and  predatory  war.  Their  dress,  their  weap- 
ons, their  food,  theu*  respect  for  their  women,  their  relidous  wor- 
ship, were  the  same.  They  despised  learning,  and  had  no  other 
records  for  many  ages  than  tne  songs  of  their  bu:ds. 

4.  The  theology  of  the  Scandinavians  was  most  intimately  con- 
nected with  their  manners.    They  held  three  great  principles  or 
fimdamental  doctrines  of  religion :  ''  To  serve  uie  Supreme  Being 
with  prajrer  and  sacrifice ;  to  do  no  wrong  or  unjust  action ;  and  to 
be  intrepid  in  fight."    These  principles  are  the  key  to  the  Edda^  or 
s^acred  book  of  tne  Scandinavians,  which,  though  it  contains  the  sub- 
stance of  a  very  ancient  religion,  is  not  a  work  of  high  antiquity, 
being  compiled  in  the  thirteenth  century  by  Snorro   Sturleson, 
supreme  judge  of  Iceland.    Odin,  characterized  as  the  terrible  and 
severe  ^od,  the  father  of  carnage,  the  avenger,  is  the  principal  deity 
of  the  Scandinavians;  from  whose  union  with  Frea,  the. heavenly 
mother,  sprung  various  subordinate  divinities ;  as  Thor,  who  pei- 
petually  wars  against  Loke  and  his  evil  giants,  who  envy  the  power 
of  Odin,  and  seek  to  destroy  his  works.    Among  the  inferior  deities 
are  the  virgins  of  the  Valhalla,  whose  office  is  to  minister  to  the  he- 
roes in  paradise.    The  favourites  of  Odin  are  all  who  die  in  battle,  or, 
what  is  equally  meritorious,  by  their  own  hand.    The  timid  wretch, 
who  allows  himself  to  perish  by  disease  or  age,  is  unworthy  of  the 
joys  of  paradise.    These  joys  are,  fighting,  ceaseless  slaughter,  and 
dnnking  beer  out  of  the  skulls  of  their  enemies,  with  a  renovation 
of  life,  to  furnish  a  perpetuity  of  the  same  pleasures. 

5.  As  the  Scandinavians  believed  this  world  to  be  the  work  of 
some  superior  intelligences,  so  they  held  all  nature  to  be  constantly 
under  the  regulation  of  an  almighty  will  and  power*  and  subjo/rt 
to  a  fixed  and  unalterable  destiny.  These  notions  haa  a  wonderful 
effect  on  the  national  manners,  and  on  the  conduct  of  indiriduals. 
The  Scandinavian  placed  his  sole  delight  in  war :  he  entertained  an 
absolute  contempt  of  danger  and  of  death,  and  his  glory  was  estimate 
ed  by  the  number  which  he  had  slain  in  battle.  The  death-song  ol 
Regner  Lodbrok^  who  comforts  hin^elf  in  his  last  agonies  by  recount 
ing  all  the  acts  of  carnage  which  he  had  committed  in  his  life-time^ 
is  a  faithful  picture  of  the  Scandinavian  character. 

6.  We  have  remarked  the  great  similarity  of  the  manners  of  tlic 
Scandinavians  and  the  ancient  Germans.  These  nations  seem,  how^ 
ever,  to  have  had  a  different  origin.  The  Germans,  as  well  as  iIm 
GaulSj  were  branches  of  that  great  original  nation  termed  CeircB,  wh^ 
inhabited  most  of  the  countries  of  Europe  south  of  the  Baltic,  befon 
diey  were  invaded  by  the  northern  tribes  from  Scandinavia.  Thi 
Celtae  were  all  of  the  druidical  religion,  a  system  differeirt  from  th 
belief  and  worahip  of  the  Scandinavians)  but  founded  nearl^^  on  th 
«ame  principles;  and  the  Goths,  in  their  progress,  intermixing  wit 
the  Germansi  could  not  fail  to  adopt,  in  part,  Uie  notions  of  a  kliidr« 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


ANCIENT  HISTORr.  99 

rrli|ioii.  Dnddfism  acknowledged  a  eod  who  delighted  in  blood 
shed,  taught  the  nnmortalitT  of  me  soul,  and  inculcated  the  contempt 
■A  danger  and  of  death.  Tacitus  remarks  that  the  ancient  Germans 
had  neither  temples  nor  idols.  The  open  air  was  the  temple  of  the 
divinity,  and  a  consecrated  grove  the  appropriated  place  for  prayer 
vA  saoifice,  which  none  but  the  priests  were  allowed  to  enter. 
The  chief  sacrifices  were  human  victims,  most  probably  the  prison 
•  [^  token  in  war.  The  druids  heightened  the  sanctity  of  their  chap- 
liter  by  concealing  the  mysteries  of  their  worship.  They  bad  the 
iii^hest  influence  over  the  minds  of  the  people,  and  thus  found  it 
♦'n.'iy  to  conjoin  a  civil  authority  with  the  sacerdotal;  a  policy  which 
:ri  the  end  led  to  the  destruction  of  the  druidical  system ;  for  the 
Konums  fband  no  other  way  of  securing  their  conquests  over  any  oi 
th(.>  Celtic  nations^  but  by  exterminating  the  druids. 

7.  Whatever  difference  of  manners  there  may  have  been  among^ 
*he  varioos  nations  or  tribes  of  Gothic  origin,  tiie  great  features  of 
'  it^'ir  character  appear  to  have  been  the  same.  •  Nature,  education^ 
•ni  prevaiUng  habits,  all  concurred  to  form  them  for  an  intrepid 
mJ  conquering  people.  Their  bodily  frame  was  invigorated  oy 
.k^  climate  which  they  inhabited;  they  were  inured  to  danger  and 
<>a^ue ;  war  yras  their  habitual  occupation  ;  they  believed  in  an  un- 
i:t.>rable  destiny,  and  were  taught  by  their  religion  that  a  heroic 
-rfrifice  of  life  ^ve  certain  assurance  of  eternal  happiness.  •How 

*M  a  race  of  men  so  characterized  fall  to  be  the  conquerors  of  the 
>\orid? 


SECTION  XLVUI. 

or  THE  MANNERS,  LAWS,  AND  GOVERNMENT  OP  THB 
GOTHIC  NATIONS,  AFTER  THEIR  ESTABLISHMENT  IN  THB 
ROMAN  EMPIRE. 

t.  It  has  been  erroneouslv  supposed  that  the  same  ferocity  of 

uinoenL  which  distioguishedf  the  Goths  in  their  original  seats,  at- 

'.  oded  tneir  successors  in  their  new  establishments  in  the  provinces 

t  {tie  Roman  empire.    Mo<iem  authors  have  given  a  currency  to 

"  .4  Uk  supposition.    Voltaire,  in  describing  the  middle  ages«  paints 

'  .*-  Goths  m  all  the  characters  of  horror ;  as  ^^  a  troop  of  nungry 

>  (4veB,  foxes,  and  tigers,  driving  before  them  the  scattered  timid 

"  rin^  and  mvotving  all  in  ruin  and  desolation.^    The  accounts  of 

^*&onans  most  worthy  of  credit  will  dissipate  this  injurious  preju- 

:  rj»^  and  show  those  northern  nations  in  a  more  favourable  point  of 

V  ^•-w^  not  unworthy  to  be  the  successors  of  the  Roman& 

^.  Before  their  settlement  in  the  southeni  provinces  of  Europe, 

t.r'  Qcd»  were  no  longer  idolaters,  but  christians;  and  their  mo- 

'   .itj  was  suitable  to  the  relifion  which  they  professed.    Salvianus, 

-hoji  of  Marweilles,  in  the  nfth  century,  dmws  a  parallel  between 

.**  fxsuners  of  the  Goths  and  of  the  Romans,  highly  to  the  credit  ot 

•-  fomer.    Grotitis,  in  his  publication  of  Procopius  and  Jomandes, 

tnarka.  as  a  strong  testimony  to  their  honourable  character  as  a 

rj^ijo,  fiat  no  nrovmce  once  subdued  by  the  Goths  ever  voluntarily 

:  t>drew  ilaelr  finom  their  government 

.1.  k  Is  Dot  possible  to  produce  a  more  beautiful  picture  of  aa 
'treOoA  administration  than  that  of  the  Gothic  monarchy  m  Italy 
Theodoric  the  great    Though  master  of  the  <(^^^|^ 


lOO  AWCIENT  HISTORV- 

conqueat.  jet  he  was  regarded  by  his  salgects  with  the  afiection  ot 
a  native  loyereign.  He  retamed  the  Roman  laws,  and,  as  neariy 
as  possib  €)  the  ancient  political  regulations.  In  snpplymg  all  civil 
offices  of  state  be  preferred  the  native  Romans.  It  was  his  care  to 
preserve  every  monument  of  the  ancient  grandeur  of  the  empire^ 
and  to  embellish  the  cities  bv  new  works  of  beautjr  and  utility.  In 
the  impositHon  and  levying  or  taxes  he  showed  the  most  humane  in- 
dulgence on  every  occasion  of  scarcity  or  calamity.  His  laws  were 
dictated  by  the  most  enlightened  prudence  and  benevolence,  and 
iramed  on  that  principle  wnich  he  nobl]^  inculcated  in  bis  instructions 
to  the  Roman  sensAe^^  Benigni  pHndpts  tat^  uon  tarn  deUda  vdlem^ 
mrt^  quarn  toUere.'*^  It  is  the  duty  qf  a  benign  prince  to  be  dispoem  to 
prevent  rather  than  to  pumih  tffenuB,  The  historians  of  the  times 
delight  in  recounting  the  examples  of  his  munificence  and  humanity. 
Partial  as  he  was  to  the  Arian  heresy,  many  even  of  the  catholic 
fathers  have  done  the  most  ample  iustice  to  his  merits,  acknowledging 
that,  under  his  reign,  the  churcn  enjoyed  a  hi^  measure  of  pros- 

Serity.    Such  was  Tneodoric  the  great,  who  is  justly  termed  by  Si- 
onius  Apollinaris,  RomaiMt  decus  (x^wnenque  gentis  {me  glory  and  the 
support  rf  the  Roman  nation). 

4.  But  a  single  example  could  not  warrant  a  general  inference 
with  regard  to  the  merits  of  a  whole  people.    The  exanmle  of 
Theodoric  is  not  smgle.    If  it  does  not  find  a  complete  parallel,  it 
is  at  least  nearly  approached  to  in  the  similar  charasters  of  Alaric, 
Amalasonte,  and  Totila.    Alaric,  compelled  by  his  enemy's  breach 
of  faith  to  revenge  himself  by  the  sack  of  Rome,  showed  even  in 
tliat  revenge  a  noble  example  of  humanity.    No  blood  was  shed 
without  necessity ;  the  churcnes  were  inviolable  asylums;  the  hon« 
our  of  the  women  was  preserved ;  the  treasures  of  the  city  were 
saved  from  plunder.     Amalasonte,  the  daughter  of  TheodoriC| 
repaired  to  her  subjects  the  loss  of  her  fiither,  by  the  equity  and 
wisdom  of  her  admmistration.    She  trained  her  son  to  the  study  of 
literature  and  of  every  polite  accomplishment,  as  the  best  means  of 
reforming  and  enlightening  his  people.     Totila,  twice  master  of{ 
Rome,  which  he  won  by  his  arms  after  an  obstinate  resistance,  imi- 
tated the  example  of  Alaric  in  his  clemency  to  the  vanouished,  and 
in  his  care  to  preserve  every  remnant  of  ancient  magnificence  from  i 
destruction.    He  restored  the  senate  to  its  authority,  adorned  Rome 
with  useful  edifices,  regulated  its  internal  policy,  and  took  a  noble 
pride  in  reviving  the  sptendour  and  dignity  of  tihe  empire.    HahiUcvig 
cum  Romams^  says  a  contemporary  author,  ianquam  pater  cumfiliis^ 
He  Hoed  with  the  Romans  as  a  father  with  Ids  children,  \ 

6.  The  stem  of  the  Gothic  nation  divided  itself  hito  two  ereat 
oranches,  the  Ovippgoths,  who  remamed  m  Pannonia,  and  the  West- 
rogoths  or  VisigflffiL  so  termed  from  their  migrating  thence  to  the 
west  of  Europe.  Kaiv  wasposs^sed  by  the  latter  under  Alaric,  andi 
oy  the  former  under  Theodoric  The  Visigoths,  after  the  death  of 
Alaric,  withdrew  into  Gaul,  and  obtained  from  Hpnorius  the  province 
of  Aquitaine,  of  which  Thoulouse  was  the  capital  When  expelled 
from  that  province  by  die  Franks,  they  crossed  the  Pjrieneed 
and,  settling  ki  Spain,  made  Toledo  the  camtal  of  their  kiogdam 
The  race  of  the  Visigoth  princes  was  termed  the  Baki^  that  of  ly) 
Ostrogoths  the  Anali,  The  Ostrogoths  enforced  in  their  dominioi 
the  orwervance  of  the  Roman  laws ;  the  Visigoths  adhered  to  a  cc 
compiled  by  their  own  sovereigns,  and  founded  on  the  ancieot  t 
ners  and  usages  of  thpir  nations.    From  this  code,  therefore^  we  i 


Af«CI£NT  HISTORY.  101 

4eriTB  much  informatioD  relative  to  the  genius  and  character  of  this 
flicaent  people. 

6.  It  m  enacted  by  the  loan  qf  ihi  Visigoths  that  no  judge  shall 
decide  in  any  lawsuit,  unless  he  find  in  that  book  a  law  applicable  to 
the  case.  AU  causes  that  fall  not  under  this  description  are  reserved 
for  the  decfeioD  of  the  sovereign.  The  penal  laws  are  severe,  but 
tempeied  with  great  ecjuity.  No  punishment  can  affect  the  heirs  ot 
tlie  criminal :  Omnia  crvnma  suos  sequanlur  auctores^ — ei  Hk  sohsjudir 
ceistr  aUpabUis  qui  culnanda  commiserit^  et  crimen  cum  iUo  quincerit 
Ktnriabtr.  jlU  crimes  mail  attach  to  their  authors^—'and  he  alone  snaU  be 
t^v-ot  culpable^  laho  hath  committed  offences^  ana  the  crime  sfiall  du  untk 
nitn  xgho  iah  commiUed  it.  Death  was  tlie  punishment  of  the  murder 
ot'  a  fieeman,  and  perpetual  infamj  of  the  murder  of  a  slave.  Fe- 
rtioiary  fines  were  enacted  for  vanous  subordinate  offences,  accord- 
ing to  their  measure  of  criminality.  An  adulterer  was  delivered  in 
Uiodage  to  the  injured  husband ;  and  the  free  woman  who  had  com- 
fflittea  adultery  with  a  married  man,  became  the  slave  of  his  wife. 
Xo  physician  was  allowed  to  visit  a  female  patient,  except  in  the 
preaence  of  her  nearest  kindred.  The  lex  tahoms  {the  law  ofretaUor 
turn)  was  Id  great  observance  for  such  injuries  as  admitted  it  It  was 
^veo  canied  so  &r^  that  the  incendiary  of  a  house  was  burnt  alive. 
The  trials  by  judicial  combat,  by  onieal,  and  by  the  judnnent  oi 
God,  which  were  in  frequent  use  among  the  Franks  and  Normans, 
had  DO  l^ace  among  the  Visigoths.  Montesquieu  has  erroneously 
as^rted,  that  in  all  the  Gothic  nations  it  was  usual  to  judge  the 
litigants  by  the  law  of  theur  own  country:  the  Roman  by  tne  Roman 
Uw.  the  Frank  by  the  law  of  the  Franks,  the  Aleman  by  the  law 
of  the  Alemans.  On  the  contrary,  the  Visigoth  code  prohibits  the 
laws  of  aU  other  nations  within  their  territories.  JV^ohunus  sioe  Ro- 
cuutv  kgibm^  sive  akenis  instiiatumibus^  amplius  convexarL  We  will  not 
Hf  amtrSUd  hy  the  Romom  laws^  nor  by  foreign  institutions.  The  hiws 
-4  the  Fnoks  and  Lombards  are  remarkable  for  their  wisdom  and 
yAbciom  policy. 

7.  The  government  of  the  Goths,  ailcr  their  settlement  in  the 
Komoo  provinces,  was  monarchical  It  was  at  first  elective,  and 
n>rwudi  became  hereditary.  The  sovereign  on  his  deatn-bed 
appointed  his  successor,  with  the  advice  or  consent  of  his  grandees. 
lilf^giltmacy  did  not  disqualify  from  succession  or  nomination  to  the 
throne. 

a.  The  dukes  and  counts  were  the  chief  officers  under  the  Gothic 
covenunent  The  duke  {dux  exercitus)  was  the  commander  in  chief 
"I*  the  troops  of  the  province ;  the  count  (comes)  was  the  highest 
•  i«  il  magistrate.  But  these  offices  frequently  intermixed  their  Tunc 
uvfc^the  count  being  empowered,  on  sudiien  emergencies,  to  assume 
:\  military  command,  and  the  duke,  on  some  occasions,  warranted  to 
KxerdtB  judicial  authority,  in  general,  however,  their  departments 
M-ere  dhtinct  Of  ooms(e»  there  were  various  orders,  with  distinct  offi- 
<  i.il  powers ;  as,  comet,  cubieuU^  chamberlain,  comes  ifoWu  constable*  &c. 
Tlieae  various  officers  were  the  proceres  or  grandees  ot  the  kingdom, 
r>y  whose  advice  the  sovereign  conducted  himself  in  important  mat* 
ters  of  covemment,  or  in  the  nomination  of  his  successor;  but  we  do 
(loi  Cod  that  they  had  a  voice  in  the  framing  of  laws,  or  in  the  in^ 
poattion  of  taxes ;  and  the  prince  himself  Imdthe  sole  nondnation  to 
sU  odfceo  of  government,  magistracies,  and  dignities. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


10£  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

SECTION  XUX. 
METHOD  OF  STUDYING  ANCIENT  fflSTORY. 

1.  A  GENERAL  and  concise  view  of  ancient  history  may  be  acquired 
by  the  perusal  of  a  very  few  books ;  as  that  part  of  the  Cours  dP  Ettide 
of  the  Abbe  Condiliac  which  regards  the  history  of  the  nations  of 
antiquity :  the  Elements  of  General  History  by  the  Abbe  Millot,  part 
1st;  the  Epitome  of  Turselline,  with  the  notes  of  L'Agneau,  part 
1st;  or  the  excellent  Compendium  HisioruB  Unwersalis^  by  professor 
Offerhaus  of  Groningen.  The  two  first  of  these  works  have  the 
merit  of  uniting  a  spirit  of  reflection  with  a  judicious  selection  of 
events.  The  notes  of  L^Agneau  to  the  Epitome  of  Tureelline  con- 
tain a  great  store  of  geographical  and  biographical  information. 
The  work  of  Offerhaus  is  pecuuarly  valuable,  as  uniting  sacred  with 
profane  history,  and  containing  most  ample  references  to  the  ancient 
authors.  The  Discours  sur  PHistoire  Unwerselle^  by  the  bishop 
of  Meaux,  is  a  work  of  high  merit,  but  is  not  adapted  to  coavey  in- 
formation to  the  uninstructed.  It  is  more  useful  to  those  who  have 
already  studied  histoiy  in  detail,  for  uniting  in  the  mind  the  great 
current  of  events,  and  recalling  to  the  memory  tlieir  order  and  con- 
nexion. 

But  the  student  who  wishes  to  derive  the  most  complete  advan- 
tage from  history,  must  not  confine  himself  to  such  general  or  com- 
})endious  views ;  ne  must  resort  to  the  original  historians  of  ancient 
times,  and  to  the  modern  writers  who  have  treated  with  amplitude 
of  particular  periods.  It  may  be  useful  to  such  students  to  point 
out  ihe  order  in  which  those  historians  may  be  most  profitably 
perused.  » 

2.  Next  to  the  historical  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  most 
ancient  history  worthy  of  perusal  is  that  oi*  Herodotus,  which  com- 
prehends the  annals  of  Lydia,  Ionia,  Lycia,  Egypt,  Persia,  Greece, 
and  Macedonia,  during  aljove  230  years  preceding  479  A.  C. 

Book  1.  History  oFLydia  fromGyges  to  Crcesus.  Ancient  Ionia. 
Manners  of  the  Persians,  Babylonians,  &c.  History  of  CyruB  the 
Elder. 

B.  2.  History  of  Egypt,  and  Manners  of  the  Egyptians. 

B.  3.  History  of  Camoyses.  Persian  Monarchy  under  Darius 
Hystaspes. 

B.  4.  History  of  Scythia. 

B.  5.  Persian  Embassy  to  Macedon.  Athens,  Lacedsmon,  Corinth, 
at  the  same  period. 

B  6.  Kings  of  Lacedsemon.  War  of  Persia  against  Greece,  to  the 
battle  of  Marathon. 

B.  7.  The  same  War,  to  the  battle  of  Thermopylae. 

B.  8.  The  Naval  Battle  of  Salamis. 

B.  9.  The  Defeat  and  Expulsion  of  the  Persians  from  Greece. 

(The  merits  of  Herodotus  are  shortly  characterized  in  Sect. 
XXII,  §  I.) 

3.  A  more  particular  account  of  the  periods  treated  by  Herodotus 
may  be  found  in  Justin,  lib.  1,  2,  3,  and  7 ;  in  the  Cyropedia  of  Xeno- 
phon;  in  the  Lives  of  Aristides.  Tnemistocles,  Cimon,  Miltiades,  and 
rausanias,  written  by  Plutarch  and  Cornelius  Nepos;  and  in  the 
lives  of  Anaximander,  Zeno,  Empedocles,  Heraclitus,  and  Democri- 
tus,  by  Diogenes  Laertius. 

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ANCIENT  HISTORY.  103 

4.  The  Grecian  history  is  taken  up  by  Thucydides  from  the 
pf'riod  where  Herodotus  ends,  and  is  continued  for  seventy  years,  to 
the  twentf-firet  of  the  Peioponnesian  war.  (This  work  characterized. 
Sect  XKU,  6  2.)  This  period  is  more  amply  illustrated  by  perusiug 
the  11th  ana  12th  books  of  Diodorus  Siculus;  the  Lives  of  Alcibia 
dps,  Cbabrias,  Thrasybulus,  and  Lysias,  by  Plutarch  and  Nepos ;  the 
^lU  3d,  4th,  and  5tli  books  of  Justin;  and  the  14th  and  15th  chapters 
of  the  1st  book  of  Orosius. 

5.  Next  to  Thucydides  the  student  ought  to  peruse  the  1st  and 
2(1  books  of  Xenopnon's  History  of  Greece,  whicn  comprehends  the 
narrative  of  the  Peioponnesian  war,  with  the  contemporary  history  of 
the  Medes  and  Persians ;  then  the  expeditionof  Cyrus  (J7i^6tmf).  and 
the  cootmoation  of  the  history  to  its  conclusion  with  the  battle  of 
3!:mtiDea.  (Xenophon  characterized,  Sect  XXH,  §  3.)  For  illustrate 
:^i<  this  period  we  nave  the  Lives  of  Lysander,  Aeesilaus,  Artaxerxes, 
«.  .^Qoo,  and  Datames,  by  Plutarch  and  IS  epos ;  the  4th,  5th,  and  6th 
.^•')k5  of  Justin ;  and  the  13th  and  16th  books  of  Diodorus  Siculus. 

o.  After  Xenophon  let  the  student  read  the  15th  and  16th  books 
<■'(  Diodorus^  which  contain  the  historv  of  Greece  and  Pereia,  from 
■ho  boltk  of  Mantinea  to  the  reign  of  Alexander  the  great  (Diodorus 
•  a  iracterized,  Sect  XXII,  §  5.)  To  complete  this  period  let  him 
r»*.id  the  Lives  of  Dion,  Ipliicrates,  Timotheus,  Phocion,  and  Timo- 
I'-on,  by  Nepos. 

7.  For  the  history  of  Alexander  the  great  we  have  the  admirable 
works  (A  Arrian  bxm  Quintus  Curtius.  (Arrian  characterized^  Sect. 
XXII,  §  8.)  Curtius  possesses  great  judgment  in  the  selection  of 
facts,  with  much  eleeance  and  perspicuity  of  diction.  He  is  a  good 
moralist  and  a  goou  ^triot:  but  his  passion  for  embeliishment 
l*'rogates  firom  the  purity  of  history,  and  renders  his  authority  su'?- 

l  KIOOS. 


d.  For  the  continuation  of  the  history  of  Greece  from  the  death 
of  Alexander^  we  have  the  18th,  19th,  and  20th  books  of  Diodonis ; 
^hk"  history  ol  Justin  from  the  13th  book  to  the  end;  and  the  Lives 
'ft  the  pnncipai  personaees  written  by  Plutarch.  The  history  ol 
J«jstin  is  a  jiwicious  abridement  of  a  much  larger  work  by  Trogus 
f  joipeios,  which  is  lost:  Justin  excels  in  the  oelineation  of  charac 
*".-*,  and  in  purity  of  style. 

•?  1  have  mentioned  the  Lives  of  Plutarch  and  Cornelius  Nepoj- 
..-  the  bast  supplement  to  the  account  of  particular  periods  of  ancient 
•  -Tnry.  It  is  the  highest  praise  of  Plutarch  that  his  writings  are 
^'iiinble  for  their  morality^  and  furnish  instructive  lessons  of  active 
-.JTie.  He  makes  us  familiarly  acquainted  with  the  ereat  men  ol 
:'i*K|iuty,  and  chiefly  delights  in  painting  ttieir  private  character  and 
rcunners.  The  short  Lives  written  by  Nepos  snow  great  judgment. 
re  Ah  happy  selection  of  such  fact**  as  display  the  genius  and  cnarac 
!*T  of  his  heroes.    They  are  written  with  purity  and  elegance. 

lu.  For  the  Roman  History  in  its  early  periods  we  have  the  An- 
!«<2QfCies  of  Dlooysius  of  Haucamassus,  which  bring  down  the  his- 
•t^rr  of  Rome  to  412  A.  U.  C.  They  are  chiefly  valuable,  aa  illus 
:r  (4xag  the  manners  and  customs,  the  rites  civil  and  religious,  and  the 
.  <v«  4  ol'the  Roman  state.  But  the  writer  is  too  apt  to  frame  hypoth 
*-***«•  and  to  give  views  instead  of  narratives.  We  expect  these  in 
'  .^  noikni  ^vriters  who  treat  of  ancient  thnes,  but  cannbt  tolerate 
\i»ejn  In  the  soorces  of  history. 

II.  The  work  of  Livy  is  far  more  valuable  than  that  of  Dio- 
L«  inas*    It  ifi  a  perfect  model  of  history  both  as  to  matter  and  compo- 

'^  -^  Digitized  by  V^OOglCr 


104  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

sitioD.  (Characteriased, Sect XXXVI, §  10.)  Of  132 In^oks <MilyS5 
remain,  and  those  are  interrupted  by  a  considerable  chasm.  The 
first  decade  (or  ten  books)  treats  of  a  period  of  460  years :  the  sec- 
ond decade,  containing  seventy-five  vears,  is  lost;  the  third  contains 
the  second  runic  war,  including  eignteen  years ;  the  fourth  contains 
the  war  against  Philip  of  Macedon,  and  the  Asiatic  war  against  Anti- 
ochus,  a  space  of  twenty-three  years.  Of  the  fifth  decade  there  are 
only  nve  books ;  and  the  remainder,  which  reaches  to  the  death  of 
Dnisus,  746.  A.  (J.  C.  together  with  the  second  decade,  have  been 
supplied  by  l^reinshemius.  To  supply  the  chasm  of  the  second  de- 
cade the  student  ought  to  read,  together  with  the  epitome  of  those 
lost  books,  the  first  and  second  books  of  Polybius ;  the  17th,  18th, 
22d,  and  23d  books  of  Justin ;  the  lives  of  Marcellus  and  Fabius 
Mazimus  by  Plutarch ;  and  the  Punic  and  lllyrian  wars  by  Appian. 

12.  The  history  of  Polybius  demands  a  separate  and  attentive 
perusal,  as  an  adonirable  compendium  of  political  and  military  in- 
struction. Of  forty  books  of  general  history  we  have  only  five  en- 
tire, and  excerpts  of  the  following  twelve.  Polybius  treats  of  the 
history  of  the  Romans,  and  of  the  nations  with  whom  they  were  at 
war,  from  the  beginning  of  the  second  Punic  war  to  the  beginning  of 
the  war  with  Macedonia,  comprising  in  ail  a  period  of  about  tdXy 
years.  Of  the  high  estimation  in  which  Polybius  was  held  by  the 
authors  of  antiqui^  we  have  sufficient  proof  in  the  encomiums  be- 
stowed on  him  by  Cicero,  Strabo,  Josephus,  and  Plutarch ;  and  in  the 
use  which  Livy  has  maae  of  his  history,  in  adopting  hia  narratives 
by  a  translation  nearly  literaL 

13.  The  work  of  Appian,  which  originally  consisted  of  twenty 
books,  from  the  earliest  period  of  the  Koman  history  down  to  tlie 
age  of  Adrian,  is  greatly  mutilated ;  and  there  renuuns  only  his 
account  of  the  Syrian,  Parthian,  Mithridatic,  Spanish,  Punic,  and 
lllyrian  wars.  His  narrative  of  each  of  these  wan  is  remarkably 
distinct  and  judicious ;  and  his  composition,  on  the  whole,  is  chaste 
and  perspicuous.  Ailer  the  history  of  Appian  the  student  should  re- 
sume Livy  J[rom  the  beginning  of  the  thira  decade,  or  21st  book,  to 
the  end.  Then  he  mav  peruse  with  advantage  the  Lives  of  Hanni- 
bal, Scipio  Africanus.  llaminius,  Paulus  .finihus,  the  elder  Cato,  the 
Gracchi,  Marius,  By  11a,  the  younger  Cato,  Sertorius,  Lucuilus,  Julius 
Csesar,  Cicero,  Pompey,  and  Brutus,  by  Plutarch. 

14.  Sallusfs  histories  of  the  Jugurtmne  war  and  of  the  conspiracy 
of  Catiline  come  next  in  order,  (ballust  characterized.  Sect.  XaX  V I . 
§  8.)  Then  follow  the  Commentaries  of  Caesar,  remarkable  f(>r 
perspicuity  of  narration,  and  a  happy  union  of  brevity  with  elegarii 
simplicity  of  style.  (Sect.  XXXIV,  ^9.)  The  epitomes  of  Florus  :uu\ 
of  Veleius  Paterculus  may  be  perused  with  advantage  at  this  peric  .i 
of  the  course.  The  latter  is  a  model  for  abridgment  of  history,  Li 
the  opinion  of  the  president  Henault. 

16.  For  the  history  of  Rome  under  the  first  emperors  we  h;\\.. 
luetonius  and  Tacitus;  arid  for  the  subsequent  reigns,  the  series;  «.r 
he  minor  historians,  termed  HisloruB  Jiugustct  Scnpttres  {^writtrx  *  f 
tugvst  history),  and  the  Byzant'me  writers.  Suetonius  pvcs  n.s  'n  * 
4)eries  of  detached  characters,  illustrated  by  an  artful  selection  of  tact  ^ 
and  anecdotes,  rather  than  a  regular  history.  His  work  is  chieilv 
valuable  as  descriptive  of  Roman  manners.  His  genius  has  too  mucli 
of  the  caustic  humour  of  a  satirist.  Tacitus,  with  greater  powei>. 
and  deeper  penetration,  has  drawn  a  picture  of  the  times  in  ste  n\ 
and  gloomy  coloura.  (Sect  XXXVI,  §11.)  Fromneitj^rd'Jiese  hu 


ANCIENT  HISTORY.  105 

toRMM  will  the  ingenaooB  mind  of  youth  receive  moral  improYement, 
or  Dieaflms  and  beneYolent  impreasioiis ;  yet  we  cannot  deny  their 
ki|;ii  utility  to  the  student  of  politics. 

16.  If  we  exceot  Herodian,  who  wrote  with  taste  and  juagi^f^^  ^^ 
is  doubtful  whether  any  of  the  8abse(]uent  writers  of  the  RomaZ^ 
h^tory  deserve  a  minute  perusal  It  is  therefore  advisahle  for  the 
itudent  to  derive  his  knowledge  of  the  history  of  the  decline  and 
fyil  of  the  Roman  en^re  from  modem  authors,  resorting  to  tlie 
original  writers  oolv  for  occasional  information  on  detached  points  of 
tniportaoce.  For  this  purpose,  the  General  History  hy  Dr.  Howel 
16  a  WQik  of  great  utility,  being  written  entirely  on  the  basis  of  the 
original  historians,  whose  narrative  he  generally  translates,  referring 
coDslaotly  to  his  authorities  in  the  margin.  In  this  work  tne  student 
iriil  find  a  valuable  mass  of  historical  imormation. 

17.  Th€  re?ider  having  thus  founded  his  knowledge  of  general  his- 
tory on  the  original  writers,  will  now  peruse  with  great  advantage 
Uo  modem  histories  df  ancient  Greece  and  Rome  by  Mitford,  Gillies. 
Oa<U  Hooke,  Gibbon,  and  FurfUKon;  and  will  find  himself  qualified 
to  form  a  just  estimate  of  their  ment5.  on  which  it  is  presumptuous 
\9  decide  wtthont  such  preparatory  knowledge. 

18.  The  greatest  magazine  of  historical  information  which  has 
ever  been  collected  into  one  body,  is  the  English  Univeraal  History : 
a  oMXi  useful  work,  from  the  amplitude  of  its  matter,  ltd  general 
vcuricy.  and  constant  reference  to  the  original  authors.  We  may 
orrnmanally  consult  it  with  great  advantage  on  points  where  deep 
n  retach  '»  necessary ;  but  we  caimot  read  it  with  pleasure  as  a  con- 
tinued work,  from  its  tedious  details  and  harshness  of  style,  its  abrupt 
irja<itions,  and  the  iinudlcious  arrangement  of  many  of  its  parts. 

19.  Geography  and  chronology  have  been  justly  termed  the  lighiB 
It  history.  VVc  cannot  perase  with  advantigc  the  historical  annals 
4  an^  country  without  a  competent  knowledge  of  its  geographical 

ut nation,  and  even  of  its  particular  topograpliy.  In  reading  the  de- 
«rnptJon  of  any  event  the  mind  necessarily  forms  a  picture  of  the 
^«-f)e  of  action ;  and  it  is  surely  better  to  draw  the  picture  with  truth 
:rvm  nature  and  reality,  than  falsely  from  inmgination.  Many  aclions 
«:»i  frveuts  are  likewise  intimately  connected  with  the  geography  and 
1  <■  d  circuiDi^tanccs  of  a  country,  and  are  unintelligible  without  a 
fc-.ow!edge  of  them. 

iv).  Tiie  use  of  chronological  tables  is  very  great,  both  for  the 
:'  rpo9t  of  uniting  in  one  view  the  contemporary  events  in  different 
u^'iom,  which  otten  have  an  intluence  on  one  another,  and  for  re- 
''lUng  to  the  meniory  the  order  and  series  of  events,  and  renewing 
•*-  onprestiions  of  tlie  objects  of  former  study.  It  is  extremely  use- 
'-H.  after  penL«ing  the  liistor^^  of  a  nation  in  detail  or  that  of  a  certain 
•  ^♦'  or  perioii.  to  run  over  l>rictly  the  principal  occurrences  in  a  table 
«<  diroDologv.  The  most  perfect  works  of  this  kind  are  the  chro- 
(i<>«-«gicml  tables  of  Dr.  Playtair,  which  unite  history  and  biography ; 
tiie  taUes  of  Dr.  Blair;  or  the  older  tables  by  Tallent* 

END  OF  PART  FIRST.  ^ 

*  A  Ibtof  the  bett  trazifllationa  of  the  principal  books  abore  xn«ntioa«d. 
HoBodotoa,  translated  by  Beloe,  4  voii.  8vo. 
Xeaopbon^i  Cycropedia  by  Cooper,  8vo. 
Xcoophoo^i  Anabasis,  by  Spelman,  2  vols.  8vo, 
Taiwphon^  Histoiy  of  GrMce,  by  Smith,  4to. 

Digitizl4yCOOgle 


PART  SECOND. 
MODERN  HISTORY. 

J 

SECTION  I. 

OF  ARABIA,  AND  THE  EMPIRE  OP  THE  SARACENS. 

The  fall  of  the  western  empire  of  the  Romans^and  the  final  sub 
jogation  of  Ital^  bv  the  Lombards,  is  the  sera  from  which  we  date  the. 
commencement  of  Modem  History. 

The  eastern  empire  of  the  Romans  continued  to  exist  for  many 
ages  atler  this  period,  stiii  magnificent,  though  in  a  state  of  compar- 
ative weakness  and  degeneracy.  Towards  the  end  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury a  new  dominion  arose  in  the  east,  which  was  destined  to  produce. 
a  wonderful  change  on  a  great  portion  of  the  globe. 
.  The  Arabians,  at  this  time  a  rude  nation,  livmg  chiefly  in  indepen> 
dent  tribes,  who  traced  their  descent  from  the  patriarch  Abraham, 
professed  a  mixed  religion,  comi>ounded  of  Judaism  and  idolatry. 
Mecca,  their  holy  city,  rose  to  eminence  from  the  donations  of  pil- 
grims to  its  temple,  in  which  was  deposited  a  black  stone,  an  object 
of  high  veneration.  Mahomet  was  bom  at  Mecca,  A.  D.  571.  Of 
mean  descent,  and  no  education,  but  of  great  natural  talents,  be  sought 
to  raise  himself  to  celebrity,  by  feigning  a  divine  mission  to  propagjate 
a  new  religion  for  the  salvation  of  mankind.  He  retired  to  the  des- 
ert, and  pretended  to  hold  conferences  with  the  angel  Gabriel,  who 
delivered  to  him,  from  time  to  time,  portions  of  a  sacred  book  or  Co- 
ron,  containing  revelations  of  the  wiU  of  the  Supreme  Being,  and  of 
the  doctrines  which  he  required  his  prophet  to  communicate  to  the 
world. 

2.  This  religion,  while  it  adopted  in  part  the  morality  of  Christian- 
ity, retained  many  of  the  rites  of  Judaism,  and  some  of  the  Arabian 
Buperatitions,  as  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca ;  but  owed  to  a  certain  spirit 

Platarch,  by  Langhome,  6  vols.  8yo.,  or  6  vola.  12mo.    WrangfaSLHi^i 

edition. 
Thucydides,  by  Smith,  2  vols.  8vo. 
Dionysius  Halicarnassus,  by  Spelman,  4  vols.  4to. 
Folybins,  by  Hampton,  4  vols.  8vo. 
Livy,  by  Baker,  6  vols.  8vo 

Sallust,  by  Murphy,  Svo. ;  b>  Stuart,  2  vols.  4to. ;  by  Eose^  8vo.  * 
TacitoB,  by  Mnrphy,  8  vols.  Svo. ;  Irish  edition,  4  vols.  8ro 
Suetonius,  by  Thompson,  Svo. 
Diodorus  dicuIub,  by  Booth,  folio. 
Arrian,  by  Rook,  2  vola.  Svo. 
Q.  Curtius,  by  Digby,  2  vok.  l*»Tno. 
Jattin,  by  Tumbull,  12iao. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  107 

^f  Asiatic  Tolaptuoasneas  its  chief  recommendation  to  its  votaries. 
Tlie  Coran  tauglit  tlie  belief  of  one  God,  whose  will  and  power  were 
cooitantlj  exerted  towards  the  happiness  of  his  creatures ;  that  the 
•liitj  of  man  was  to  love  his  neighbours,  assist  the  poor,  protect  the 
Kijured.  to  be  humane  to  inferior  animals,  and  to  pray  seven  times  a 
tMv.  'The  pious  mussulman  was  allowed  to  have  four  wives,  and  as 
m  iny  coocuoines  as  he  chose ;  and  the  pleasures  of  love  were  prom- 
ised 99  the  supreme  joys  of  paradise.  To  revive  the  impression  of 
(liese  laws,  wnich  God  had*engraven  orieinaily  in  the  hearts  of  men, 
he  had  sent  from  time  to  time  his  propnets  upon  earth,  Abraham^ 
Moses,  Jesus  Christ,  and  l^Iahomet ;  the  last  the  greatest,  to  whom 
all  the  world  shoula  owe  its  conversion  to  the  true  religion.  By 
prodocing  the  Coran  in  detached  parcels,  Mahomet  had  it  in  his  pow- 
er to  solve  ail  objections  by  new  revelations. 

J.  Dissensions  and  popular  tumults  between  the  believers  and  inti- 
Ms  caused  the  banisliment  of  Mahomet  from  Mecca.    His  flight, 

•  »Ut»d  the  hegyra^  A.  D.  622,  is  the  acra  of  his  glory.  He  retired  to 
^!"diaa^  and  was  joined  by  the  brave  Omar.  He  propagated  his  doc- 
liHip«  with  great  success,  and  marched  with  his  followers  in  arms,  and 

*  -"ic  the  city  of  Mecca.  ]n  a  few  years  he  subdued  all  Ar.iliia;  and 
t  ♦  n  attacking  Syria,  took  several  of  the  Roman  cities.  In  the  midsl 
«•!  his  %'ictones  he  died  at  the  age  of  sixty-one,  A.  D.  632.  lie  hud 
f.  'minated  Ali,  his  son-in-law,  his  successor ;  but  Abubeker,  his  father* 
.:»4aw,  secured  the  succession  by  gaining  the  army  to  his  interest. 

4.  Abul>eker  united  and  publL^hed  the  books  of  the  Coran,  and 
pnnecuted  the  conquests  of  i^Iahomet.  He  defeated  the  army  of  He- 
n!*^ljos.took  Jerusjdem,  and  subjected  ail  the  country  between  Mount 
].i'aniis  antl  the  Mediterranean.  On  his  death  Omar  was  elected  to 
:fic  caliphate,  and  in  one  campaign  deprived  the  Greek  eiupire  of 
>>ria,  rha?nicia,  Mesopotamia,  and  Chaula^a.  In  the  next  campaijin 
li*^  «alH)u«?d  to  tlie  mussulman  dominion  and  religion,  the  whole  em- 
►  ..e  of  Persia.  His  generals  at  the  same  time  conquered  Egypt, 
Layra*  and  Numidia. 

o,  Otmiui,  the  successor  of  Omar,  added  to  the  dominion  of  the 
''alipby  Bactriana,  and  part  of  Tartary,  and  ravaged  iihodes  and  the 
(irvek  isLiuds.  His  successor  was  Ali,  the  son-in-law  of  Mahomet,  a 
M  ne  to  thi-*  day  revered  by  the  Mahometans.  He  transferred  the 
-  .it  of  the  CiUiphate  from  Mecca  to  CoufTa,  whence  it  was  aller^vards 
r.  rijifved  to  Baedat  His  reign  was  glorious,  but  only  of  live  years' 
.'uratiaa.  In  the  space  of  half  a  century  from  the  beginning  of  the 
^'i<»(|aests  of  Miihomet,  the  Saracens  raised  an  empire  more  extensive 
\\m  what  remained  of  the  Roman.  Nineteen  caliphs  of  the  race  ol 
Omar  (Ouuniades)  reigned  n  succession,  after  which  l>egan  the  dy- 
fiL'ty  of  the  .^(wjrntAc,  dcscenaea  by  the  male  line  from  Mahomet. 
Uounzor,  second  caliph  of  this  race,  removed  the  seat  of  empire  to 
iligikt.  and  intro(Juced  learning  and  the  culture  of  the  sciences, 
whtcbDifi^successors  continued  to  promote  with  equal  zeal  and  liber- 
ality. UaroiiD  Alraschid,  who  flourished  in  the  beginning  of  the  ninth 
century,  is  celebrated  as  a  second  Augustus.  The  sciences  chiefly 
ruftirsted  by  the  Arabians  were,  medicme,  ^eometrv,  and  astronomy 
ThcT  improred  the  oriental  poetry,  by  adding  regularity  to  its  fancy 
md  munuxj  of  imagery. 


y  Google 


106  MODERN  HISTORY. 

SECTION  IL 
MONARCHY  OF  THE  FRANKS. 

1.  The  Franks  were  originallj  those  tribes  of  Germans  who  iiihab> 
ited  the  districts  lying  on  Uie  Lower  Rhine  and  Weser,  and  who,  in 
the  time  of  Tacitus,  passed  under  the  names  of  Chauci,  Cfaerosci. 
Catti.  Sicambri,  &c.  They  assumed  or  received  the  appellation  of 
Frmucs^  or  freemen,  from  their  temporary  union  to  resist  the  domin- 
ion of  the  Romans.  Legendary  chronicles  record  a  Pharamood  and 
a  Merovens ;  the  latter  the  head  of  the  first  race  of  the  kines  of  ]<Yance, 
termed  the  Merovingian ;  but  the  authentic  history  of  the  Franks 
commences  only  with  his  grandson  Ciovis,  who  began  his  reisn  in 
the  year  481.  In  the  twentieth  year  of  his  age  Clovis  achieved  the 
conquest  of  Gaul,  bv  the  defeat  of  Syagrius  the  Roman  governor; 
and  marrying  Clotilda,  daughter  of  Chilperic  kin^  of  Burgundy,  soon 
added  that  province  to  his  dominions,  by  dethroning  his  father*in-Iaw 
He  was  converted  by  Clotilda ;  and  me  Franks,  till  then  idolaters,  be- 
came christians^  after  their  sovereign's  example.  The  Visigoths, 
professing  Arianism,  were  masters  at  this  time  of  Aquitaine,  the  coun- 
try between  the  Rhone  and  Loire.  The  intemperate  zeal  of  Clovis 
prompted  the  extirpation  of  those  heretics,  who  retreated  across 
the  Pyrenees  into  Spain;  and  the  provinces  ot  Aquitaine  became  part 
of  the  kingdom  of  the  Franks.  They  did  not  long  retain  it,  for  The- 
odoric  the  great  defeated  Clovis  in  the  battle  of  Aries,  and  added 
Aquitaine  to  his  dominions.    Clovis  died  A.  D.  511. 

2.  His  four  sons  divided  the  monarchy,  and  were  perpetually  at 
war  with  one  another.  A  series  of  weak  and  wicked  pnnces  succeed- 
ed, and  Gaul  for  some  ages  was  characterized  under  its  Frank  sover- 
eigns by  more  than  ancient  barbarism.  On  the  death  of  Dagobert  II, 
A.  D.  638,  who  leil  two  infant  sons,  the  government,  during  their  mi- 
nority, fell  into  the  hands  of  their  chief  orticers,  termed  mayors  of  the 
palace ;  and  these  ambitious  men  founded  a  new  power,  which  for 
some  generations  held  the  Frank  sovereigns  in  absolute  subjection, 
and  left  them  little  more  than  the  title  of  king.  Austrasia  and  Neus- 
tria,  the  two  great  divisions  of  the  Frank  monarchy,  were  nominally 
governed  by  Thierry,  but  in  reality  by  Pepin  Heristel,  mayor  of  the 
palace,  who,  restricting  his  sovereign  to  a  small  dommn,  ruled  France 
for  thirty  years  with  great  wisdom  and  good  policy.  His  son,  Charles 
Martel,  succeeded  to  his  power,  and  under  a  similar  title  governed  for 
twenty-six  years  with  equal  ability  and  success.  He  was  victorious 
over  all  his  domestic  foes.  His  arms  kept  in  awe  the  surrounding 
nations,  and  he  delivered  France  from  the  ravages  of  the  Saracens, 
whom  he  entirely  defeated  between  Tours  •  and  roictiers,  A.  D.  732 

3.  Charies  Mariel  bequeathed  the  government  of  France,  as  an  un 
disputed  inheritance,  to  his  two  sons,  Pepin  le  href  and  Carlonotan, 
who  eovemed,  under  the  same  title  of  mayor,  one  Austrasia,  and  the 
other  I^eustria  and  Burgundy.  On  the  resignation  of  Carloman,  FepiD 
succeeded  to  the  sole  ^ministration.  Ambitious  of  adding  Ae  title 
of  king  to  the  power  which  he  already  ei^oyed,  he  proposed  the 
question  to  pope  Zachary,  whether  he  or  his  sovereign  Childeric 
was  most  worthy  of  the  throne  ?  Zacharvt  who  had  his  interest  in 
view,  decided  that  Pepin  had  a  right  to  add  the  title  of  kinj^  to  the 
office ;  and  Childeric  was  confined  to  a  monasteiy  for  life.    With 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODERN  mSTOKY.  109 

\m  ended  the  first  or  MeroTingiBD  race  of  the  kings  of  France* 
A  D.  751. 

4.  Pepin  recompensed  the  service  done  him  by  the  pope,  by  torn* 
tag  his  anns  against  the  Lombards.  He  deprived  them  of  the  exar- 
cute  of  Ravenna,  and  made  a  donation  of  that  and  other  considerabie 
territories  to  tiie  holy  see,  which  were  the  first,  as  is  aliened,  of  iti 
temporal  possessions.  Conscious  of  his  defective  titie,  it  was  the 
principal  object  of  Pepin  le  href  to  conciliate  the  affections  of  the 
people  whom  he  governed.  The  legislative  power  amone  the  Franks 
was  vested  in  the  people  assembled  in  their  champs  de  Man.  Under 
the  Merovingian  r^e  the  regal  authority  had  sunk  to  nothing,  while 
the  power  oi  the  nobles  had  attained  to  an  inordinate  extent  Pepin 
Ibond  it  his  best  policy  to  acknowledge  and  ratify  those  rights,  which 
he  coold  not  without  danger  have  invaded ;  and  thus,  under  the  char- 
acter of  guardian  of  the  powers  of  all  the  orders  of  the  state,  he  exalt- 
ed the  r^al  office  to  its  proper  elevation,  and  founded  it  on  the  se- 
covest  baSs.  On  his  death-bed  he  called  a  council  of  the  grandees, 
and  obtained  their  con2«ent  to  a  division  of  his  kingdom  between  his 
two  SODS,  Charles  and  Carloman.  He  died  A.  D.  768,  at  the  age  of 
fifty-three,  aAer  a  rei^  of  seventeen  yean  from  the  death  c^Chii- 
denc  HI,  and  an  administration  of  twenty-seven  from  the  deatii  of 
Charles  MarteL 


SECTION  m. 

REFLiX^TIONS  ON  THE  STATE  OF  FRANCE  DURING  THE 
MEROVINGIAN  RACE  OF  ITS  KINGS.  ORIGIN  OF  THE 
mJDAL  SYSTEM. 

1.  Tbe  manners  of  the  Franks  were  similar  to  those  of  the  other 
Germanic  nations  described  by  Tacitus.  Tliough  under  the  command 
of  a  chief  or  king,  tlieir  government  was  extremely  democmtical,  and 
they  acknowledged  no  otiier  than  a  military  subordination.  The  lejgis- 
hlive  authority  resided  in  the  general  assembly,  or  champs  de  J\fjars^ 
held  annualljr  on  the  1st  day  of  March;  a  council  in  whicn  the  king 
had  bat  a  single  suffrage,  equally  with  the  meanest  soldier.  But, 
when  in  arms  against  the  enemy,  his  power  was  absolute  in  enforcing 
milftary  di:»cipline. 

2.  Aner  the  establishment  of  the  Franks  in  Gaul  some  changes  took 
pbce  from  their  new  situation.  They  reduced  the  Ganls  to  absolute 
solQection ;  yet  they  left  mamr  in  posses«ion  of  their  Linds.  because  the 
new  country  was  too  lar|;e  forite  conquerors.  They  left  them  like- 
wise the  use  of  their  existing  laws,  which  were  those  of  the  Roman 
code*  while  tliey  themselves  were  govenied  by  the  salifie  and  n/ww- 
rioc  laws,  ancient  institutions  in  observance  among  the  t  ranks  Ijefore 
Chcy  left  their  original  seats  in  Germany.  Hence  aitjse  that  extraor 
dinorv  diversity  ot  local  laws  and  usages  in  the  kingdom  of  France 
vhfcn  continued  down  to  modem  times,  and  gave  occasion  to  number 
leu  Inconveniences. 

X  The  ancient  Germans  had  the  highest  veneration  for  the  priests 
or  dmida.  It  was  natural  tliat  the  Franks,  after  then*  convercon  to 
chtktianity,  should  have  the  same  reverence  for  their  bishops,  to 
whom  accondingly  they  allowed  the  first  rank  in  the  national  a^ 
•enUr.  These  bishops  were  generallf  chosen  from  among  the  nap 
Hre  Gnda ;  for.  having  adopted  from  (nis  nation  their  new  religioo- 
t  WM  iBloraa  that  their  priests  should  be  chose^^iif  v!^0gie  P^ 


110  MODERN  ffiST&RY. 

pie.  The  influence  of  the  clergy  contributed  much  to  ameliorate 
the  condition  of  the  conquered  Uauls,andto  humanize  their  conquer- 
ors; and  in  a  short  space  of  time  the  two  nations  were  thoroughly  in- 
corporated. 

4.  At  this  period  a  new  system  of  policy  is  visible  among  this  unit 
ed  people,  which  by  degrees  extended  itself  over  most  of  Uie  nations 
of  Europe.  This  ia  the  feudal  system.  By  this  expression  is  properly 
meant  that  tenure  or  condition  on  which  the  proprietors  of  land  held 
their  possessions,  viz.,  an  obligation  to  perform  military  service* 
whenever  required  by  the -chief  or  overlord  to  whom  they  owed  al- 
legiance. ^ 

Hflany  modem  writers  attribute  the  origin  of  tlii?  institution  or  poli- 
cy to  the  kings  of  the  Franks,  who,  after  the  conquest  of  Gaul,  are 
supposed  to  have  divided  the  lands  among  their  followers,  on  this 
condition  of  military  service.  But  this  notion  is  attended  with  insur- 
mountable difficulties.  For,  in  the  first  place,  it  proceeds  on  this  i^Lse 
supposition,  that  the  conquered  lands  belonged  in  property  to  the  king, 
and  thsrt  he  had  the  right  of  l)estowing  them  in  gifts,or  dividing  them 
among  his  followers ;  whereas  it  is  a  certain  Ikct,  that  among  the 
Franks  the  partition  of  conquered  lands  wfis  made  by  lot,  as  was  the 
division  even  of  the  spoil  or  booty  taken  in  battle ;  and  that  the  king^s 
share,  though  doubtless  a  larger  portion  than  that  of  his  captains,  was 
likewise  assigned  him  by  lot.  Secondly,  if  we  should  suppose  the  king 
to  have  made  those  gii'ts  to  his  captains  out  of  his  own  domain,  the 
creation  of  a  very  few  bmeficia  {benefices)  would  have  rendered  him 
a  poorer  man  than  his  subjects.  We  must  therefore  have  recourse 
to  another  supposition  for  the  origin  of  the  iiels ;  and  we  shall  find 
that  it  is  to  be  traced  to  a  source  much  more  remote  tAan  the  con- 
quest of  Gaul  by  the  Franks. 

5.  Among  all  barbarous  nations,  with  whom  war  is  the  cliief  occu- 
pation, we  remark  a  strict  subordination  of  the  members  of  a  tribe  (o 
their  chief  or  leader.  It  was  observed  by  Caesar  as  peculiarly  strong; 
among  the  Gaulish  nations,  and  Jis  subsisting  not  only  between  the 
soldiers  and  their  commanaer,  but  between  the  inferior  towns  or  vil- 
lages, and  the  canton  or  province  to  which  they  belonged.  In  peace 
every  man  cultivated  his  land,  free  of  all  taxation,  and  subject  to  n(» 
other  burden  but  that  of  military  service,  when  required  by  his  chief 
When  the  province  was  at  war,  each  village,  though  taxed  to  furnish 
only  a  certain  number  of  soldiers,  was  bouna  to  send,  on  the  day  ap- 
pointed for  a  general  muster,  all  its  males  capable  of  bearing  arms; 
and  from  these  its  nited  number  was  selected  by  the  chief  of  the  prov- 
ince. This  cLientela  {vassalage)  subsisted  among  the  Franks  as  wt^ll 
as  among  the  Gauls.  It  subsisted  among  the  Romans,  who,  to  check 
the  inroads  of  the  barbarian  nations,  and  to  secure  their  distant  con- 
questB,  were  obliged  to  maintain  fixed  garrisons  on  their  frontiers 
To  each  officer  in  those  garrisons  it  was  customary  to  assign  a  por< 
tion  of  land  as  the  pledge  and  pay  of  his  service.  These  gills  were 
termed  henefida^  and  their  proprietors  benefidarii,  Plin.  Ep.  lib.  10, 
ep.  32.  The  beneficia  were  at  first  grantedonly  for  life.  Alexander 
Severos  allowed  them  to  descend  to  heurs,  on  tiie  like  condition  ot 
militarir  service. 

6.  When  Gaul  was  overrun  by  the  Franks,  a  great  part  of  the  landi 
was  possessed  on  this  tenure  by  the  Roman  soldiery,  as  the  rest  wiis 
by  the  native  Gauls.  The  conquerors,  accustomed  to  the  same  po^ 
fsfy  would  naturally  adopt  it  in  the  partition  of  their  new  conquests ; 
«ach  maD|  on  receiving  bis  shares  becoming  boinMl  t^  ^u^i^^^serviee^ 


MODERN  HISTORY.  Ill 

as  a  oonditiaD  necesearily  annexed  to  territoriai  property.  With 
respect  to  those  Gauls  who  retained  tlieir  possessions,  no  other 
change  was  necessary  hut  to  exact  the  same  obiigatton  of  military 
vassalage  to  their  new  conquerors,  which  they  had  rendered  to  their 
fonner  masters  the  emperors,  and,  before  the  Roman  conquest,  to 
their  native  chiefe.  Thus  no  other  change  took  place  but  that  oi 
the  oveiiord.    The  system  was  the  same  which  had  prevailed  for 

7.  But  these  benefiaa^  or  fiefs,  were  personal  grants,  revocable  by 
the  sovereign  or  overlord,  and  reverting  to  him  on  the  death  of  the 
vassal  Tho  weakness  or  the  Frank  kings  of  the  Merovingian  race 
emboMened  the  possessors  of  Befs  to  aspire  at  independence  and 
>ecurity  of  property.  In  a  convention  held  at  Andeli  in  687,  to  treat 
of  peace  between  Gontran  and  Childebert  II.,  the  nobles  obliged 
these  orinces  to  renounce  the  right  of  revoking  their  benefices, 
which  nenceforward  passed  by  inheritance  to  their  eldest  male  issue. 

8.  It  was.a  necessaiy  consequence  of  a  fief  becoming  perpetual  and 
heTedltaTy,'that  it  should  be  capable  of  subinfeudation;  and  that  the 
vassal  himself^  holding  his  land  of  the  sovereign  by  the  tenure  of 
niiiitary  service,  .«<houId  be  enabled  to  create  a  train  of  inferior  vas- 
sal*, by  giving  to  them  portions  of  his  estate  to  be  held  on  the  same 
rondition,  of  following  his  standard  in  battle,  rendering  him  homage 
us  their  lord,  and  paying,  jis  the  symbol  of  their  sufrjection,  a  small 
annual  present,  either  of  money  or  the  fruits  of  their  lands.  Thus, 
in  a  littie  time^  the  wiiole  territory  in  the  feudal  kingdoms  was  cither 
held  immediately  and  m  capiie  oi  the  sovereign  himself,  or  mediately 
by  inferior  vassals  of  the  tenants  in  capite. 

9.  It  was  natural  in  those  disorderly  timej«,  when  the  authority  of 
gnvcmment  and  the  obligation  of  ceneral  laws  were  extremely  weak. 
that  the  superior  or  overlord  should  acquire  a  civil  and  criminal 
jori^iction  over  his  vassals.  The  comites^  to  whom,  as  the  chief 
magistrates  of  police,  the  administration  of  justice  belonged  of  right, 
paid  little  attention  to  the  duties  of  their  oHire,  and  shamelully  abused 
their  powers.  The  inferior  clas5»cs  naturally  chose,  instead  of  seek- 
ing justice  through  this  corrupted  channel,  to  submit  their  lawsuits  to 
the  arbitration  ol  their  overloixl ;  and  this  jurisdiction,  conferred  at  first 
bv  the  acquiescence  of  parties,  came  at  length  to  be  regarded  as 
foooded  on  strict  right.  Hence  arose  a  perpetual  contest  ol  iurisdic- 
tioD  between  the  greater  barons  in  their  ov^-n  territories  and  the  es- 
tablished judicatories;  a  natural  cause  of  that  extreme  anarchy  and 
tifiorder  which  prevailed  in  France  during  the  greater  part  of  the 
.Merovingian  period,  and  sunk  the  regal  authority  to  the  lowest  pitch 
nf  AfaoEsement  In  a  government  of  which  every  part  was  at  variance 
irith  the  rest,  it  was  not  surprising  that  a  new  power  should  arise, 
which,  ID  able  hands,  should  be  capable  of  bringing  the  whole  under 
iulvectioo. 

la  The  mayor  of  the  palace,  or  first  oflicer  of  the  household, 
gxadoally  usurped,  under  a  series  of  weak  princes,  the  whole 
liowers  of  the  sovereign.  This  office,  from  a  |)er9onal  dignity,  be- 
canie  hereditary  in  the  family  of  Pepin  Heristel.  His  grandson, 
Pepn  U  brtff  removed  from  the  throne  those  nbantoms  oi  the  Me 
rovsgian  race,  asstmied  the  title  of  king,  by  the  authority  of  a  pi^ 
pal  decree*  and  reigned  for  seventeen  years  with  dignity  aiid  sqccesB. 
He  was  the  founder  of  the  second  race  of  the  French  monarchs 
kaown  by  the  name  of  the  Cariovinglan.  See  Rett's  Etements  of 
Omenl  Knowledge,  voL  L 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


in  MODERN  HISTORY. 

SECTION  IV. 

CHARI.EMAGNE.    THE  NEW  EMPIRE  OP  THE  WEST. 

1.  Retot  U  hreff  with  the  consent  of  his  nohles,  diyided,  on  hii 
death-bed,  the  kingdom  of  France  between  his  sons,  Charles  and 
Carloman,  A.  D.  768.  The  latter  died  a  few  ;f ears  after  his  fiither, 
and  Charles  succeeded  to  the  undiirided  sovereignty.  In  the  course 
of  a  reign  of  forty-five  years  Charlemagru  {for  so  he  was  de- 
servedly styled)  extended  the  limits  of  his  empire  beyond  the  Dan- 
ube ;  subdued  Bacia,  Dahnatia,  and  Istria :  conquered  and  subjected 
all  the  barbarous  tribes  to  the  banks  of  the  Vistula ;  made  himself  mas- 
ter of  a  great  portion  of  Italy ;  and  successfully  encountered  the  arms 
of  the  Saracens,  the  Huns,  the  Bulgarians,  and  the  Saxons.  His 
war  with  the  Saxons  was  of  Uiirty  years'  duration,  and  their  final 
conquest  was  not  achieved  without  an  inhuman  waste  of  blood.  At 
the  request  of  the  pope,  and  to  discharge  the  obligation  of  his  father 
Pepin  to  the  holy  see,  Charlemagne  dispossessed  Desiderius  king  of 
the  Lombards  of  all  his  dominions,  thougn  allied  to  him  by  marriage ; 
and  put  a  final  period  to  the  Lombard  dominion  in  Italy,  A.  D.  774. 

2.  He  made  his  entry  into  Rome  at  the  festival  ot  Easter,  was 
there  crowned  king  of  France  and  of  the  Lombards,  and  was,  by 
pope  Adrian  I,  invested  with  the  right  of  ratifying  the  elecUon  of 
the  popes.  Irene,  empress  of  the  east,  sought  to  ally  herself  with 
Charlemagne,  by  the  marriage  of  her  son  Constantine  to  his  daugh- 
ter; but  her  sufeequent  inhuman  conduct,  in  putting  Constantine  to 
death,  gave  ground  to  suspect  the  sincerity  of  her  desire  for  that 
alliance. 

3.  In  the  last  visit  of  Charlemagne  to  Italy  he  was  consecrated 
emperor  of  tiie  west  bv  the  hands  of  nope  Leo  III.  It  is  probable 
that  if  he  had  chosen  Rome  for  hisresiaence  and  seat  of  government, 
and  at  his  death  had  transmitted  to  his  successor  an  undivided  domin- 
ion, the  great  but  fallen  empire  of  the  west  might  have  once  more 
been  restored  to  lustre  and  respect  But  Charlemagne  had  no  fixed 
capital,  and  divided,  even  in  his  lifetime,  his  dominions  among  his 
ch&dren,  A.  D.  806. 

4.  The  economy  of  government  and  the  domestic  administration 
of  Charlemagne  merit  attention.  Pepin  U  href  had  introduced  the 
system  of  annual  assemblies  or  parliaments,  held  at  first  in  March, 
and  afterwards  in  May,  where  the  chief  estates  of  clergy  and  nobles 
were  called  to  deliberate  on  the  public  affairs  and  the  wants  of  the 
people.  Charlemagne  apointed  tfiese  assemblies  to  be  held  twice  in 
the  year,  in  spring  and  in  autamn.  In  the  latter  assembly  nil  affairs 
were  prepared  and  digested ;  in  the  former  was  transacted  the  busi- 
ness of  legislation ;  and  of  this  assembly  he  made  the  people  a  party^ 
by  admitting  from  each  province  or  district  twelve  oeputies  or  rep- 
resentatives. The  assembly  now  consisted  of  three  estates,  each  of 
which  formed  a  separate  chamber,  and  discussed  apart  the  concerns 
of  its  own  order.  JjThey  aflerwanls  united  to  communicate  their 
i^olutions,  or  to  deliberate  on  their  common  interests.  The  sove» 
reign  was  never  present,  unless  when  -called  to  ratify  the  decides  of 
the  assembly. 

&  Charlema^e  divided  the  empire  into  provinces,  and  the  pror* 
ioces  into  districts,  each  comprehending  a  certain  number  of  couik» 


MODERN  U1S1X)RY.  na 

tieib  The  distncts  were  govenied  by  royal  envoys,  choeen  from  the 
derfy  and  nobles,  and  bound  lo  an  exact  risitation  of  their  territories 
everT  three  months.  These  envoys  held  annual  conventions,  at 
whicli  were  present  the  higher  clergy  and  barons,  to  discuss  the 
affiun  of  the  district,  examine  the  conduct  of  its  magistrates,  and 
redress  the  grievances  of  individuals.  At  the  general  assembly,  ov 
champ  de  Jim,  the  royal  envoys  made  their  report  to  the  sovereign 
and  states;  and  thus  the  public  attention  was  constantly  directed  to 
all  the  concerns  of  the  empire. 

6.  The  private  character  of  Charlemagne  was  most  amiable  and 
respectable.  His  secretary,  Eginhart,  has  painted  his  domestic  life 
in  beaatilbl  and  simple  colours.  The  economy  of  his  fiimily  is  char 
acteristic  of  an  age  of  great  simplicity ;  for  his  danehters  were  as- 
^idtiouslv  employed  in  spinning  and  housewifery,  and  the  sons  were 
trained  oy  their  father  in  the  i)ractice  of  all  manly  exercises.  This 
t!Iiistrioas  man  died  A.  D.  814,  in  the  seventy-second  year  of  his  age. 
CoQtemporary  with  him  was  Haroun  Alraschid,  caliph  of  the  Sara 
cens,  equally  celebrated  for  his  conquests,  excellent  policy,  and  the 
wisdom  and  humanitv  of  his  government 

7.  Of  all  the  lawful  sods  of  Charlemagne,  Lewis  the  dthcnnaiin 
was  die  only  one  who  survived  him.  and  who  therefore  succeeded 
without  dispute  to  all  the  imperial  dominions,  except  Italy,  which 
the  emperor  Kmd  settled  on  Bernard,  his  grandson  by  Pepin,  bis 
second  SGO. 


SECTION  V. 

MANHERS,  GOVERNMENT,  AND  CUSTOMS  OF  THE  AGE  OT 
CHARLEMAGNE. 

1.  Is  establishing  the  provincial  conventions  mider  the  royal 
eovoys,  Charlemagne  did  not  entirely  abolish  the  authority  of  the 
ancient  chief  magistrates,  the  dukes  and  counts.  They  cootinued 
to  command  the  troops  of  the  province,  and  to  make  the  levies  in 
f  tafed  nombera  from  each  district  Cavaliy  were  not  numerous  in 
trie  imperial  armies,  twelve  fanns  being  taxed  to  fnmish  only  one 
horseman  with  his  annour  and  accoutrements.  The  province  sup> 
plied  six  months^  provisions  to  its  complement  of  men,  and  the  king 
maintained  them  during  the  rest  of  the  campaign. 

^  The  engines  for  the  attack  and  defence  of  towns  were,  as  in 
f«>rmer  times,  the  ram,  the  balista,  catapulta,  testudo,  kc  Ciiarie 
Tnagoe  had  his  ships  of  war  stationed  in  the  mouths  of  all  the  larger 
I .  ven.  He  bestowed  great  attention  on  commerce.  The  merchants 
nf  Italy  and  the  south  of  France  traded  to  the  Levant,  and  exchanged 
the  commodities  of  Europe  and  Asia.  Venice  and  Genoa  were 
T'2B«R^  oito  commercial  opulence ;  and  the  manufactures  of  wool,  glass, 
arid  iron,  were  successfully  cultivated  in  many  of  the  principal  towna 
in  tbe  south  of  Europe 

3w  The  value  of  money  was  nearly  the  same  as  in  the  Roman 
esnBiie  in  the  age  of  Constantine  the  great  The  numerary  livre, 
in  At  age  of  Cbariemagne,  was  supposed  to  be  a  pound  oi  silver,  in 
^-aJue  about  3L  sterling  of  English  money.  At  present  the  livre  la 
fforHi  10  l-Sd.  English.  Hence  we  ouglit  to  be  cautious  m  forming 
Mir  estifflar*  of  ancient  money  from  its  name.    From  the  want  «m 

Digitized  I^^^OOQlL 


114  MODERN  mSTORT. 

this  caution  have  arisen  the  most  erroneous  ideas  of  the  commerce, 
riches,  and  strength  of  the  ancient  kingdoms. 

4.  The  capUuUiria  {HaMe-books)  of  Charlemagne,  compiled  into  a 
body  A.  D.  827,  were  recovered  from  oblivion  in  1531  and  1545. 
They  present  many  circumstances  illustrative  of  the  manners  of  the 
times.  Unless  in  great  cities  there  were  no  inns :  the  laws  obliged 
every  man  to  give  accommodation  to  travellers.  The  chief  towns 
were  built  of  wood.  The  state  of  the  mechanic  arts  was  very  low 
in  Europe.  The  Saracens  had  made  more  progress  in  them,  raiiit 
ing  and  sculpture  were  only  preserved  from  absolute  extinction  by 
the  existing  remains  of  ancient  art.  Charlemarae  appears  to  have 
been  anxious  for  the  improvement  of  music;  and  the  Italians  are  said 
to  have  instructed  his  French  performers  in  the  art  of  playing  on  the 
organ.  Arcliitecture  was  studied  and  successfully  cultivated  in  that 
style  termed  the  Gothic,  which  admits  of  ^reat  beauty,  elegance, 
and  magnificence.  The  composition  of  Mosaic  appears  to  have  been 
an  invention  of  those  a^es. 

5.  The  knowledge  oi  letters  was  extremely  low,  and  confined  to  a 
few  of  the  ecclesiastics.  Charlemagne  gave  the  utmost  encourage- 
ment to  literature  and  the  sciences,  inviting  into  his  dominions  of 
France,  men  eminent  in  those  departments  from  Italy,  and  from  the 
Britannic  isles,  which,  in  those  dark  ages,  preserved  more  of  the 
light  of  learning  than  any  of  the  western  kmgdoms.  "  JSTeqtte  emm 
tUenda  laus  Britannix^  Scotia^  et  HibemjuE.  qua  studio  Uberalium  artntm 
eo  tempore  antecellebarU  rdiquis  occidetUalmts  regnis ;  et  cura  prcBsertitn 
monaawrtm^  qui  lUerarum  ghriam^  aUbi  aid  UingverUem  out  aepressam^ 
in  lis  regionibut  impigre  suscUabani  atque  tuebantur?^  Murat  Antiq. 
Ital.  Diss.  43.  ^^Imust  not  omit  the  praise  aue  to  England^  Scotland, 
and  Ireland^  whick  at  thai  titne  excelled  the  other  westernkingdoms in  Uic 
study  of  the  liberal  arts ;  and  especially  to  the  monks^  by  w&se  care  end 
diligence  the  honour  qf  Uteratmre^  which  in  other  countries  was  either 
langujMn^  or  depressed^  was  reuvoed  and  protected  in  tfieseP  The 
scarcity  ol  books  in  those  times,  and  the  nature  of  their  subjects, 
as  legends,  lives  of  the  saints,  &c.,  evince  the  narrow  diffusion  ot 
literature. 

6.  The  pecuniary  fines  for  homicide,  the  ordeal  or  judgment  of 
God,  and  judicial  combat,  were  striking  peculiarities  in  the  laws  and 
manners  of  the  northern  nations,  and  particularly  of  the  Franks.  By 
this  warlike,  barbarous  people,  revenue  was  esteemed  honourable  ami 
meritorious.  The  high-spirited  warrior  chastised  or  vindicated  with 
his  own  hand  the  injuries  which  he  had  received  or  inflicted.  The 
niagistrate  interfered,  not  to  punish,  but  to  reconcile,  and  was  satisfied 
if  he  could  persuade  the  aggressor  to  pay,  and  the  injured  party  to 
accept,  the  moderate  fine  which  was  imposed  as  the  price  of  blood, 
and  of  which  the  measure  was  estimated  according  to  the  rank,  the 
sex,  and  the  country  of  the  person  slain.  But  increasing  civilization 
abolished  those  barbarous  distinctions.  We  have  remarked  the  equal 
severity  of  the  laws  of  the  Visigoths,  in  the  crimes  of  murder  and 
robbery;  and  even  amgng  the  Franks,  in  the  age  of  Charlemagne, 
deliberate  murder  was  punished  with  death. 

7.  By  their  ancient  laws,  a  party  accused  of  any  crime  was  al- 
lowed to  produce  compurgators,  or  a  certain  number  of  witnesses, 
according  to  the  measure  of  the  offence;  and  if  these  declared 
upon  oath  their  belief  of  his  innocence,  it  was  held  a  sufficient  excol 
pation.  Seventy-two  compurgators  were  required  to  acquit  jl  moF- 
derer  or  an  incendiary.    The  flagrant  peijuries  occasioned  by  thia 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  US 

afanrd  practiGe  probably  gave  rise  to  the  trial  by  ordeal,  which  was 
tenned,  as  it  was  believedto  be,  the  judement  of  God  The  crimi* 
Dal  was  ordered,  at  the  optioD  of  the  judge,  to  prove  his  innocence 
or  suilt.  by  the  ordeal  of  cold  water,  of  boiling  water,  or  red  hot 
iron.  He  was  tied  hand  and  foot,  and  thrown  into  a  pool,  to  sink  or 
swim ;  he  was  made  to  fetch  a  rine  from  the  bottom  of  a  vessel  oi 
boilini^  water,  or  to  walk  barefooted  over  burning  ploughshares.  His- 
tory records  examples  of  those  wonderful  experunents  having  been 
made  without  icQury  or  pain. 

8.  Another  peculiarity  of  the  laws  and  manners  of  the  northern 
nations  whs*  judicial  combat  Both  in  civil  suits  and  in  the  trial  of 
crimes,  the  party  destitute  of  legal  proofs  might  challenge  his  antag- 
onist to  mortal  combat,  and  rest  tlie  cause  upon  its  issue.  This  san- 
ipiinary  and  most  iniquitous  custom,  which  may  be  traced  to  this  day 
in  the  practice  of  dueUing,  had  the  authority  of  law  in  the  court  of 
the  constable  and  marshal,  even  in  the  last  century,  in  France  and 
FngtaiKJ 


SECTION  VI. 

RiTTROSPECTIVE  VIEW  OF  THE  AFFAIRS  OF  THE  CHURCH 
BEFORE  THE  AGE  OF  CHARLEMAGNE. 

t.  The  Arian  and  Pelagian  heresies  divided  the  christian  church 
for  muiy  ages.  In  the  fourth  century,  Arius,  a  presbyter  of  Alexan- 
dria^ maintained  the  separate  and  inferior  nature  of  the  second  jper- 
SOD  of  the  trinity,  regarding  Christ  sis  tlie  noblest  of  created  beings, 
throQjgfa  whose  agency  the  Creator  had  formed  the  miiverse.  His 
doctrme  was  condemned  in  the  council  of  Nice,  held  b^  Constantine 
A.  D.  325,  who  afterH'ards  became  a  convert  to  it  for  many  cen- 
turies ii  had  ao  extensive  influence,  and  produced  the  sects  of  the 
ConoiBians,  Semi-Arians,  Eusebians,  &c. 

2.  In  the  beginning  of  the  Mh  century  Pelagius  and  Cslestius, 
the  former  a  native  ol  Britain,  the  latter  of  Ireland,  denied  the  doo- 
trioe  of  original  sin,  and  the  necessity  of  divine  ^race  to  enlighten 
the  understanding,  and  purify  the  heart ;  and  nmrntalned  the  sufli- 
cieocy  of  man*s  natural  powers  for  the  attainment  of  the  highest 
Jei^es  of  piety  and  virtue.  These  tenets  were  ably  combated  by 
Sl  Aupistlnc,  and  condemned  by  an  ecclesiastical  council,  but  have 
ever  continued  to  find  many  supporters. 

3.  The  most  obstinate  source  of  controveny  in  those  ages  was  the 
wor^p  of  images ;  a  practice  which  was  at  first  opposed  by  the 
ckrgf,  bat  was  afterwards,  from  interested  motives,  countenanced 
»nd  vindicated  by  them.  It  was,  however,  long  a  subject  of  division  in 
the  church.  The  emperor  Leo  the  Isaurian*  A.  D.  727,  attempted 
to  suDpresB  this  idolatry,  by  the  destruction  ot  every  statute  and  pic- 
ture iboDd  in  the  churches,  and  by  punishment  of  their  worshippers; 
but  this  intemperate  zeal  rather  increased  than  repressed  the  super- 
stition. His  son  Constantine  Copronymus,  with  wiser  policy,  pro- 
ctinMl  its  condemnation  by  the  church. 

4.  From  the  doctrines  of  the  Platonic  and  Stoic  philosophy. 
which  recommended  the  purification  of  the  soul,  by  redeeming  it 
firom  its  subjection  to  the  senses,  arose  the  svstem  of  penances,  mor- 
tificadon,  religious  sequestration,  and  monactiism.  After  Constantine 
bad  pot  an  end  to  the  persecution  of  the  christians,  many  conceived 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


116  MODERN  HISTORY. 

't  a  duty  to  procure  for  themselves  voluntary  grievances  and  sqiSbr- 
ings.  They  retired  mto  caves  and  hennitaees,  and  there  practised 
the  most  rigorous  mortifications  of  the  flesn,  hy  &stlng,  scourging 
vigils,  &c.  This  phrensy  first  showed  itself  in  Egypt  in  the  £o\xnb 
century,  whence  it  spread  over  ail  the  east,  a  great  part  of  Afnca, 
and  within  the  limits  of  the  bishopric  of  Rome.  In  the  time  d'The- 
odosius  these  devotees  began  to  form  communities  or  ccenofnoj  each 
associate  binding  himself  by  oath  to  observe  the  rules  of  his  order. 
St  Benedict  introduced  monachism  into  Italv,  under  the  reign  of 
Totila;  and  his  order,  the  Benedictine,  soon  became  extremely  nu- 
merous and  opulent  Many  rich  donations  were  made  by  the  devout 
and  charitable,  who  believed  that  they  profited  by  the  prayers  of  tiie 
monks.  Beneaict  sent  colonies  into  Sicuy  and  France,  whence  they 
soon  spread  over  all  Europe. 

5.  In  the  east,  the  rnonachifolkarn  (solitary  monks)  were  first  incor- 
porated into  caaiolna  by  St  Basil,  bishop  of  Caesarea,  in  the  middle  ot 
the  fourth  century ;  and  some  time  before  that  period  the  first  monas- 
teries for  women  were  founded  in  Egypt  by  the  sister  of  St.  Pacomo. 
From  these,  in  the  following  age,  sprung  a  variety  of  orders^  under 
different  rules.  The  rule  of  the  canons  regular  was  framed  alter  the 
model  of  the  apostolic  life.  To  chastity,  obedience,  and  poverty,  the 
mendicants  added  the  obligation  of  begging  ahns.  The  military  reli- 
gious orders  were  unknown  till  the  age  of  the  holy  wars.  (Sect  XVII, 
S  3.)  The  monastic  fraternities  owed  their  reputation  chiefly  to  the 
uttle  literary  knowledge  which,  in  those  ages  of  ignorance,  tkej  ex- 
clusively possessed,  ^or  the  origin  of  monachism,  see  Variebes  of 
literature.) 

6.  In  the  fifth  century  arose  a  set  of  fanatics  termed  ttyUies^  or  pil- 
lar-saints, who  passed  their  lives  on  the  tops  of  pillars  of  various  height 
Simeon  of  Syria  lived  thirtyngeven  years,  and  died  on  a  pillar  sixty 
feet  Jiieh.    This  phrensy  prevailed  in  the  east. for  many  centuries. 

g'ora  curious  account  of  the  fanaiiekn  of  the  Hindoog^see  Tenss&t's 
dian  Recreations.) 

7.  Auricular  confession,  which  had  been  abolished  in  the  east  in 
the  fourth  century,  began  to  be  in  use  in  the  west  in  the  age  of  Char- 
lemagne, and  has  ever  since  prevailed  in  the  Romish  church.  The 
canonization  of  saints  was,  for  near  twelve  centuries,  practised  by  ev- 
ery bishop.  Pope  Alexander  HI,  one  of  the  roost  vicious  of  men, 
first  claimed  and  assumed  this  right,  as  the  exclusive  privilege  of  the 
successor  of  St  Peter. 

8.  The  conquests  of  Charlemagne  spread  Christianity  in  the  north 
of  Europe ;  but  all  beyond  the  limits  of  his  conquests  was  idolatrous. 
Britain  and  Ireland  had  received  the  light  of  Christianity  at  aneaiiier 
period ;  but  it  was  afterwards  extinguwed,  and  again  revived  under 
the  Saxon  heptarchy. 


SECTION  vn. 

EMPIRE  OF  THE  WEST   UNDER  THE  SUCCESSORS  OF  CHAR- 
LEMAGNE. 

1.  The  empire  of  Charlemagne,  raised  and  supported  solely  hy  kia 
alNHties,  iell  to  pieces  under  his  weak  posterity.  Lewis  {U  debonnaire)^ 
the  only  survivor  of  his  lawful  sons,  was  consecrated  emperor  and 
kingof  theFranksat  AixlaChapeile)A.D.  816.    Among  the  £rBt 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODERN  HISTORY  .17 

I  of  hlireigD  was  the  partitioD  of  his  dominions  among  his  chfldren. 
To  PepiD|  his  second  son,  he  gave  Aopitaine,  a  third  part  of  the  sontti 
offVaDce;  to  Lewis,  the  youneest,  fiavaria ;  and  he  associated  his 
eUest  son  Lotharius  with  himsett  in  the  eovemment  of  the  rest  The 
three  l^noces  ^aarrelled  among  themsenre&  agreeing  in  nothing  but 
in  hoBtilitj  against  their  father.  They  maae  open  war  aeainst  hfan, 
supported  by  pope  Gregory  IV.  The  pretence  was,  that  Uie  emper 
or  naving  a  yoiin|(er  son,  Charles,  born  after  this  partition  or  his 
states,  wanted  to  give  him  likewise  a  share,  which  coxild  not  be  done 
Imi  at  the  expense  of  his  elder  brothers.  Lewis  was  compelled  to 
surreiider  himself  a  prisoner  to  his  rebellious  sons.  They  confined 
htm  for  a  year  to  a  monastery,  till,  on  a  new  qaarrel  between  Lewis 
the  yo«mger  and  Pepin,  Lotharius  once  more  restored  his  &ther  to 
the  throne :  hot  his  spirits  were  broken,  his  health  decayed  and  he 
linMied,  soon  after,  an  inglorious  and  turbulent  reign,  A.  D.  840. 

^  The  dissensions  of  the  brothers  still  continuedT  Lotharius,  now 
emperor,  and  Pepin  his  brother^s  son,  having  taken  up  arms  against 
the  two  other  sons  of  Lewis  k  debmtuxire^  Lewis  of  Bavaria  and 
Charies  the  bald,  were  defeated  by  them  in  the  battle  of  Fontenai, 
where  100,000  are  said  to  have  fiolen  in  the  field  The  church  in 
those  times  was  a  prime  organ  of  the  civil  policy.  A  council  of  bish*- 
opa  mnnedlately  assembled,  and  ^lemnly  (feposed  Lotharius.  At  the 
mne  tune  they  assumed  an  equal  authority  over  his  conqueron, 
whom  they  jEwimtted  to  reign,  on  t'.ie  ezpieas  condition  of  submissive 
obedience  to  the  supreme  spiritual  authority.  Yet  Lotharius,  though 
ezcommoolcated  and  deposed  found  means  to  accommodate  matters 
with  his  brothers,  who  agreed  to  a  new  partition  of  the  empire.  By 
the  treaty  of  Verdun,  A.1).  843,  the  western  part  of  France,  termed 
Neustria  and  Aquitaine,  was  assigned  to  Charles  the  bald ;  Lothariii8| 
with  the  title  olemperor,  had  the  nominni  sc^^creignty  of  Italy,  and 
the  real  territory  or  Lorraine,  Franche  Compte,  Provence,  and  the 
Lyoonois;  the  snare  of  Lewis  was  the  kingdom  of  Gennany. 

3l  Thm  was  Germany  finally  separated  from  the  empire  of  the 
Pranks.  On  the  death  of  Lotharius  Charles  the  bald  assumed  the 
empire,  or,  as  is  said,  purchased  it  m>m  pope  John  ViO,  on  the  coo* 
ditioo  of  holding  it  as  a  vassal  to  the  holy  see.  This  prince,  aAer  a 
weak  and  iof\mcm  reign,  died  by  poison,  A.  D.  877.  He  was  the 
fint  of  tlie  French  mooarchs  who  nuide  dignities  and  titles  hereditary. 
Under  Che  distracted  reigns  ot*  the  Cariovm|;ian  kings,  the  nobles  at- 
taioed  neat  power,  and  commanded  a  formidable  vassalage.  Thej 
sCreogtEened  themselves  in  their  castles  and  fortresses,  via  bid  defi- 
ance to  the  arm  of  government,  while  the  country  was  ravaged  and 
desobted  by  their  feuds. 

4«  In  the  reign  of  Charies  the  bald,  Fhmce  was  foundered  by  the 
Remans,  a  new  race  <Mf  GoUis  finom  Scandinavia,  who  had  began 
their  depredations  even  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  and  were  cmlj 
dbeckedintheirpragresBby  the  terror  of  his  anns^  A.  D.  843  they 
suied  op  the  Seine,  and  plundered  Rooen ;  while  another  fleet  enter 
ed  the  Loire,  and  laid  waste  the  coontiy  and  its  vkinitf ,  carrymg, 
tofether  with  its  spoib,  men,  women,  end  chiktrecL  bto  captivity. 
In  the  foQowing  year  they  attacked  the  coasts  of  Eiscland,  France| 
ead  Spam,  bet  were  repelled  firem  the  last  by  the  good  conduct  and 
ooonge  of  its  Mahometn  mien.  In  845  thev  entered  the  ElbOy 
plosdered  Hamburgh,  and  penetrated  far  bto  Germany.  Eric,  king 
of  Denmark,  who  commanoed  these  Nonnans,sent  once  BM>re  a  fleet 
lilo tbe Sekie^ whkJi edvaiiced to Ptois.   itsi^^ 


tl8  MODERN  HISTORY. 

city  was  burnt  Another  fleet,  with  little  resistance,  pillaged  Boor 
deaux.  To  avert  the  arms  of  these  ravagers,  Charles  the  foald  bribed 
them  wRh  money,  and  his  successor,  Charles  the  gross,  jielded  them 
a  part  of  his  Flemish  dominions.  These  were  only  incentives  to 
fresh  depredation.  Paris  was  attacked  a  second  time,  but  gallantly 
defended  by  count  Odo  or  Eudes,  and  the  venerable  bishop  Goslin. 
A  truce  was  a  second  time  concluded ;  but  the  barbarians  only  chang- 
ed the  scene  of  their  attack :  they  besieeed  Sens,  and  plundered 
Burgundy.  An  assembly  of  the  states  held  at  Mentz  deposed  the 
unworthy  Charles,  and  conferred  the  crown  on  the  more  deserving 
Eudes :  who,  during  a  reign  of  t;en  years,  bravely  withstood  the  Nor- 
mans. A  great  {Ksft  of  the  states  of  France,  however,  refused  his 
title  to  the  crown,  and  gave  their  allegiance  to  Charles  sumamed  the 
simile. 

5.  RoUo,  the  Norman,  in  912,  compelled  the  ktne  of  Fhmce  to 
yield  him  a  large  portion  of  the  territory  of  Neustna,  and  to  five 
am  his  daughter  in  marriage.  The  new  kingdom  was  now  c^led 
Normandy,  of  which  Rouen  was  the  capital. 


SECTION  vm. 

EMPIRE  OF  THE  EAST   DURING  THE  EIGHTH  AND  NINTH 
CENTURIES. 

1.  While  the  new  empire  of  the  west  was  thus  ramdly  tendine 
to  dissolution,  tiie  empire  of  Constantinople  still  retained  a  vestige  <» 
its  andent  grandeur.  It  had  lost  its  African  and  Syrian  dependencies, 
and  was  plundered  by  the  Saracens  on  the  eastern  frontier,  and  rav- 
aged on  the  north  and  west  by  the  Abari  and  Bulgarians.  The  capi- 
tal, though  splendid  and  refined,  was  a  constant  scene  of  rebellions 
and  conspiracies ;  and  the  imperial  family  itself  exhibited  a  series  of 
the  most  horrid  crimes  and  atrocities.  One  emperor  was  put  to 
death  in  revenge  of  murder  and  incest :  another  was  poisoned  by  his 
Queen ;  a  third  was  assassinated  in  the  bath  by  his  own  domestics ;  a 
fourth  tore  out  the  eyes  of  his  brother ;  the  empress  Irene,  respecta- 
ble for  her  talente,  was  infamous  for  the  murder  of  her  only  sod. 
Of  such  complexion  was  Aat  series  of  princes  who  swayed  the  scep- 
tre of  the  east  nearly  200  years. 

2.  In  the  latter  jmrtof  this  period  a  most  violent  controversy  was 
maintained  respecting  the  worship  of  images,  which  were  alternately 
destroyed  and  replaced  according  to  the  humour  of  the  sovereign. 
The  female  sex  was  their  most  zealous  supporter.  This  was  not  ue 
only  subject  of  division  in  the  christian  church ;  the  doctrines  of  Man- 
iches  were  then  extremely  prevalent,  and  the  sword  was  freqnent* 
tj  employed  to  support  and  propagate  their  tenets. 

3.  The  misfortunes  of  the  empire  were  increased  by  an  invasion 
«f  the  Russians  from  the  Pahis  Moeotis  and  Euxine.  In  the  reign  of 
X^eo,  named  the  philosopher,  the  Turks,  a  new  race  of  barbarians,  of 
Scythian  or  Tartarian  hreed,  began  to  make  effectual  inroads  on  its 
territories.  About  the  same  time  its  domestic  calamities  were  aggn^ 
vated  by  the  separation  of  the  Greek  from  the  Latin  churcfa,  of 
which  we  shall  treat  under  the  following  section. 


y  Google 


MODERN  HISTORY  11» 

SECTION  IX 

STATE   OF   THE   CHURCH   IN   THE    EIGHTH    AND   NINTH 
CENTURIES. 

1.  The  popes  had  becan  to  acquire  a  temporal  anthority  under 
Pepin  k  br^  and  Chanemagne,  from  the  aonations  of  territorj 
nude  by  thoae  princes,  and  mey  were  now  {gradually  extending  a 
spriritual  lansdictioa  over  ail  the  christian  kmedoms.  Nicholas  L 
proclaimed  to  the  whole  world  his  paramount  jud^ent  in  appeal 
from  the  sentences  of  all  spiritual  judicatories;  his  power  of  as- 
*«mbling  councils  of  the  church,  and  of  regulating  it  by  the  canons 
of  those  councils ;  the  right  of  exercising  his  authority  by  legates  in 
all  the  kingdoms  of  Europe,  and  the  control  of  the  pope  over  adl 
princes  and  governors.  Literary  imposture  gave  its  support  to  these 
pretences.  Certain  spurious  epistles  were  written  in  the  name  of 
twdorm,  with  the  design  of  proving  the  justice  of  the  claims  of  the 
pope ;  and  the  forgery  of  those  epistles  was  not  completely  exposed 
.ill  the  sixteenth  century.  Among  the  prerogatives  oi  the  popes  was 
tri«  regulation  of  the  marriages  of  aO  the  crowned  heaqs.  by  the 
•-iitreme  extension  of  the  prohibitions  of  the  canon  law,  wito  which 
:liey  alone  had  the  power  of  dispensing. 

vt  One  extraordinary  event  (if  true)  afforded,  in  the  ninth  cen- 
tury, a  ludicrous  interruption  to  the  boasted  succession  of  regular 
i  i^bop  from  the  days  ot  St  Peter,  the  electiou  of  a  female  pope. 
t^liO  IS  said  to  have  ably  governed  the  church  for  three  years,  till 
•  iftected  by  the  birth  of  a  child.  Till  the  reformation  by  Luther 
^hti  event  was  not  regarded  by  the  catholics  as  incredible*  nor  dis- 
fCr^ceful  to  the  church :  since  that  time  its  truth  or  ^Isenood  has 
.  •^.'en  the  subject  of  Iceen  controversy  between  the  protestants  and 
t*.ithalics;  and  the  evidence  for  its  &isehood  seems  to  preponderate. 

3.  The  church  was  thus  gradually  extending  its  influence,  and 
Its  head  afTogatmg  the  control  over  sovereign  princes,  who,  by  a 
^ingidar  interchange  of  character,  seem,  in  those  ages,  to  have 
tixed  their  chief  attention  on  spiritual  concerns.  Kings,  aukes,  and 
oiuDlSy  neglecting  their  temporal  duties,  shut  themselves  up  in  clois- 
ters, and  9oexkX  tlieir  lives  m  prayers  and  penances.  Ecclesiastics 
were  employed  in  all  the  departments  of  secular  government;  and 
Tb^  alooe  conducted  all  public  measures  and  state  negotiations, 
whtcfa  of  course  they  directed  to  tlie  great  objects  of  advancine  the 
tntennts  of  the  church,  and  establishing  the  paramount  authonty  of 
the  tidy  see. 

4.  At  this  period,  however,  when  the  popedom  seemed  to  have 
uUained  its  highest  ascendancy,  it  suffered  a  severe  wound  In  that 
ranariiable  schism  which  separated  the  patriarchates  of  Rome  and 

linople*  or  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches.    The  Roman  pon- 


tiff hftd  faknerto  claimed  the  rizht  of  nominating  the  patriarch  of 
rroostuitmople.  The  emperor  Michael  ID.  denied  this  lighL  and  de- 
pnvDg  the  pope^s  patriarch,  Icnatius,  appointed  the  celebrated  Pbotius 
Ki  hiisteaa.  rope  Nichobis  L  resented  this  affix>nt  with  ahlgh  spirit, 
«Dd  deposed  and  excommonkated  Photios,  A.  D.  863,  who,  m  Us 
earaipronoiBced  a  similar  sentence  against  the  pope.  The  chinch 
•raa  ttvidad,  each  patriarch  being  supported  by  many  biabops  and 
dMir  dependent  clergy.     The  Greek  and  LaUn  bIdSops  had  kog 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


03  MODERN  HISTORY. 

differed  in  many  points  of  practice  and  discipline,  as  the  celibacy  of 
the  clergTj  the  sharing  of  tneir  beards,  &c. ;  out  m  reality  the  prune 
aonrce  of  oivision  was  the  ambition  of  the  rival  ponti&  and  the  jeal 
ousy  of  the  Greek  emperors,  unwilling  to  admit  the  control  of 
Rome,  and  obstinately  asserting  every  prerogative  which  thev  con« 
ceivea  to  be  annexed  to  the  capital  of  the  Roman  empire.  As  nei 
tber  party  would  yield  in  its  pretensions,  the  division  oi  the  Greek 
end  I^tin  churches  became  from  this^  time  permanent. 

5.  Amid  those  ambitious  contests  for  ecclesiastical  nower  and  pre 
eminence,  the  christian  relidon  itself  was  disgraced,  both  by  thfl 
practice  and  by  the  principks  of  its  teachers.  Worldly  ambition 
gross  voluptuousness,  and  grosser  ignorance,  characterized  all  ranki 
of  the  clergy :  and  the  open  sale  of  benefices  placed  them  oiten  ii> 
the  hands  of  the  basest  and  most  profligate  of  men.  Yet  the  charac 
ter  of  Photius  forms  an  illustrious  exception.  Though  bred  a  states- 
man and  a  soldier^  and  in  both  these  respects  of  great  reputation,  bm 
attained,  by  his  singular  abilities^  learning,  and  worth,  the  highc«i 
dignity  of  the  church.  His  Bibhotheca  is  a  monument  of  the  m  ta^ 
various  knowledge,  erudition,  and  critical  judgment 


SECTION  X. 

OF  THE  SARACENS  IN  THE  EIGHTH  AND  NINTH  CENTaRIES. 

1.  In  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century  the  Saracens  subverted 
the  monarchy  of  the  Visigoths  m  Spain,  and  easily  overran  the  coun- 
try. They  nad  lately  founded  in  Africa  the  empire  of  Morocco, 
which  was  governed  by  Muza,  viceroy  of  the  caliph  Valid  Almanzor. 
Bluza  sent  his  general  Tariph  into  Spain,  who,  in  one  memorable 
battle,  fought  A.  D.  713,  stripped  the  Gothic  king  Rodrigo  of  his 
crown  and  life.  The  conquerors,  satisfied  with  the  sovereignty  of 
the  country,  left  the  vanquished  Goths  in  possession  of  their  proper- 
ty, laws,  and  religion.  AbdaUah  the  Moor  married  the  widow  of 
Eodrigo,  and  the  two  nations  fonned  a  perfect  union.  One  saxaA 
part  of  the  rocky  country  of  Asturia  alone  adhered  to  its  christian 
prince,  Pelagius,  who  maintained  his  little  sovereignty,  and  traqaaiii^ 
ted  it  inviolate  to  his  successors. 

2.  The  Moors  pushed  their  conquests  beyond  the  Pyrenees ;  but 
division  arising  among  their  emirs,  and  civil  wars  ensuing,  Lewis 
U  deboninmn  took  advantage  of  the^  turbulent  state  of  the  country, 
and  invaded  and  seized  Barcek>na4  The  Moorish  sovereignty  in  the 
north  of  Spain  was  weakened  by  throwing  off  its  dependence  qq 
the  caliphs;  and  in  this  juncture  the  christian  soverei^ty  of  the 
Asturias,  under  Alphonso  the  chaste,  began  to  make  vigorous  civ- 
croachments  on  the  territory  of  the  Moors.  Navarre  and  Arragon^ 
roused  by  this  example,  chose  each  a  christian  king,  and  boldly  ai> 
4erted  their  liberty  and  imlependence. 

S.  Wt^e  the  Moors  of  Spain  were  thus  losing  ground  hi  the  nox&^ 
Qiey  were  hi^^Uy  flooriirimg  in  the  southern  puts  of  the  klngdoitt. 
ilrfwilrahman,  the  bit  heir  <^  the  family  of  the  Oouniades  (the 
Jktkmdm  now  eqjoying  the  cal^hate),  was  recognized  as  the  true 
ffopiesentative  of  the  ancient  line  by  the  southern  IMloors.  He  fixe^ 
Ibe  aeat  of  Ins  .govemmentat  CondOTa,  which,  for  two  centuries  fi*ooa 
Ihat  tine,  was  the  capital  of  a  ^splendid  monarchy.  This  period 
from  the  middle  of  the  eighth  to  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century 

Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  v  isi 

m  fbe  most  brUUiDt  aara  of  Artbian  magDificence.  WhOst  Haroon 
Alrasohid  nsade  Bagdat  iDtstrioas  by  the  splendour  of  die  arts  and 
•deneea.  tiie  Moon  of  Cordova  vied  with  their  brethem  of  Asia 
IB  the  aaiiie  honourable  pursuits,  and  were  undoubtedly  at  this  period 
the  most  enlightened  of  the  states  of  Europe.  Under  a  series  of 
able  princes  ttiey  gained  the  highest  reputation,  both  in  arts  and 
aims,  of  afi  die  nations  of  the  west 

4.  The  Saiaceos  were  at  this  time  extending  their  conquests  In 
almost  every  quarter  of  the  world.  The  Mahometan  religion  was 
prol^ssed  over  a  great  part  of  India«  and  all  alon?  the  eastern  and 
^lec&lerranean  coast  of  Africa.  Ihe  African  Saracens  invaded 
Sicily,  and  projected  the  conquest  of  Italy.  They  actually  laid 
«ege  to  Rome,  which  was  nobly  defended  by  pope  Leo  iV.  They 
were  repulsed,  their  ships  were  dispersed  by  a  storm,  and  their  army 
W9B  cut  to  meces,  A.  D.  848. 

5.  The  aaracens  might  have  raised  an  immense  emphe,  if  they 
had  acknowledged  only  one  head ;  but  their  states  were  always  di»> 
vnited.  Egypt,  Morocco,  Spain,  and  India^  had  all  their  separate 
sovereigns,  who  continued  to  respect  the  caliph  of  JBafdat  as  tlie 
soocessor  of  the  prophet,  but  acknowledged  no  temporal  subjection 
(o  hit  govenment 


SECTION  M. 

OfPIBS  OF  THE  WEST   AND   ITALY  IN  THE  TENTH  AND 
ELEVENTH  CENTURIES. 

I.  TtK  empire  founded  by  Charlemagne  now  subsisted  only  in 
oaoe.  Anold«  a  bastard  son  of  Carloman,  possessed  Germany. 
Italy  was  diriaed  between  Guy  duke  of  Spoletto  and  Berengarius 
doka  of  Priuli,  who  had  received  these  duchies  fh)m  Charles  the 
bald.  France,  though  claimed  by  Arnold,  was  governed  by  Eudes. 
Tliiis  the  empire  in  reality  consisted  only  of  a  part  of  Germany, 
while  Fkance.  Spain^  Italy,  Burgundy,  and  the  countries  between  the 
Macs  and  Rhine,  were  all  subject  to  different  powers.  The  emper- 
ofv  were  at  this  time  electea  by  the  bishops  and  grandees,  aU  of 
whom  claimed  a  voice.  In  this  manner  Lewis  the  son  of  Arnold, 
the  last  of  the  blood  of  Charlemagne,  was  chosen  emperor  ailer  the 
dtaftth  of  his  fiither.  On  his  demise  Otho  duke  of  Saxony,  by  his 
creifit  with  his  brother  grandees  conferred  the  empire  on  Conrad 
doke  of  F^ranconta,  at  whose  death  Henry  sunamed  the  fowler,  son 
^  the  mne  dtdce  Otho,  was  elected  emperor,  A.  D.  918. 

fL  Henry  L  (the  fowler),  a  prince  of  great  abilities,  introduced 
tfderandgiod  government  into  the  empire.  He  united  the  gran 
dee*,  and  cvhed  their  usumtions;  built,  embellished,  and  fortified 
Che  dtiea;  •ui  enforced  with  g^atngoiir  the  enecutioa  of  the  laws 
kk  the  repnssioa  of  all  enormities.  He  had  been  consecrated  by 
hj9  owD  bishops,  and  maintained  no  correspondence  with  the  see  of 
Koae. 

5.  Uii  0OQ  Otho  (the  great),  A.  D.  938,  again  united  Italy  to  the 
cvpiie,  and  kept  the  poj^om  In  complete  subjection.  He  roada 
Demnaik  tiibataiy  to  the  imperial  crown,  annexed  the  crown  ofBfh 
hernia  to  lili  own  dominions,  and  seemed  to  aim  at  a  paramogil 
rthorHy  over  all  the  sovereigns  of  Europe. 


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m  MODERN  HI8T0RT 

4.  Otho  owed  his  ascendancy  in  Italy  to  te  daorden  of  the  ^ 
pacy.  Formosus,  twice  exGommunicated  hy  pope  John  Vlil^  bad 
arriyed  at  the  triple  crown.  On  bis  death  nis  nval,  pdpe  Stephen 
VI1.J  caused  his  body  to  be  dug^  out  of  the  grave,  and/after  trial  for 
his  crimes,  condemned  it  to  be  flung  into  the  Tiber.  The  friends  of 
Formosus  had  interest  to  procure  the  deposition  of  Stephen,  who 
was  strangled  in  prison.  They  sought  and  found  has  Dody,  and 
buried  it.  A  succeeding  pope^crgius  III.,  a£ain  dug  up  this  iU-ikted 
c;»rcase,  and  threw  it  into  the  Tiber.  Two  iniUimous  women,  Afaroziu 
and  I'heodora,  managed  for  many  years  the  popedom,  and  diled  the 
chair  of  St.  Peter  with  their  own  gallants,  or  their  adulterous  off- 
spring. Such  was  the  state  of  the  holy  see,  when  Berengarius  duke 
of  Priuli  disputed  the  sovereign^  of  Italy  with  Hugh  of  Aries. 
The  Italian  states  and  pope  John  XII.,  who  took  part  against  Beren- 
garius, invited  Otho  to  compose  the  disorders  of  the  country.  He 
entered  Italy,  defeated  Berengarius,  and  was  consecrated  emperor 
by  the  pope,  with  the  titles  of  Caesar  and  Augustus ;  in  return  for 
which  honours  he  confirmed  the  donations  maae  to  the  holy  see  by 
his  predecessors,  Pepin,  Charlemagne,  aqd  Lewis  the  debonnsure. 
A.  D.  962. 

5.  But  John  XII.  was  false  to  his  new  ally.  He  made  his  peace 
with  Berengarius,  and  both  turned  their  arms  against  the  emperor. 
Otho  Hew  back  to  Rome,  and  revenged  himself  by  the  trial  and 
deposition  of  the  pope ;  biit  he  had  scarcely  left  the  city,  when 
John,  by  the  aid  of  nis  party,  displaced  his  rival  Leo  VIIl.  Otlio 
once  more  returned,  and  took  exemplary  vengeance  on  his  enemies, 
by  hanging  one  hiilf  of  the  senate.  Ualling  together  the  lateran 
council,  he  created  a  new  pope,  and  obtained  from  the  assembled 
bishops  a  solemn  acknowledgment  of  the  absolute  ri^ht  of  the  em- 
peror to  elect  to  the  papacy,  to  give  the  investiture  of  the  crown  of 
luily,  and  to  nominate  to  all  vacant  bishoprics  ;  concessions  observed 
no  longer  than  wliile  the  emperor  was  present  to  enforce  them. 

6.  iSuch  was  the  state  of  Rome  and  Italy  under  Otho  the  great ; 
and  it  continued  to  be  much  the  same  under  his  successors  for  a  cen- 
tury. The  emperors  asserted  their  sovereignty  over  Italy  and  the 
popedom,  though  with  a  constant  resistance  on  the  part  of  the 
Komans,  and  a  general  repugnance  of  the  pope,  when  once  establish- 
ed. In  those  ages  of  ecclcsi*<vstical  profligacy  it  was  not  unusual  to 
put  up  the  popedom  to  sale.  Benedict  VlIL  and  John  XIX.,  two 
brothel's,  publicly  bought  the  chair  of  St  Peter,  one  afler  the  other  ; 
and,  to  keep  it  in  their  family,  it  was  purchased  afterwards  by  their 
friends  for  Benedict  IX.,  a  child  of  twelve  years  of  age.  Th^€^e 
popesj  each  pretending  regular  election  and  equal  right,  ajgreed  first 
to  divide  the  revenues  between  them,  and  afterwards  soMall  their 
shares  to  a  fourth. 

7.  The  emperor  Henry  lU.,  a  prince  of  great  ability,  fitrenuouslr 
vindicated  his  right  to  supply  the  pontifical  chair,  and  created  thre« 
Mccesaive  popes  without  opposition. 


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MODERN  mSTORY.  123 


SECTION  xn. 

0ISTORT  OF  URITAIN  FROM  ITS  EARLIEST  PERIOD  DOWN 
TO  THE  NORMAN  CONQUEST. 

1.  The  history  of  Britain  has  heen  postpoDed  to  this  time,  that  if 
niaT  be  considered  in  one  connected  Tiew  Ironi  its  earliest  period  to 
th<'  end  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  government 

We  strive  not  to  pierce  through  that  mist  of  obscurity  which  veils 
the  original  population  of  the  British  isles ;  remarking  only,  as  a  mat- 
tor  of  ugh  probabilitv,  that  they  derived  their  first  mhabitants  from 
1  lie  Celts  of  GauL  Their  authentic  history  commences  with  the  first 
Uuman  invasion;  and  we  learn  from  Caesar  and  Tacitus,  that  the 
country  was  at  tliat  period  in  a  state  very  remote  from  barbarism. 
It  was  divided  into  a  number  of  small  independent  sovereignties,  each 
vfiQce  havinc  a  re^lar  army  and  a  fixed  revenue.  The  manners, 
laiieinge,  ana  rellnoB  of  the  people,  were  the  same  as  those  of  the 
Oailic  Celtae.  The  religion  was  the  druidical  system,  whose  in- 
dueoce  pervaded  every  department  of  the  {[ovemmeut,  and,  by  its 

C>irer  over  the  minds  of  tne  people,  supphcd  the  imperfection  of 
ws. 

2.  J  alius  Caesan  aAer  the  conquest  of  Gaul,  turned  his  eyes 
t  > wards  Britain.  He  landed  on  tlie  southern  coast  of  the  island,  55 
.\.  C;  and  meeting  with  most  obstinate  resistance,  though  on  the 
whole  gaining  some  advantage,  he  found  himself  obliged,  ai\er  a 
«!iort  campai^ni  to  withdraw  lor  the  winter  into  Gaul.  He  returned 
in  the  foUowmg  summer  with  a  great  Increase  of  force,  an  army  ol 
J  iJJuO  foot,  a  competent  body  of  norse,  and  a  iicet  of  800  sail.  The 
rioependent  chiefe  of  the  Bntons  united  their  forces  under  Cassibe- 
tonus  long  of  the  Trinobantcs,  and  encountering  the  legions  with 
great  resdutlon,  displayed  all  the  ability  of  practised  warriors.  But 
frie  contest  was  vain.  Caesar  advanced  into  the  country,  burnt  Veru- 
Unhim,  the  capital  of  Cassibelanus,  and,  afler  forcing  the  Britons 
into  articles  of  submission,  returned  to  Gaul. 

5k  The  domestic  disorders  of  Italy  gave  tranquillity  to  the  Britons 
fnr  near  a  century  j  but,  In  the  reign  of  Claudius,  the  conquest  of  the 
>Lind  was  determmed.  The  emperor  landed  in  Britain  and  com- 
pelled the  submission  of  the  south-eastern  provinces.  Ostorius  Scapula 
lieieated  Caractacus,  who  was  sent  prisoner  to  Rome.  Suetonius 
l^alinus,  the  geneial  of  Nero,  destroyed  Mona  (Anglesey,  or  as 
oihen  think,  fiian),  the  centre  of  the  druidical  superstition.  The 
keni  (inhabitants  ot  Norfolk  and  Sufiblk),  under  their  queen  Boadicea, 
mOacked  several  of  the  Roman  settlements.  London,  with  its  Roman 
nrriscD,  ww  burnt  to  ashes.  But  a  decisive  battle  ensued,  in  which 
£-)^llUO  of  the  Britons  fell  io  the  field,  A.  D.  61.  Thirty  years  aHer, 
ID  the  reign  of  Titus*  the  reduction  of  the  island  was  completed  by 

tbe  Roman  general,  Julius  Agricola.    He  secured  the  Roman  prov* 

inee  tgamst  invasion  6>om  the  Caledonians,  by  walls  and  garrisons; 

aod  lecoDclied  the  southern  inhabitants  to  the  government  of  their 

ooaqveron,  by  the  introduction  of  Roman  arts  and  imi^ovementi. 

ILoder  Severus  the  Roman  province  was  extended  fiir  into  the  north 

o^SooHuid. 

4.  With  the  dedlne  of  the  Roman  power  In  the  west,  the 

•uathem  Britotis  recovered  their  liberty,  bat  it  was  only  to  become 


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124  MODERN  mSTORT. 

the  object  of  inceaflant  predatorjr  invadoa  firoQi  their  brethren  of  the 
north.  The  Romans,  after  reboildmg  the  wall  of  Sevenis,  finally  bid 
adieu  to  Britain,  A.  D.  448.  The  Plots  and  Caledonians  now  broke 
down  upon  the  south,  rayaging  and  desolating  the  country,  without  a 
'      '      -eiy      '■  ' 


purpose  of  conquest,  and  merely,  as  it  appears,  for  the  supply  of  their 
temporary  wants.  After  repeated  appucation  for  aid  from  Rome 
without  success,  the  Britons  meanly  solicited  the  Saxons  for  succour 
and  protection. 

5  The  Saxons  receired  the  embassy  with  great  satisfaction.  Brit- 
ain had  been  long  known  to  them  in  their  piratical  voyages  to  its 
coasts.  They  landed  to  the  amount  of  1^600.  under  the  command  o^ 
Ilcngist  and  Horsa,  A.  D.  450;  and  joinmg  the  South  Britons,  soon 
compelled  the  Scots  to  retire  to  their  mountains.  They  next  turned 
their  tbouehts  to  the  entire  reduction  of  the  Britons,  and  received 
large  reinforcements  of  their  countiymen.  After  an  obstinate  contest 
of  near  1 50  years,  they  reduced  the  whole  of  England  under  the  Sax« 
on  government  Seven  distinct  provinces  became  as  many  indepen* 
dent  kingdoms. 

6.  The  history  of  the  Saxon  heptarchy  is  unbterestin^,  from  its 
obscurity  and  confusion.  It  is  sufficient  to  marie  the  dunttion  of  the 
several  kingdoms,  till  their  union  under  Egbert.  Kent  began  in  455, 
and  lasted,  under  seventeen  princes,  tiU  827,  when  it  was  subdued  by 
the  West  Saxons.  Under  Ethelbert,  one  of  its  kings,  the  Saxona 
^vere  converted  to  Christianity  by  the  monk  Augustine.  Northumber 
kind  began  in  597^  and  lasted,  under  twenty-three  kinss,  till  792. 
t'list  Anglia  beean  m  575«  and  ended  in  793.  Mercia  subsisted  firom 
582  to  827.  ESaex  had  fourteen  princes,  from  527  to  747.  Snssex 
had  five  kings  before  its  reduction  under  the  dominion  of  the  West 
Saxons,  about  600.  Wessex  (the  countiy  of  the  WM  Saxons)  beean 
in  519,  and  had  not  subsistea  above  eighty  years,  when  CadM^la, 
king  of  Wessex,  conauered  Sussex,  and  annexed  it  to  his  dominions. 
As  there  was  no  fixed  rule  of  succession,  it  was  the  policy  of  the  Sax- 
on princes  to  put  to  death  all  the  rivals  of  their  intended  successor. 
From  this  cause,  and  from  the  passion  for  celibacy,  the  royal  Aunilies 
were  nearly  extmguished  m  the  kingdoms  of  the  hei>taTchy ;  and  Eg* 
bert,  prince  of  theWest  Saxons^remained  the  sole  surviving  aescendant 
of  the  Saxon  conquerors  of  Britain.  This  circumstance,  so  favourable 
to  his  ambition,  prompted  him  to  attemi>t  the  conauest  of  the  heptar- 
chy; and  he  succeeded  in  the  enterprise.  By  bis  victorious  arms 
and  judicious  jpoticy  all  the  separate  states  were  united  into  oneereaK 
kingdom,  A.  D.  827,  near  400  yean  after  the  first  arrival  of  the  Sax* 
ons  in  Britain. 

7.  England,  thus  united,  was  &t  finom  enjoying  tranquillity.  The 
piratical  Normans  or  Danes  had  for  fifty  jeais  aesolated  her  coastsu 
and  continued,  for  some  centuries  after  this  period,  to  be  a  perpetusd 
«courge  to  the  country.  Under  Alfred  (the  great),  grandson  of  Ce- 
bert,  the  kingdom  was  from  this  cause  reduced  to  extreme  wretch^- 
ness.  The  heroic  Alfired  in  one  year  defeated  the  Danes  in  eight  ba^ 
ties;  but  a  new  irruption  of  their  countrymen  forced  him  to  solicit  • 

r^ace.  which  these  pirates  constantly  interrupted  by  new  hostilities. 
Ured  was  compelled  to  seek  his  safety  for  many  months  hi  an  obscure 
qinrter  of  the  country,  till  the  disorders  of  the  Danish  army  ofeied 
a  &ir  opportunity  of  attacking  them,  which  he  improved  to  the  entire 
defeat  ofhis  enemies.  He  might  have  destroyed  them  alL  but  chose 
Tatiber  to  spare  and  to  incor^rate  them  with  his  English  sabjects. 
This  clemency  did  not  restram  their  countrymen  from  attemp&£  ^ 


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MODERN  HISTORY.  Itb 

aew  inraooD.  They  were  again  defeated  with  knmeose  loss;  and 
the  extreme  severitj  which  it  was  neceanry  to  exercise  against  Hie 
vaoqoiabed,  had  the  effect  of  soBpeodmg  the  Danish  depre&tions  tor 
aeTend  wan. 

8.  Alfi«d.whettier  considered  in  his  public  or  prirate  character, 
deaerres  to  oe  reckoned  among  the  best  and  greatest  of  princes.  He 
united  tiie  most  enterprising  and  heroic  spirit  with  consummate  pru- 
dence and  moderatioo,  the  utmost  vigour  of  authority  with  the  most 
engiaging  gentleness  of  manner,  the  most  exemplary  justice  with  the 
greitest  lenity,  tlie  talents  of  the  statesman  and  the  man  of  letters 
with  the  intrejttd  resolution  and  conduct  of  the  general  He  found 
the  kingdom  m  die  most  miserable  condition  to  which  anarchy,  do- 
mestic barbarism,  and  foreign  hostility,  could  reduce  it :  he  brought 
it  to  a  pitch  of  eminence  smrpaasmg,  in  many  respects,  the  situation  of 
its  contemporary  nations. 

9.  Alfred  divided  England  into  counties^  with  their  subdivisions  of 
hundreds  and  tithings.  The  tithing  or  decennary  consisted  of  ten 
families,  over  which  presided  a  tithmg-man  or  borg-holder ;  and  ten 
oftiieae  composed  the  hundred.  Every  house-holder  was  answerable 
for  his  &mily,and  the  tithin£«man  for  all  within  his  tithing.  In  the 
decinon  of  dmerences  the  titning-man  had  the  assistance  of  the  rest 
of  his  decennary.  An  appeal  lay  from  the  decennary  to  the  court  of 
the  hundred,  wnich  was  assembled  every  four  weeks ;  and  the  cause 
was  tried  by  a  jury  of  twelve  freeholders,  sworn  to  do  Impartial  jus- 
tice. An  annoal  meeting  of  the  hundred  was  held  for  the  regulation 
of  the  police  of  the  dis£ct  The  county-court,  superior  to  tiiat  of 
Che  hondred.  and  consisting  of  all  the  freeholden,  met  twice  a  year, 
cflerMlchfleunas  and  Easter,  to  determine  appeals  from  the  hundreds*, 
and  settle  disputes  between  the  inhabitants  of  different  hundreds. 
The  ultimate  appeal  from  all  these  courts  lay  to  the  king  in  council ; 
and  die  frequency  of  these  appeals  prompted  Alfred  to  extreme  cir- 
cumnection  m  the  appointment  of  his  ludges.  He  composed  for  tlie 
relation  of  these  courts,  and  of  liis  kingdom,  a  body  of  laws,  the 
basis  of  the  common  law  of  England. 

10.  Alfred  gave  every  encouragement  to  the  cultivation  of  letters, 
aa  the  best  means  <^  eradicating  barbarism.  He  invited,  from  every 
quarter  of  Europe,  tlie  learned  to  reside  in  his  dominioin,  establishecl 
fchoob,  and  is  said  to  have  founded  the  university  of  Oxford.  He 
was  himself  a  most  accomplished  scholar  for  the  age  in  which  he 
Kved,  as  appears  from  the  works  which  he  composed:  poetical  auo- 
loroea,  the  translation  of  the  histories  of  JBede  and  Orosius ;  and  of  bo- 
cthiua  on  the  consolation  of  philosophy.  In  every  view  of  his  char- 
acier  we  must  regard  Alfred  the  great  as  one  of  the  best  and  wisest 
men  tfcat  ever  occupied  the  regal  seat  He  died  at  the  age  of  fifb^- 
three,  A.  D.  901,  after  a  glorious  reign  of  twenty-nine  years  and  a 
aalC 

tl.  The  admirable  institutions  of  Alfred  were  partially  and  feebly 
calbrced  under  his  successors ;  and  England,  still  a  prey  to  the  rava- 
rea  of  the  Danes  and  mtestine  disorder,  relapsed  into  confusion  and 
Eaibarism.  The  reigns  of  Edward  the  elder,  the  son  of  Alfred,  and 
of  his  successors,  Athelstan,  Edmund,  sod  Edred.  were  tumultuous  and 
aomchicaL  The  clergy  began  to  extend  their  authority  over  the 
IbroMu  and  a  series  of  succeeding  princes  were  the  obseouious  slaves 
of  thev  tyranny  and  ambition.  In  the  reign  of  Etbelred,  A.  D.  981, 
Che  Danes  seiwusly  prpjected  the  conquest  of  England;  and  led  by 
fweyv  kiof  of  Denmuk,  and  Ohms  kmg  of  Norway^  made  a  more 

1*2  Digitized  by  ^^OOgie 


lat  MODEIIN  HISTORY. 

ibnnidable  descent,  won  several  important  battles,  and  were  restrain- 
ed from  the  destruction  of  I^ondon  only  by  a  dastardly  sabmission, 
and  a  promise  of  tribute  to  be  paid  by  the  inglorious  Etnelred.  The 
Englisn  nobility  were  ashamed  of  their  prince,  and,  seeing  no  other 
relief  to  the  kingdom,  made  a  tender  of  the  crown  to  the  Danish 
monarch.  On  the  death  of  Sweyn,  Ethelred  attempted  to  regain  his 
kingdom,  but  found  m  Canute,  the  son  of  Swe]^,  a  prince  detennlne«' 
to  support  his  claims.  On  the  death  of  Ethehred,  his  son  Edmunu 
Ironsiae  gallantly  but  ineffectually  opposed  Canute.  At  length  a 
partition  of  the  kingdom  was  made  between  Canute  and  Edmund^ 
which,  afler  a  few  months,  the  Danes  annulled  by  the  murder  ot 
Gdmund,  thus  securing  to  their  monarch  Canute  the  throne  of  all 
England,  A.  D.  1,017.  Edmund  left  two  children,  Edgar  Alheling. 
;mri  Margaret,  afterwards  wife  to  Malcolm  Canmore,  Tung  of  Scol- 
bnd. 

12.  Canute,  the  most  powerful  monarch  of  his  time,  sovereign  ot 
Denmark,  Norway,  and  England,  swayed,  for  seventeen  years,  the 
sceptre  ot  England  with  a  tirm  and  vigorous  hand.  He  was  severe 
in  tne  beginning  of  his  reign,  while  his  government  was  insecure ; 
but  mild  and  equitable  when  possessed  of  a  settled  dominion.  He 
left,  A.  D.  1,036,  three  sons,  Sweyn,  who  was  crowned  king  of  Nor 
way,  Harold,  who  succeeded  to  tlie  throne  of  England,  and  Hard! 
Canute,  sovereign  of  Denmark.  Harold,  a  merciless  tyrant,  died  in 
the  fourth  year  of  his  reign,  and  was  succeeded  by  Haraicanute, 
who,  after  a  violent  administration  of  two  years,  died  in  a  fit  of  de 
bauch.  The  English  seized  this  opportunity  of  shaking  off  the 
Danish  yoke,  and  conferred  the  crown  on  Edward,  a  younger  son  of 
Ethelred,  rejecting  the  preferable  right  of  Edgar  Atnelbg,  the  son 
of  tMmund,  who,  unfortunately  for  his  pretensions,  was,  at  this  time 
abroad  in  Hungary.  Edward,  sumamed  the  confessor,  A.  D.  1,041, 
reigned  weakly  and  ingloriously  for  twenty-five  years.  The  rebel- 
lious attempts  of  Godwin,  earl  of  Wessex,  aimed  at  nothing  less  than 
a  usurpation  of  the  crown ;  and  on  his  death,  his  son  Harold,  cherish- 
ing secretly  the  same  views  of  ambition,  haa  tlie  address  to  secure  to 
his  interest  a  very  formidable  party  in  tne  kingdom.  Edward,  to  de- 
feat these  views,  bequeathed  the  crown  to  William  duke  of  Norman- 
dy, a  prince  whose  great  abilities  and  peraonal  prowess  had  rendered 
hli  name  illustrious  over  Europe. 

13.  On  the  death  of  Edward  the  confessor,  1,066,  the  usurper 
Harold  took  possession  of  the  throne,  which  Uie  intrepid  Norman 
determined  immediately  to  reclaim  as  his  inheritance  of  ri^ht.  He 
made  the  most  formidable  preparations,  aided,  in  this  age  ol  roman- 
tic enterpriscj  by  many  of  the  sovereign  princes,  and  a  vast  body  ol 
thfe  nobility,  from  the  different  continental  kingdoms.  A  Norwegian 
fleet  of  300  sail^  entered  the  Humber  (a  river  on  the  eastern  coa^t 
of  England).  The  troops  were  disembarked,  and,  after  one  success- 
ful engaeement,  were  defeated  by  the  English  army  in  the  interest 
of  Harold.  William  landed  his  army  on  the  coast  of  Sussex,  to  tli* 
amount  of  60,000 ;  and  the  English,  under  Harold,  flushed  with  their 
recent  success,  hastily  advanced  to  meet  him,  being  imprudentiy  re- 
solved to  venture  all  on  one  decisive  battle.  The  total  rout  and  (b**- 
comfiture  of  the  English  army  in  the  field  of  Hastings,  on  the  I4ih 
day  of  October,  1,066,  and  tlie  death  of  Harold*  after  some  fraitleas 
attempts  of  further  resistance,  put  William  duke  of  Nonnandy  iu 
possession  of  the  throne  of  England. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


MODERN  JIlMl)Ry.  it? 


SECTION  Xlll. 

or    THE   GOVERNMENT,    LAWS,    AND    MANNERS  OF    THE 
ANGLO-SAXONS. 

1.  'Dbdc  goveroment,  laws,  and  manners  of  the  An^lo-Saxons  have 
become  a  subject  of  inquiry  to  modem  writers,  as  being  supposed  to 
have  bad  innuence  in  the  formation  of  the  British  constitutiou. 
The  government  of  the  Saxons  was  the  same  as  that  of  all  tlie  an- 
cient Germanic  nations,  and  they  naturally  rct^iincd,  in  their  new 
settlement  in  Britain,  a  policy  similar  to  their  accustomed  usages. 
Their  subordination  was  chiefly  military,  the  king  having  no  more 
authority  than  what  belonged  to  the  gcnenil,  or  military  leader. 
There  was  no  strict  rule  of  succestion  to  the  llirone ;  for  though  the 
King  was  generally  chosen  from  the  family  of  the  last  prince,  yet 
the  choice  usually  fell  on  the  person  of  the  best  capacity  fur  govern- 
ment In  fome  instances  the  destination  of  the  la.«t  >overcign  regu- 
lated the  choice.  We  know  very  little  of  the  nature  of  the  Anglo- 
^uxon  government,  or  of  tlie  distinct  rights  of  the  sovereign  and 
I>eople. 

2.  One  institution  common  to  all  the  kingdoms  of  th<'  heptarchy  was 
the  wittenagcmot,  or  assembly  of  the  wi«e  men,  wh(^^5e  consent  was 
requisite  for  enacting  laws,  and  ratifying  the  chief  acts  of  public  ad- 
nunUlration.  The  bishops  and  abbots  formed  a  part  of  tiiis  assc^m- 
bh  ;  al<o  the  aldermen,  or  earls,  and  governors  of  countif'>.  Tlie 
wite^.  or  wise  men,  are  discriminated  from  the  prelates  and  nolilitv 
•.ind  have  by  J^ome  been  supposed  to  have  been  the  repr(;senlalj\t^ 
of  the  commons.  But  we  hear  nothing  of  election  or  n^pre>eutHcicrr 
in  tbo$e  ijeriods,  and  we  mu.<t  therefore  prt^sume  that  they  weiv 
merely  landholder,  or  men  of  considerable  estate,  wlm,  li  o'm  Wuii 
weight  and  consequence  in  the  country,  were  held  entitled-  v>i!ficu< 
any  election,  to  take  a  share  in  the  public  delibei'ation5. 

3.  The  Anglo-Saxon  government  wa«»  extremely  a^i^locratkal; 
ilic  regal  authority  being  very  limited,  the  rights  of  the  ptM)ple  liltie 
kDovm  or  regarded,  and  the  nobility  po.sses>ing  much  uncontrolled 
4aA  lawless  rule  over  their  dependents.  The  offices  of  government 
were  hereditary  in  their  families,  and  they  commanded  the  whole 
military  force  of  their  respective  provinces.  So  strict  was  the  dun. 
tiUt  betiveen  these  nobles  and  tiieir  vassals,  that  the  munler  of  a  vas- 
«al  ¥nA  compeasated  by  a  line  paid  to  his  lord. 

4.  There  were  three  ranks  of  the  people,  the  noble?,  the  frc  e.  and 
the  slaves.  The  nobles  were  either  the  king^s  thanes,  \vhu  luUf 
•lieir  landet  directly  from  the  sovereign,  or  less  thanes,  who  h«'ld  lun^ 
icjm  the  former.  One  law  of  AtlK*lst;m  declared,  that  a  nierchar.t 
who  had  made  three  voyages  on  his  own  account  was  entitled  (o  the 
ifignity  of  thane ;  another  decreed  the  sjime  rank  to  a  ccorle,  or  hu6- 
hwMfanaii,  who  was  able  to  purchahc  five  hidc^s  of  bnd,  and  had  a 
iMpel,  a  kitchen,  a  hall,  and  a  bell.  The  ceorles,  or  Ireemen  of  ibe 
lower  rank,  occupied  tne  farms  of  the  thanes,  lor  which  they  pakl 
rent ;  and  tney  were  removable  at  the  pleasure  of  their  lonl.  The 
ftiavcs  or  villains  were  either  employed  in  domestic  purjioses,  or  in 
cuMratiiig  the  lands.  A  master  was  tmed  for  the  murder  of  his  slave ; 
aod  if  be  mutilated  him,  the  slave  recovered  his  freedom. 

&  Under  (bis  aristocratical  government  there  were  some  tracet  of 

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128  MODERN  HISTORY. 

the  aDcient  Germanic  democracy.  The  courts  of  the  deceniiAry^  the 
hoodred,  and  the  couutr,  were  a  coinidarable  restramt  on  the  pow- 
er of  the  nobles.  In  me  connty-coorts  the  freeholders  met  twice 
a  year  to  determine  appeals  by  tiie  maiority  of  Bu£Brage$.  The 
alderman  presided  in  those  courts,  but  had  no  yote :  be  received  a 
third  of  tlie  fines,  the  remaining  two*thirds  devolving  to  the  king, 
which  was  a  great  part  of  the  royal  revenue.  Pecuniary  fines  were 
the  ordinary  atonement  for  every  species  of  crime,  and  the  modes 
of  proof  were  the  ordeal  by  nre  or  water,  or  by  compurgatont 
(Part  IL.  Sect  v..  §7.) 

6.  As  to  the  military  force,  the  expense  of  defending  the  state  lay 
equally  on  all  the  land,  every  five  hides  or  ploughs  being  taxed  to 
furnish  a  soldier.  There  were  243,600  hides  m  EIngland,  conse- 
quently the  ordinary  militarv  force  consisted  of  48,720  men. 

7.  The  king^s  revenue,  besides  the  fines  imposed  by  the  courts, 
consisted  partly  of  his  demesnes  or  property-lands,  which  were  ex* 
tensive,  and  partly  in  imposts  on  boroughs  and  sea-ports.  The  Dane- 
gelt  was  a  tax  imposed  by  the  states^  either  for  payment  of  tribute 
exacted  by  the  Danes,  or  for  defending  the  kingdom  against  them. 
£y  the  custom  of  gavelkind,  the  land  was  divided  equalfy  among  ail 
the  male  children  of  the  deceased  proprietor.  Lands  held  by  the 
tenure  of  Borougb-English,  on  the  deatn  of  the  tenant,  went  to  the 
Tounc^est  son,  instead  of  the  eldest  Book-land  was  that  which  was 
held  by  charter,  and  folk-land  what  was  held  by  tenants  removable 
at  pleasure. 

8.  The  Anglo-Saxons  were  behind  the  Normans  m  every  point  ot 
civilization ;  and  the  conquest  was  therefore  to  them  a  real  advan- 
tageu  as  it  led  to  material  improvement  in  arts,  science,  government, 
and  laws. 

SECTION  XIV. 

STATE  OF  £UIU)P£  DURING  THE  TENTH,  ELEVENTH,  AND 
TWELFTH  CENTURIES. 

1.  France,  from  the  extent  and  splendour  of  its  dominion  under 
Charlemaene^  had  dwindled  to  a  shadow  under  his  weak  posterity. 
At  the  end  of  the  Carlovingian  period  France'comprehended  neither 
Normandy,  Dauphine,  nor  Provence.  On  the  death  of  Lewis  V. 
(Faineant),  the  crown  oueht  to  have  devolved  on  his  uncle,  Charles 
of  Brabant,  as  the  last  male  of  the  race  of  Charlemagne ;  but  Hugh 
Capet*  lord  of  Picardy  and  Champagne,  the  most  powerful  of  the 
Frencn  nobles,  was  elected  sovereign  by  the  voice  of  his  brother 
peers,  A.  D.  987.  The  kingdom,  torn  by  parties,  suffered  much 
domestic  misery  under  the  reign  of  Hugh,  and  that  of  his  successoi 
Robert;  the  victim  of  papal  tyranny,  lor  daring  to  marry  a  distant 
cousin  without  the  dispensation  of  the  church. 

2.  The  prevailing  passion  of  the  times  was  pilgrimage  and  chiv» 
alrous  enterprise.  In  this  career  of  adventure  tne  Normans  moat 
remarkably  distinguished  themselves.  In  983  they  relieved  the 
prince  of  Salerno,  by  expelling  the  Saracens  from  his  territory. 
They  did  a  similar  service  to  pope  Benedict  VIIL  and  the  di&e  of 
Capua ;  while  another  band  of  their  countrymen  ioug^t  first  against 
the  Greeks,  and  afterwards  against  the  popes,  always  selling  their  set 
vices  to  those  who  best  rewarded  them.  William  Fierabras,  and  fab 
brothers,  Humphrey,  Robert,  and  Richard,  kept  the  pq{^  a  prisooer 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODERN  mSTDRy.  It9 

krtjmtni  BeneTeiitoi  and  forced  the  court  of  Rome  to  yield  Capoa 
to  Ricbtfd}  Md  Apolia  and  Cakbria  to  Robert,  with  the  ioyefltitnre 
m  Sfedjt  D  he  tlioiiklgain  the  country  from  the  Saiaoeni.  Id  1,101 
Bflfcfo  the  Nonnn  completed  the  conquest  of  Sicily,  of  which  the 

Ti  coBiiiwied  to  be  the  lords  paramomit 
Hie  oorth  of  Europe  was  in  those  periods  extremely  barba- 
rxNA  RoMia  received  tie  christias  religioo  in  the  eighth  century. 
5«fdc9«  after  its  comrersioo  in  the  ninth  century,  relapi«l  into  idola- 
tn^ai  did  Honfary  and  Bohemia.  The  Coostantinopolitan  empire 
MBuki  Us  frontiers  with  difficulty  against  the  BdgariaDS  on  the 
weH^sad  againal  the  Turks  and  Arabians  on  the  east  and  north. 

4.  h  Id^.  excepting  the  territory  of  the  popedom,  the  principali- 
tys  «f  tbf  inde pendent  nobles,  and  the  states  of  V  enice  and  Genoa,  the 
gresiWfait  ol  the  country  was  now  in  the  possession  of  the  Nor- 
asm  \  enioe  and  Genoa  were  rising  graduaUy  to  great  opulence  from 
''caaerce.  Venice  was  for  some  ages  tributary  to  the  emperors  of 
*'\frmmf.  In  the  tenth  century  its  doge  assumed  the  title  of  duke 
^  Dalaatia,  of  whkh  the  republic  liad  acquired  the  property  by 
cflaqaal|  as  weH  as  of  Istria,  Spalatro,  Ragusa,  and  Narenza. 
&  Spun  WHS  chiefly  poase^^cd  by  the  NU)ors;  the  christians  retaio- 

aaalj  about  a  fourth  of  the  kingdom^  namely,  Asturia,  part  of  Castile 
I  Ciiliionia,  Navarre,  and  Arragon.  Portugal  was  likewise  occu- 
yttd  b|  the  Moors.  Their  capitid  was  Cordova,  the  scat  of  luxury 
wA  aagpihccnce.  In  the  tenth  century  the  Moorish  dominions  were 
9^  sBoog  a  number  ol  petty  sovereigns,  who  were  constantly  at 
*«r«iib  one  another.  Such,  unfortunately,  was  likewise  the  situa- 
■'-n  of  the  chri^tlan  part  of  the  kingdom ;  and  it  was  no  uncommon 
*>  jry  lipr  the  chri^tI.m  princes  to  form  alliances  with  the  Moors 
.z«ait  one  another.  Besides  tho^e  the  country  abounded  with  inde 
-'  drat  kvnV^  who  made  war  their  profession,  and  performed  the 
''t  of  champions  in  deciding  tlie  quarrels  of  princes,  or  enlisted 
'*-  ta»lfes  lo  their  service  with  all  their  vassuls  and  attendants.  Of 
**-^«  termed  €avaiUro$  andtuUu^  or  kni^ht«-ernint,  the  most  dis- 
*'V^a»hed  waft  Kodrigo  the  cid,  who  untlertook  for  his  sovereign^ 
y  ;ftfiB^  Jung  of  Old  Castile,  to  conquer  the  kingdom  of  I\'ew  Cas- 
l^.snd  achi«-%'ed  it  with  succe^cs,  obtaining  the  government  of  Vft> 
V-ficu  at  the  reward  of  his  services. 

^  Thf  C'jotcntions  between  the  imperial  and  papal  powers  made 
*4aiaguc*hed  figure  in  those  ages.  Henry  111.  vmdicated  the  im« 
>ml  ngfat  to  till  the  chair  of  St  Peter,  and  nominated  three  sue- 
/^ite  popLS,  without  tlie  intervention  of  a  council  of  the  church, 
i^ais the Biinurity  ot' hi^son  1  Icnry  IV.,  thin  right  wiia frequently  inter- 
•'^9lnl,  and  Al^-iandcr  U.  kept  his  <^*ntj  though  tlie  emperor  named 
•.••-jjrr  m  hn  pbc4.  It  \\:is  the  lot  ol  thw  emperor  to  experience 
idir  tfmr^t  cxti'ut  of  ti;iiial  iii*<4iU»nce  and  ty ninny.  Alli^r  a  spirited 
e«W  with  Grrgorr  v  ll.,  in  n^hich  the  pope  wa*  twice  his  prk^Kyner. 
vadthr  em^nir  as  oftvn  excommunicated  and  depos^^d.  Henry  fell 
^  iiaitth  the  vn  tim  of  ecclesiastical  vengeance.  LrUm  11.,  a  succes 
••V  wGregory,  prcnip1*»d  the  two  sonn  of  Henry  to  rcM  again^ 
"viriither;  and  his  uii'ilurtuucs  were  terminated  hy  imprinuunent 
t'W  death  la  1,106.  Tlie  Mme  contChU  went  on  under  a  succession  of 

r^  aoA  empen>rs  bat  ended  commonlv  in  fa\  our  of  the  former. 
rriuirk  L(Harbaroc^i),  aprkK:eofhi£nspirit,  aAer  an  indignaoC 
#nal  U  the  soprenacy  of  Alexander  ill,  and  a  refusal  of  the  cua* 
DBfe,  was  at  length  compelled  to  kiM  his  feet,  and  apPCMt 
i^akfcecSmoftmitaT.    Fopa  CelesthiyiUM 

DigitizeJbT^OOgie 


130  MODERN  HISTORY. 

off  the  imperial  crown  of  Hemy  VI.,  while  doin^  homage  on  hii 
knees,  but  made  amends  for  this  msolcnce  by  the  gift  of  Naples  and 
Sicily,  from  which  Henry  had  expelled  the  Normans.  These  terri 
tones  now  became  an  appanage  of  the  empire,  1,194.  The  sue 
ceeding  popes  rose  on  the  pretensions  of  their  predecessors,  till  at 
length  innocent  III.,  in  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century,  estab- 
lished the  power  of  the  popedom  on  a  settled  basis,  and  obtained  a 
positive  acknowledgment  of  the  papal  supremacy,  or  the  right  prin 
dpaHter  et  finaliUr  {principally  caid  finally)  to  confer  the  imperial 
crown.  It  was  the  same  pope  Innocent  whom  we  shall  presently 
■ee  the  disposer  of  the  crown  of  England  in  the  reign  of  the  tyrant 
John. 


SECTION  XV. 

HISTORY  or  ENGLAND  IN  THE  ELEVENTH,  TWELFTH,  ANr> 
PART  OF  THE  THIRTEENTH  CENTURIES. 

1.  The  consequence  of  the  battle  of  Hastings  was  the  submission 
of  all  England  to  William  the  conqueror.    The  character  of  this 

Srince  was  spirited,  haughty,  and  tyrannical,  yet  not  without  apor 
on  of  the  generous  affections.  He  disgusted  his  English  subjects 
by  the  strong  partiality  which  he  showed  to  his  Norman  followei^ 
preferring  them  to  all  offices  of  trust  and  dignity.  A  conspiracy 
arose  from  these  discontents,  which  William  defeated,  and  avenged 
with  sigmil  rigour  and  cruelty.  He  determined  hencelbrwarcT  to 
treat  the  English  as  a  conquered  ^ople.  a  policy  that  involved  his 
reign  in  perpetual  commotions,  which,  while  they  robbed  him  of  all 
peace  of  mmd,  aggravated  the  tyranny  of  his  disposition.  To  his 
own  children  he  owed  the  severest  of  nis  troubles.  His  eldest  son 
Robert  rose  in  rebellion,  to  wrest  from  him  the  sovereignty  ol 
Maine ;  and  his  foreign  subjects  took  part  with  the  rebel.  William 
led  against  them  an  army  of  the  English,  and  was  on  the  point  ot 
perishing  in  fight  by  his  son's  hand.  Philip  1.  of  France  had  aided 
this  rebellion,  which  was  avenged  by  William,  who  carried  havoc  and 
devastation  into  the  heart  of  his  kingdom,  but  was  killed  in  the  en- 
terprise by  a  fall  from  his  horse,  1,087.  He  bequeathed  Elngland  to 
William  his  second  son;  to  Robert  he  left  Normandy;  and  to  Henry, 
his  youngest  son,  the  property  of  his  mother  Matilda. 

2.  William  tlie  conqueror  iotroduced  into  Endand  the  feudal  law^ 
dividing  the  whole  kingdom,  except  the  royal  demesnes,  into  baron- 
ies, and  bestowing  tlie  most  of  these,  under  tlie  tenure  of  miUtary 
service,  on  his  Norman  followers.  By  the  forest  laws  he  reserved! 
to  himself  the  exclusive  privilege  of  killing  game  over  all  the 
kingdom;  a  restriction  resented  by  his  subjects  above  every  other 
mark  of  servitude.  Preparatory  to  the  introduction  of  the  feadal 
tenures,  he  planned  and  accomplished  a  general  survey  of  all  the 
lands  in  the  kmgdonu  with  a  distinct  specification  of  their  extent,  na 
ture,  value,  names  of  their  proprietors,  and  an  enumeration  of  eveir 
class  of  inhabitants  who  lived  on  them*  This  most  valuable  reconi« 
called  Doomtday-book^  is  preserved  in  the  English  exchequer,  and  i^ 
now  printed. 

S.  William  IL  (RuAis)  inherited  the  vices,  without  any  ot  the 
Tirtues,  of  his  fiitber.  His  reign  is  distinguished  by  no  event  of  in>- 
portance,  andi  edfter  the  defeat  of  one  conspiracy  m  its  outset,  pre 

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MODERN  mStORY.  131 

wnts  oolbiog  but  a  dull  career  of  oniesisted  despotism.  After  a  reign 
'•f  thirteen  years  he  was  killed  when  hunting  by  the  random  shot  oi 
m  aiTOtr,  1,100.  The  crown  of  England  would  nave  devolved  on  hid 
fl!*»r  brother  Robert ;  but  his  absence  on  a  crusade  in  Palestine  mad« 
\ni\  for  the  unopposed  succession  of  his  younger  brother  Henry, 
"fMsbv  his  marriage  with  Matilda,  the  niece  of  Edgar  Atheling,  ur\k- 
*d  the  last  renmant  of  the  Saxon  with  the  Norman  line.  With  mo^l 
nminal  ambition,  he  now  invaded  his  brothcr^s  dominions  of  Norman- 
^\  :  and  Robert,  on  his  return,  was  defeated  in  battle,  and  detained 
tor  life  a  prisoner  in  England.  The  crimes  of  Henry  were  expiated 
*■}  hi§  misfortunes.  His  only  son  was  drowned  in  his  passaisje  iVom 
Normandv.  His  daughter  Matilda,  married  first  to  the  emperor  Hen 
ry  \  ^  and  afterwards  to  Geoffrey  rlantagenct  of  Anjou,  was  destined 
u»  be  his  successor ;  but  the  popularity  of  his  nephew  Stephen,  son 

•  tthe  count  of  Blois,  defeated  these  intentions.  Henrj^I.  died  in  Nor- 
rwidj*  after  a  reign  of  thirty-five  year*,  A.  1).  1,1  3j  ;  and,  in  spii^^  cf 
If  flestination  to  Klatilda.  Stephen  seized  the  vacant  throne.  The 
^urty  of  Matilda,  headed  by  her  natural  brother,  the  earl  of  Gloucesr- 
•r,  engaged,  defeated,  and  made  Stephen  prisoner.  Matilda  in  her 
'..n  mounted  the  throne;  but,  unpopular  from  the  tyranny  of  her 
i  --positioD*,  she  was  solemnly  deposed  by  the  prevailing  party  of  her 
••.v.tl ;  and  Stephen  was  once  more  restored.  He  found,  however,  in 
.'•-nry  Pkmtagenet,  the  son  of  MatiKia,  a  more  foraiidahle  competitor. 

•  ''a  noble  ana  intrepid  spirit,  he  resolved,  while  yet  a  hoy,  to  reclnim 
1*  hereditary  crown;  and,  landing  in  Fngland,  won  by  iiis  pro^\e^«, 

UhI  the  favour  of  a  just  cause,  a  great  part  of  the  kingdom  to  hU  in- 
tf  rr*L  By  treaty  with  Stephen,  who  was  allowed  to  rei2:n  lor  li  e- 
►h  secured  the   succession  at  his  death,  which  soon  after  eii-i:«ri, 

4.  Henry  IL,  a  firince  in  every  sense  deserving  of  the  throne,  l»t^«:n 

»  *  rvign  wilh  the  reformation  of  all  the  abuses  cf  the  government  d' 

.-  predecessors;  revoking  all  impolitic  grant*!,  ahoh«hing  ])artial  im- 

•  unities  rr»gulating  the  administration  of  juMice,  and  estahiislnng  the 
^-.-dom  of  tne  towns  by  charters,  which  are  at  this  day  the  iKi<i«  of 
..f  natJODnl  Ul)erty.  Happy  in  the  atlections  of  his  people,  and  pcw- 
-:«il  in  the  vitst  extent  or  additional  territory  whicn  he  enjoyed  on 

•>,#.  rootlfvent  in  right  of  his  father  and  of  his  wile,  the  heiress  of  a 

r:r  it  portion  of  France,  his  reign  had  every  promise  of  prosperity 

i  h:ippine«3;  but  from  one  fatal  source  these  pleasing  pro5?|>ec*s 

■  •  re  all  destroyed.    Thomas  Becket  was  rais«'d  by  Henry  from  cb- 

-  irity  to  the  office  of  chancellorof  Enjjland.    On  the  vacancy  of  the 

••  '■  ol  Canterbury  the  king,  desirous  of  his  aid  in  the  correctic^n  vS 

rUsfOitiaid  abuses,  conferred  the  primacv  on  his  favourite  :  aiKi  tiiC 

rr.tgnnt  Becket  availed  himself  of  that  autFiority  to  abase  the  prf^iop- 
.ti^i?  of  his  sovereign,  and  exalt  the  sniritual  power  above  the  cnnvii 
J !  was  deputed,  whether  a  priest  could  be  tried  for  a  murder,  and  |  un- 
;-hed  by  the  civil  court.  It  was  dcterminetl  in  the  alhrmative  by  lii« 
•■•  'UDcO  of  Clarendon,  against  the  opinion  of  Docket  l*ope  Alexander 
III-  JonoUed  the  decree  of  the  council;  and  Becket,  wb.o  took  pari 
"rirfi  the  pope,  was  deprived  by  Henrjr  of  all  his  dignities  and  estaie«C 
IW*  arenged  himself  by  the  excommunication  of  the  king's  ministers  : 
•cid  Henry,  in  return,  prohibited  all  intercourse  with  the  see  of  Rome- 

\t  leo^  both  parties  found  it  their  interest  to  come  to  a  good  under- 
i^indioE.  fiecket  was  restored  to  favour,  and  reinstated  in  his  primacy, 

Kfaenme  incfeanng  insolence  of  his  demeanour  drew  from  the  king 

— 1  iiutj  exj^TtaSom  of  indignation,  which  his  senraDls  tnterprcted 

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132  HODEliN  mSTORT. 

into  a  fleateuce  of  proacriptioD.  and.  tnuting  that  the  deed  wonld  be 
gratefbl  to  their  master,  mordeted  the  prelate  while  Id  the  act  ot 
celebrating  vespen  at  the  altar.  For  this  shocldng  action  Henry 
expressed  the  regret  which  he  sincerely  felt,  and  the  pope  indulgent- 

S  granted  his  pardon,  on  the  assorance  of  his  dutifiil  obedience  to 
e  holy  churcn. 

5.  The  most  important  event  of  the  rei^n  of  Henry  II.  was  the 
conquest  of  Ireland.  The  Irish,  an  early  civilized  people,  and  among 
the  first  of  the  nations  of  the  west  who  embraced  the  christian  reli- 
gion, were,  by  frequent  myasions  of  the  Danes,  and  their  own  dmnes- 
tic  commotions,  replnnged  into  barbarism  for  many  ages.  In  the 
twelfUi  century  the  Kingdom  consisted  of  five  separate  sovereignties. 
Lister^  Leinster,  Munzster,  Meath,  and  Connaught;  but  these  were 
subdivided  among  an  infinite  number  of  petty  cbie^  owine  a  very 
weak  allegiance  to  their  respective  sovereigns.  Dermot  Macmor- 
rogh,  expelled  from  his  kingdom  of  Leinster  for  a  rape  on  the  daugh- 
ter drthe  king  of  Meath,  sought  protection  from  Henry,  and  engaged 
to  become  his  feudatory,  if  he  should  recover  his  kingdom  by  the  aid 
of  the  English.  Henry  empowered  his  subkcts  to  invade  Ireland, 
and,  while  Strongbow  earl  of  Pembroke  and  nis  followers  were  lay- 
ing waste  the  country,  landed  in  the  island  in  1,172,  and  received  the 
submission  of  many  of  the  independent  chiefs.  Roderick  O^Connor. 
prince  of  Connaught,  whom  the  Irish  elected  nominal  sovereign  of 
all  the  provinces,  resisted  for  three  yean  the  arms  of  Henry,  but 
finally  acknowledged  his  dominion  by  a  solemn  embassy  to  the  king 
at  Windsor.  The  terms  of  the  submission  were,  an  annual  trOinte  of 
every  tenth  hide  of  land,  to  be  applied  for  the  support  of  e ovemmenl^ 
and  an  oblieation  of  allegiance  to  the  crown  ot  England;  on  which 
conditions  the  Irish  should  retain  their  possessions,  and  Roderick  his 
kingdom ;  except  the  territory  of  the  Pale,  or  that  part  which  the 
English  barons  had  subdued  before  the  arrival  of  Henry. 

6.  Henry  divided  Ireland  into  counties,  appointed  sheri£&  in  each, 
and  introduced  the  laws  of  England  into  tne  territory  of  the  Pale. 
The  rest  of  the  kmgdom  was  regulated  by  their  ancient  laws,  till  the 
reign  of  Edward  I.*  when,  at  the  request  of  the  nation^  the  English 
laws  were  extended  to  the  whole  kioj^dom.  In  tlie  first  Irish  parlia- 
ment, which  was  held  in  the  same  reign, sir  John  VVogan  presided  ub 
deputy  of  the  sovereign.  From  that  time  there  was  little  intercourse 
between  the  two  kingdoms  for  some  centuries ;  nor  was  the  island 
considered  as  fully  subdued  till  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  and  of  her  suc- 
cessor James  I. 

7.  The  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  was  clouded  by  domes- 
tic misfortunes.  His  children,  Henry,  Richard,  Geofiirey,  and  Johii, 
instigated  by  their  unnatural  mother,  rose  in  rebellion,  and,  witli  the 
aid  of  Louis  VIL,  king  of  France,  prepared  to  dethrone  their  father. 
While  opposing  them  with  spirit  on  the  continent,  his  kingdom  was 
invaded  ov  the  Scots  under  William  (the  Hon).  He  hastened  back  to 
England,  defeated  the  Scot9.and  made  their  lung  his  prisoner.  Two 
of  ms  sons,  Henry  and  Geonrey,  expiated  their  offences  by  an  eaiir 
death ;  but  Richard,  once  reconciled,  was  again  seduced  from  his  u- 
legiance,  and,  in  league  with  the  king  of  France,  plundered  his  Ci- 
ther's continental  dominions.  The  spirit  of  Henry  was  unequal  to  his 
domestic  misfortunes,  and  he  died  or  a  broken  heart  in  the  58th  ^ar 
of  his  age.  1,189,  an  ornament  to  the  English  throne,  and  a  princesur* 
passing  all  his  conteipporariea  in  the  valuable  qualities  of  a  soveitign. 

Digitized  by  CjOOQIC 


MODERN  mSTORir  IS9 

To  him  Eogland  owed  her  fint  permanent  improrement  in  artS|  b 
bws,  in  eovenmient,  and  in  civil  liberty. 

a  Ricnard  1.  (oeur  de  lion)  immediately  on  his  accession  embaik 
ed  for  the  Holy  Land,  on  a  crusade  against  the  infidels,  after  plonder- 
im^  his  subjects  of  an  immense  sum  of  monejr  to  defray  the  dmrges 
otthe  enterprise.  Formine  a  league  with  Philip  Augustus  of  France, 
Ihe  two  monarchs  joined  their  forces,  and  acting  for  some  time  in 
coocert,  were  successful  in  the  taking  of  Acraor  Ptolemais;  but  Phil- 
ip, jealous  of  his  rival's  glory,  8000  letumed  to  France,  while  Richard 
bsul  tiie  honour  of  defeating  the  heroic  Saladin  in  the  battle  of  Asca- 
loo,  with  prodigious  slaughter  of  his  enemies.  He  prepared  now  for 
the  siege  of  Jerusalem ;  but,  finding  his  army  wastea  with  famine  and 
£ili^.  he  was  compelled  to  end  the  war  by  a  truce  with  Saladin,  in 
whjch  he  obtained  a  free  passage  to  the  Holy  Land  for  every  chris- 
tian fMlgrim.  Wrecked  in  his  voyage  homeward,  and  travelling  in 
diMiae  through  Germany,  Richard  was  seized,  and  detained  in  pris- 
on, oy  command  of  the  emperor  Henry  VI.  Tiie  king  of  France  un- 
generously opposed  his  release,  as  did  his  unnatural  brother  John, 
Iran  selfish  ambition ;  but  he  was  at  length  ransomed  hj  his  sulgects 
for  the  sum  of  150,000  merles,  and,  afler  an  absence  of  nine  years,  re- 
tained to  his  dominions.  His  traitorous  brother  was  pardoned  ailer 
iome  mbmission ;  and  Richard  employed  the  short  residue  of  his 
reign  in  a  spirited  revenge  against  his  nval  Philip.  A  truce,  howev- 
er, was  concluded  by  the  mediation  of  Rome ;  and  Richard  was  soon 
after  killed,  while  storming  the  castle  of  one  of  his  rebellious  vassals 
m  the  Limosin.  He  died  in  the  tenth  year  of  his  reign,  and  forty- 
second  of  his  age,  1,199. 

9.  John  (lacK-land)  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  his 
brother,  but  found  a  competitor  in  his  nephew  Arthur,  the  son  of 
Geoffrey,  supported  by  Philip  of  France.  War  was  of  course  renew- 
ed witli  that  country.  Arthur,  with  fotal  confidence,  throwing  iiim- 
self  into  the  hands  of  his  uncle,  was  removed  by  poison  or  the  sword : 
a  deed  which,  joined  to  the  known  tyranny  of  his  character,  rendered 
John  the  detestation  of  his  subjects.  He  was  stripped  by  Philip  of 
his  continental  dominions,  and  he  made  the  pope  bis  enemy  by  an  ava- 
riciooB  attack  on  the  treasures  of  the  church.  After  an  ineffectual 
menace  oi  vengeance,  Innocent  111.  pronounced  a  sentence  of  interdict 
against  the  kingdom,  which  put  a  stop  to  ail  the  ordinances  of  religion, 
to  baptKm,  and  the  burial  of  the  dead.  He  next  excommunicated 
John,  and  alisolvcd  his  subjects  from  their  allegiance ;  and  he  finally 
deposed  him.  and  made  a  gill  of  the  kingdom  to  Philip.  John,  intimi> 
dated  into  submission,  declared  himself^  the  pope's  vassal,  swore  alle- 
giazx:e  on  his  knees  to  the  papal  legate,  and  agreed  to  hold  his  king 
dom  tributary  to  the  holy  see.  On  these  conditions,  which  ensured 
Ibe  oniverBai  hatred  and  contempt  of  his  people,  he  made  his  peace 
witli  the  church.  It  was  natural  that  his  subjects,  tiius  tranipled  upon 
and  sold,  should  vindiciUe  their  rights.  The  barons  of  the  kmg- 
dom  assembled,  and,  binding  thentselves  by  oath  to  a  union  of  meas- 
mcs,  resolutely  demiindcd  from  the  king  a  ratification  of  a  charter  oi 
prirUegcs  ^ranted  by  Henry  I.  John  appealed  to  the  pope,  who,  in 
jQpport  of  nis  vassal,  prohibited  the  confederacy  of  the  barons  as  re- 
bdBooflL  The  barons  were  only  the  more  resolute  in  their  purpose, 
and  the  sword  was  their  last  resource.  At  length  John  was  compelled 
to  yield  to  their  demands,  and  signed  at  Kunymede,  on  the  19th 
^af  of  Jane,  lyZlS,  that  solemn  charter,  which  is  the  foundation  and 
oidwaxk  of  £o|Uah  liberty,  Magna  Ckarta  {the  gnat  chmUry 

M  Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


134  MODERN  HISTORY. 

10.  By  this  great  charter,  1,  the  freedom  of  election  to  benefices 
was  secured  to  the  clergy ;  2,  the  fines  to  the  overlord  on  the  suc- 
cession of  vassals  were  reguhited;  3,  no  aids  or  subsidies  were  allow- 
ed to  be  levied  from  the  subject,  without  the  consent  of  the  great 
council,  unless  in  a  few  special  cases ;  4,  the  crown  shall  not  seize 
the  lands  of  a  baron  for  a  debt,  while  he  has  pei^onal  property 
sufficient  to  discharge  it ;  5,  all  the  privileges  granted  by  the  king  to 
his  vassiils  shall  be  communicated  by  them  to  their  inferior  vassals; 
6,  one  weight  and  one  measure  shall  be  used  throughout  the  king- 
dom; 7,  all  men  shall  pass  from  and  return  to  the  realm  at  their 
pleasure;  8,  all  cities  and  boroughs  shall  preserve  their  ancient 
liberties ;  9,  the  estate  of  every  Irceman  shall  be  regulated  by  his 
will,  and,  if  he  die  intestate,  by  the  law;  10,  the  king's  court  shall  be 
•stationary,  and  open  to  all ;  11,  every  freeman  shall  be  lined  only  in 
proportion  to  his  ofl'ence.  and  no  fine  shall  be  imposed  to  his  utter 
ruin;  12, no  peasant  shall,  by  a  fine,  be  depriveil  of  his  instruments 
of  husbandry;  13,  no  person  shall  u^  tried  on  suspicion  alone,  but 
on  the  evidence  of  lawful  witnesses;  14,  no  person  shall  be  tried 
or  punished  unless  by  the  judgment  of  his  peei-s  and  the  law  ot  the 
land. 

1 1,  John  granted  at  the  same  time  the  Charta  dc  Foresta  {tke  cIuut'- 
ier  concerning-  forests)^  which  abolished  the  royal  privilege  of  killing 
game  over  nil  the  kingdom,  and  restored  to  trie  lawful  proprietors 
their  woods  and  tbrests,  which  they  were  now  allowed  to  encloee 
and  use  at  tlioir  pleasure.  As  compulsion  alone  had  extorted  these 
concessions,  John  wjis  determined  to  disregard  them,  and  u  foreign 
force  was  brought  into  the  kingdom  to  i-educe'lhe  barons  to  submis- 
sion. The  barons  applied  for  aid  to  France,  and  Philip  sent  his  son 
Lewis  to  Kngland  with  an  army ;  and  such  was  the  people's  haired 
i>f  their  sovereign,  that  they  swore  allegiance  to  this  foreigner.  At 
tliis  critical  period  John  died  at  Newark,  in  1,216,  and  an  instant 
change  ensued.  His  son  Henry  III.,  a  hov  of  nine  years  of  age,  was 
crowned  at  Bristol ;  and  his  uncle,  the  earl  of  Pembroke,  was  appoint- 
ed protector  of  the  realm.  The  disallbctod  liarons  returned  to  their 
allegiance ;  the  people  hailed  their  sovereign  ;  and  Lewis  with  his 
army,  alter  an  inefl'octual  struggle,  made  peace  with  the  protector, 
and  evacuated  the  kingdom. 


SECTION  XVI. 

STATE    OF    GERMANY   AND    ITALY    IN    THE    THIRTEENTH 
CENTURY. 

1  Frederick  II.,  son  of  Henry  VI.,  was  elected  emperor  on  the 
resignation  of  Otho  IV.,  in  1,212.  At*  this  period  Naples,  Sicily,  and 
Lombardy^  were  all  appanages  of  tlie  empire ;  and  the  contentions 
between  the  imperial  and  papal  powers  divided  the  states  of  Itsdy 
into  factions,  known  by  the  name  of  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines,  the 
former  maintaining  the  supremacy  of  the  pope,  the  latter  that  of  the 
emperor.  The  opposition  of  Frederick  to  four  successive  popes 
was  avenged  by  excommunication  and  deposition ;  yet  he  kept  po^es* 
aion  of  his  throne,  and  vindicated  his  authority  with  great  spirlL 
'Frequent  attempts  were  made  against  his  life,  by  assassination  nni 
poison,  which  he  openly  attributed  to  ^pal  resentm/ent.  On  hji 
deatbi  in  1,250,  the  splendour  of  the  empire  was  for  many  yea;rs  o^ 

'-  Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


MODERN  mSlX^RT.  136 

Kored.  It  was  a  prey  to  incessant  fiM^tions  and  civil  war,  the  fruit  of 
contested  claims  of  sovereignty.  Yet  the  popes  jrained  nothing  by 
iL*  disoitlerv  for  the  troubles  of  Italy  were  equaffv  hostile  to  flieir 
imbition*  We  have  seen  the  turbulent  state  of  England.  France 
w»s  equally  weak  and  anarchical ;  and  Spain  was  ravaged  by  the 
coatest:*  of  the  Moors  and  christians.  Yet,  distracted  as  appears  the 
5ltuatioo  of  Europe,  one  great  project  gave  a  species  of  union  to  this 
discordant  mass,  of  which  we  now  proceed  to  give  an  account 


SECTION  XVII. 

THE  CRUSADES,  OR  HOLY  WARS. 

1.  ISfE  Turks  or  TurcomanSj  a  race  of  Tartars  from  the  regiom 
of  Mount  Taurus  and  Imaus,  invaded  the  dominions  of  Moscovy 
m  the  eleventh  century,  and  came  down  upon  the  banks  of  the 
Cispian.  The  caliphs  employed  Turkish  mercenaries,  and  they 
acqmred  the  reputation  of  able  soldiers  in  the  wars  that  took  place 
on  occasion  of  the  contested  caliphate.  The  caliphs  of  Bagdat,  the 
.\baseida?^  were  deprived  of  Syria,  Egypt,  and  Africa,  by  their  rival 
ciliphs  of  the  race  of  Omar ;  and  the  Turks  stripjped  of  their  do- 
[niniofis  both  tlie  Aba^^sida;  and  Ommiades.  Bagdat  was  taken  by  tiie 
Turks  and  the  empire  of  the  caliphs  overthrown  in  1,055 ;  and  these 
princes^  th^m  temporal  monarchs,  became  now  the  supreme  poiitiffi» 
*A  the  Mahometan  faith,  as  the  popes  of  the  christian.  At  the  time 
of  the  first  crusade,  in  the  end  of  the  eleventh  centnry,  Arabia  was 
gorerned  by  a  Turkish  sultan,  as  were  Persia  and  the  greater  por- 
ii«?o  of  I>?s<;cr  Asia. — The  ea-^tern  empire  was  thus  abridged  ol  its 
Asiatic  territory,  and  had  lost  a  great  part  of  its  dominions  in  Europe. 
It  retained,  however,  Greece,  Macedonia,  Thrace,  and  lllyria;  and 
<  '< jttrtantinople  itself  wis  populous,  opulent,  and  luxurious.  Palestine 
WX5  in  the  possession  of  the  Turks;  and  its  capital  Jerusalem,  falleii 
lr«nn  its  ancient  c/^nsequence  and  splendour,  was  yet  held  in  rc- 
>pect  by  its  conquerors  as  a  holy  city,  and  constantly  attracted  the  re- 
port of  Mahometans  to  the  mosque  of  Omar,  as  of  christian  pilgrims 
t.-»  the  sepulchre  of  our  Saviour. 

2.  Peter  the  hermit,  a  native  of  Amiens,  on  his  return  from  this 
piij^nniage,  complained  in  loud  terms  of  tne  grievances  which  the 
.-hn-tians  suffered  from  the  Turks;  and  Urban  11.  pitched  on  this 
#-nthQ?ia«t  as  a  fit  person  to  commence  the  execution  of  a  grand  de- 
'is;n  which  the  popes  had  long  entertained,  of  arming  all  christen- 
d'«Tn,and  exterminating  theintidels  from  the  Holy  Land.  The  project 
w.rt  opened  in  two  general  councils  held  at  Placentia  and  Clermont 
Tne  French  posisessed  more  ardour  than  the  Itidians;  and  an  im- 
mense multitude  of  ambitious  and  disorderly  nobles,  with  all  their  ' 
•Ir pendents,  eager  for  enterpiise  and  phmder,  and  assured  of  eternal 
^.ilvatioa,  immediately  took  the  cross.  Peter  the  hermit  led  80,000 
f  iiMier  his  banners,  and  they  t)egan  their  march  towards  the  east  in 
I  ,Ut>5.  Their  progress  was  marked  by  rapine  and  hostility  in  every 
christtan  country  through  which  they  passed ;  and  the  army  of  thia 
}iti>  onfct,  on  its  arrival  at  Constantinople,  was  wasted  down  to  20,000. 
The  emperor  Alexius  Comnenus,  to  whom  the  cmsadere  behaved 
wich  the  most  provoking  Insolence  and  foUv,  conducted  himself  with 
adsiiiable  moderation  and  good  sense.  He  hastened  to  get  rid  of 
%bm  diKiideiiy  moltitiide,  by  furnishing  them  with  eterj  aid  wbkh 

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136  MODHIN  HISTORT. 

they  required,  and  cheerfully  lent  hSs  ahips  to  transport  them  across 
the  Boq[>horus.  The  saltan  Solyman  met  them  in  the  plain  of 
jNicea,  and  destroyed  the  army  of  the  hermit  A  new  host  in  the 
mean  time  arrived  at  Constantinople,  led  by  more  illastrioas  com- 
manders; by  Godfrey  of  Booillon  duke  of  Brabant,  Raymond  count 
of  Thoulouse,  Robert  of  Normandy,  son  of  William  king  of  Eng- 
land, Bohemond,  son  of  Robert  Guiscard,  the  conqueror  of  Sicily, 
and  other  princes  of  high  reputation.  To  these,  who  amounted  to 
some  hundred  thousand^  Alexius  manifested  the  same  prudent  con- 
duct to  accelerate  their  departure.  The  Turks,  overpowered  by 
numbers,  were  twice  deieated ;  and  the  crusaders,  pursuing  their  suc- 
cesses, penetrated  at  length  to  Jerusalem,  which  after  a  siege  of  six 
weeks,  they  took  by  storm*  and  with  savage  fury  maaaacred  the 
whole  of  its  Mahometan  and  Jewish  inhabitant.  A.  D.  1,099.  Godfrey 
was  hailed  king  of  Jerusalem,  but  was  obliged  soon  aAer  to  cede  his 
kingdom  to  the  popc^s  legate.  The  crusaders  divided  Syria  and 
Palestine.and  formed  four  separate  states,  which  weakened  Uieir 
power.  The  Turks  began  to  recover  strength ;  and  the  durSstiaDS 
of  Asia  soon  found  it  necessary  to  solicit  aid  from  Europe. 

3.  The  second  crusade  set  out  from  the  west  in  1.146,  to  the 
amount  of  200.000  French,  Germans,  and  Italians,  leu  by  Hiigh, 
brother  of  Pliiup  L  of  France.  These  met  with  the  same  fate 
which  attended  the  army  of  Peter  the  hermit  The  garrison  of 
Jerusalem  was  at  this  time  so  weak,  that  it  became  necessary  to 
embody  and  arm  the  monks  for  its  defence;  and  hence  arose  the 
military  orders  of  the  knights  template  and  hospitallers,  and  sood 
after  the  Teutonic,  from  the  German  pilgrims.  Meantime  pope 
Eugenius  HI.  employed  St  Bernard  to  preach  a  new  crusack  in 
France,  which  was  headed  by  its  sovereign  Lewis  VIL,  (the  youn|r^ 
who,  in  conjunction  with  Conrad  III.,  emperor  of  Germany,  mus- 
tered jointly  300,000  men.  The  Germans  were  extirpated  oy  the 
sultan  of  Iconium ;  the  French  were  totally  d^eated  near  Laodicea ; 
and  the  two  monarchs,  after  much  disaster,  returned  with  shame  to 
their  dominions. 

4.  The  illustrious  Saladin,  nephew  of  the  sultan  of  Egypt,  fonned 
the  design  of  recovering  Palestine  from  the  christians;  and  besieging 
Jerusalem,  he  took  the  city,  and  made  prisoner  its  sovereign,  Guy 
of  Lusignan.  Pope  Clement  HI.,  alarmed  at  the  successes  ol  the 
infidels,  began  to  stir  up  a  new  crusade  from  France,  England,  and 
Germany ;  and  the  armies  of  each  country  were  headed  by  their 
respective  sovereigns,  Philip  Augustus,  Richard  I.,  and  Frederick 
fiarbarossa.  In  tins  third  crusade  the  emperor  Frederick  died  in 
Asia,  and  his  army,  by  repeated  defeats,  mouldered  to  nothing. 
The  English  and  I  rench  were  more  successful :  they  besieged  and 
tookPtoieroais;  but  Richard  and  Philip  quarrelled  from  jealousy  of 

•each  other^s  glory*  and  the  French  monarch  returned  in  disgust  to 
his  countnr.  Richard  nobly  sustained  the  contest  with  Saladia, 
whom  he  defeated  near  Ascalon ;  but  his  army  was  reduced  by  fam- 
ine and  &tigue.  He  concluded  a  treaty,  at  least  not  dishonourable^ 
with  his  enemy,  and  was  forced  at  length  to  escape  from  Palestine 
with  a  single  ship.  (See  Sect.  XV.,  §  8.)  Sabdin,  revered  even  bf 
the  christmns,  died  in  1,196. 

5.  A  fourtli  crusade  was  fitted  out  in  1,202,  under  Baldwin  couBt 
of  Flanders,  of  wiiich  the  object  was  not  the  extirpation  of  the  iifi- 
deb,  but  the  destnictior  of  the  empire  of  the  east  Constanthioi* 
tmhroiled  by  civil  war  and  sevolutiQD  from  dkipoled  ciaims  toT 

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moi»;bn  history.  137 

sovereicntj,  was  bedeged  and  taken  by  the  cnisaden ;  and  Baldwin, 
tbetrclueCwas  elected  emp^t>r.  to  be  within  a  few  months  dethrone 
cd  and  murdered.  The  imnerial  dominions  were  shared  amoni;  the 
priociual  leaders;  and  the  Venetians,  who  had  lent  their  ships  &r  the 
expetutioiu  got  the  isle  of  Candia  (anciently  Crete)  for  their  rewaod. 
Alexins,  oHne  imperial  fiunily  of  the  Commeni*  founded  a  new  sove- 
rvM^tr  in  Asia,  which  he  termed  the  empire  of  Trebizond.  The  ob> 
j'.-ct  of  a  fifU)  crusade  was  to  lay  waste  &|ypt,  in  revenge  for  an 
jtuick  on  Palestine^  by  its  sultan  ^phadin.  Partial  success  and  ulti- 
mate rain  was  the  issue  of  this  expedition*  as  of  all  the  preceding. 

6.  At  this  period,  !  ,227,  a  creat  revolution  took  place  hi  Asia. 
Gciigiskan  with  his  Tartars  broke  down  from  the  north  upon  Persia 
nnd  Syria,  and  massacred  indiscriminately  Turks,  Jews,  and  Chris- 
tiooB,  who  opposed  them.  The  christian  kniehts,  templars,  hospital- 
lers, aod  Teutook,  made  a  desperate  but  incnectual  resistance ;  and 
Fak^tine  must  have  been  abandoned  to  these  invaders,  if  its  &te  had 
not  been  for  a  while  retarded  by  the  last  crusade  under  Lewis  IX.  of 
France.  This  prince,  summoned  by  Heaven,  as  he  believed,  ailer 
ibnr  yeaore'  preparation,  set  out  for  the  Holy  Land,  with  his  queen, 
his  tluree  brothers,  and  all  the  knights  of  France.  His  army  beean 
Uieir  enterprise  by  an  attack  on  £i;ypt,  where,  ailer  some  consi&r- 
Mr  SQCcesses,  they  were  at  length  otteriy  defeated;  and  the 
Fmadi  monarch,  with  two  of  his  brothers,  fell  into  the  bands  of  the 
enemy.  He  purchased  his  liberty  at  an  immense  ransom,  and,  return- 
ing to  France,  reigned  prosperously  and  wisely  for  thirteen  yean. 
hSi  the  same  phrensy  a^ain  assailing  him.  he  embarked  on  a  crusade 
acatnat  the  Moors  in  Afnca,  where  he  and  his  anny  were  destroyed 
by  a  pestiknce,  1,270.  It  is  computed  that,  in  the  whole  of  the 
cnmidea  to  Palestine,  two  millions  of  Europeans  were  buried  in  the 


7.  Ejr^$  of  tke  enaadti.    One  consequence  of  the  holy  wars  is 

nqvpoaed  to  have  been  the  improvement  of  European  manners ;  but 

the  Ixmestnunediately  succeeding  the  crusades  exhibit  no  such  actual 

inprovement     Two  centuries  of  barbarism  and  darkness  elapsed 

h^twceo  the  tennination  of  those  enterprises  and  the  fall  of  the 

Greek  empire  in  1,453,  thes&raof  the  revival  of  letteis.  and  the 

cofnineocement  of  civilization.    A  certain  consequence  or  the  cm- 

%«des  was  the  change  of  territorial  property  in  all  the  feudal  king- 

4i  .tnfli,  die  sale  of  the  estates  of  the  nobles,  and  their  division  among 

t  oQinber  of  smaller  proprietors.    Hence  the  feudal  aristocracy  was 

weakened,  and  the  lower  classes  began  to  acquire  weight  and  a 

«pcnt  of  independence.  The  towns  hitherto  bound  by  asoit  ot  vassal- 

a^re  to  the  nobles,  began  to  purchase  their  immunity,  acquired  the 

mt\t  of  electing  their  own  magistrates,  and  were  govemed  by  their 

cnm  manicipal  laws.    The  church  in  some  respects  gained,  and  in 

oih«*n  lost  Ijy  those  enterprises.    The  popes  gamed  a  more  extend- 

#«l  jurisdiction;  but  the  fatal  issue  of  those  expeditions  opened  the 

<*ves  of  the  worid  to  the  sellish  and  intercstea  motives  which  liad 

proapCed  them,  and  weakened  the  sway  of  superstition.  Many  of  the 

r»-li^o<0  orders  acquired  an  increase  of  wealth;  but  this  was  bai- 

:<*w:ed  by  tlie  taxes  imposed  on  the  clergy.    The  coin  was  altered 

Mod  3eMsed  in  most  or  the  kingdoms  ot  Europe,  from  the  scarcity 

if  specie.    The  Jews  were  supposed  to  have  hoarded  and  concealed 

r.  and  bence  they  became  the  victims  of  general  persecution.    Tie 

B>  jst  aBlwtanrial  gainers  by  the  crusades  were  the  Italian  states  of 

CKJioa^  Pisa,  and  Venke,  from  the  increased  trade  to  the  Levant 

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198  MODERN  HISTORY. 

ibr  the  supjily  of  those  immeDse  armies.  Venice,  as  we  haye  seen* 
took  an  active  concern,  and  obtained  her  share  of  the  conqoensd 
territory. 

The  age  of  the  crusades  brought  chivahy  to  its  perfection  and  gave 
rise  to  romantic  fiction. 

See  Kett^s  Elements  of  General  Knowledge,  vol.  I. 


SECTION  xvm. 

OF  CHIVALRY  AND  ROMANCE. 

1.  CiflVALRY  arose  naturally  from  the  condition  of  society  in  those 
ages  m  which  it  prevailed.  Amone  the  Germanic  nations  the  profes- 
liion  of  anns  was  esteemed  the  sole  employment  that  deserved  the 
name  of  manly  or  honourable.  The  initiation  of  the  youth  to  this  pro- 
fession was  attended  with  peculiar  solemnity  and  appropriate  cere- 
monies. The  chief  of  the  tribe  bestowed  the  sword  and  armour  on 
his  vassal,  as  a  symbol  of  their  devotion  to  his  service.  In  the  prog- 
ress of  the  feudal  system  these  vassals,  in  imitation  of  their  chief,  as- 
sumed the  power  of  conferring  arms  on  their  sub-vassals,  with  a 
similar  form  of  mysterious  and  pompous  ceremonial.  The  candidate 
for  knighthood  underwent  his  preparatory  fasts  and  vieils,  and  re- 
ceived on  his  knees  the  accoUade  and  benediction  of  his  chief  Ann- 
ed  and  caparisoned,  he  sallied  forth  in  quest  of  adventure,  which, 
whether  just  or  not  in  its  purpose,  was  ever  esteemed  honourable  in 
proportion  as  it  was  perilous. 

2.  The  esteem  of  the  female  sex  is  characteristic  of  the  Gothic 
manners^  In  those  ages  of  barbarism  the  castles  of  the  greater  bar- 
ons were  the  courts  of  sovereigns  in  miniature.  The  society  of  the 
ladies,  who  found  only  in  such  fortresses  a  security  from  outrage,  pol- 
ished the  manners ;  and  to  protect  the  chastity  and  honour  of  the  fair 
was  the  best  employ  and  the  highest  merit  of  an  accomplished  knight. 
Romantic  exploit  therefore  had  always  a  tincture  of  gallantry. 

It  hath  been  through  all  ages  ever  seen, 

That  with  the  praise  of  arms  and  chivalry 
The  prize  of  beauty  still  hath  joined  been, 

And  that  for  reasons  special  privity : 
For  either  doth  on  other  much  rely  ; 

For  he,  me  seems,  most  fit  the  fair  to  serve. 
That  can  her  best  defend  from  villany  ; 

And  she  most  fit  his  service  doth  deserve 
That  fairest  is,  and  from  her  faith  will  never  swerve. 

Spkbtser^s  Fairy  Quejen. 

3.  To  the  passion  for  adventure  and  romantic  love  was  added  r. 
high  regard  for  morality  and  religion ;  but  as  the  latter  were  ever 
subordinate  to  the  former,  we  may  presume  more  in  favour  of  the 
refinement  than  of  the  purity  of  the  knights.  It  was  the  pride  of  a 
knight  to  redress  wrongs  and  injuries;  but  in  that  honourable  employ- 
ment he  made  small  account  of  those  which  he  committed.  It  «a^ 
easy  to  expiate  the  greatest  offences  by  a  penance  or  a  pilgrimi^e* 
which  furnished  only  a  new  opportunity  for  adventurous  exploit 

4.  Chivalry,  whether  it  began  with  the  Moors  or  Normans,  attam^ 
ed  its  perfection  at  the  period  of  tlie  crusades,  which  presented  t  no- 

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MODERN  HISTORY.  !3» 

hie  olject  of  adveDture,  and  a  boundless  field  for  military  glorj. 
Few  indeed  returned  from  those  desperate  enterpri^^ ;  but  those  had 
a  high  reward  in  the  admiration  of  tlieir  countrymen.  Tlie  bards  and 
romancers  sung  their  praises,  and  recorded  their  exploits,  with  « 
tb/MJsaod  circumstances  of  fabulous  embellishment 

5.  The  earliest  of  the  old  romances  fso  termed  from  the  Romance 
Lm^aee,  a  mixture  of  the  Frank  and  Latin,  in  which  they  were 
written)  appeared  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century,  the  period 
of  the  second  cni-ade.  But  those  more  ancient  compositions  did  not 
rrcord  contemporary  event?,  whose  known  truth  would  have  preclud- 
'm!  all  liberty  of  fiction  or  exaggeration.  Geoflrey  of  iMonmouth,ana 
the  author  who  assumed  the  name  of  archbishop  Turpin,  had  free 
•cope  to  their  fancy,  by  celebniting  the  deeds  of  Arthur  and  the 
knights  of  the  round  table,  ;ind  the  exploits  of  Charlemagne  and  his 
twelTe  peers.  From  the  fruitful  stock  of  those  firet  romances  sprung 
a  numerous  offspring  equally  wild  imd  extravagant. 

d.  Fhilo^ophei-s  have  analyzed  the  pleasure  arising  from  works  oi 
tktjon,  and  Inve  endeavoured,  by  various  hypotheses,  to  account  for 
the  interest  which  we  take  in  the  description  of  an  event  or  scene 
which  is  known  to  be  utterly  impossible.  The  fact  may  be  simply 
explained  as  follows.  Every  narration  is  in  some  degree  attended 
iittb  a  dramatic  deception.  We  enter  for  the  time  into  the  situation 
'>rthc  persons  concerned;  and.  adopting  their  passions  and  feelings, 
we  lo»e  all  sense  of  the  absurdity  of  their  caiu^i,  while  we  see  tBe 
.i^eots  themselves  hold  it  for  reiusonable  auJ  adequate.  The  moht  in- 
r  reduloos  sceptic  may  sympathize  strongly  with  the  feelings  of  Ham- 
Itt  at  the  sight  of  his  tatliers  spectre. 

7.  Thus  powcrl'ully  affected  as  we  are  by  sympathy,  even  againsi 
i:.tr  convictioa  of  our  reason,  how  much  greater  must  have  been  the 

•  iJiHrt  of  sach  works  of  the  imagination  in  those  days,  when  popular 

•  jpcnstition  gave  lull  credit  to  the  reality,  or  at  least  the  possibility, 
K't  all  that  thev  described !  And  hence  we  must  censure,  as  both  un- 
orjcessary  and  improbal)le,  the  theory  of  Dr.  Hurd,  which  accounts 
!-T  all  the  wildncs.^  of  the  old  rouumces.  on  the  supposition  that  their 
ry.tioDS  were  entirely  allee;orical;  whicli  explains  the  giants  and  sav- 
Aijrfl  into  the  oppressive  teudal  lords  and  their  barbarous  dependents; 
i^  >L  Mallet  construes  th:»  serpents  and  dragons  which  guarded  the 

•  jchanted  ca^tles^  into  their  winding  walls,  fosses,  and  battlements. 
I:  were  sufficient  to  say,  that  many  of  those  old  romances  are  inex- 
f  .icabic  by  allegory.  They  were  received  by  the  popular  belief  at 
tr jthtf ;  and  oven  tneir  contrivers  believed  in  the  possibility  of  the 
Vi  nes  and  actions  which  they  described.  In  latter  ages,  and  in  thft 
w^ne  of  superstition,  yet  white  it  still  retained  a  powerful  influence, 
i\te  poets  adopted  allegory  as  a  vehicle  of  moral  instruction :  and  to 
i\d<  period  b«*long  tho^e  politic;il  romances  which  bear  an  allegorical 
ficplaQation;  as  the  Fairy  Qnceti  oC  Spenser,  tlie  Orlando  of  Arioeto, 
JOjd  the  Gierusttkmitie  Liberata  of  Tasso. 

a.  In  more  mo(L»ni  times  the  taste  for  romantic  composition  decttii- 
-hI  with  populir  credulity ;  and  the  fastidiousness  of  phdosophy  affecW 
o<i  to  treat  all  supernatural  fiction  with  contempt.  But  it  was  at 
length  perceived  that  this  retinement  had  cut  off  a  source  of  very 
hi^h  mental  enjoyment  The  public  taste  now  took  a  new  turn ;  anid 
dii^  moral  revolution  is  at  present  lending  to  its  extreme.  We  ar« 
gofie  back  to  the  nursery  to  listen  to  tales  of  hobgoblins;  a  changtt 
wludb  we  maj  Siifcly  prognosticate  can  be  of  no  duration. 

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140  MOJCHESN  HISTORY. 


SECTION  XIX. 

STATE  OF  EUROPE  IN  THE  THfRTEENTH  AND  f  OURTEENTH 

CENTURIES. 

1.  Constantinople,  taken  in  1^02  by  the  crusaders,  was  poesessed 
only  for  a  short  time  by  its  conquerors.  It  was  governed  by  French 
emperors  for  the  space  of  sixty  years,  and  was  retaken  by  the 
Greeks  in  1,261,  under  Michael  Fal»ologus,  who,  by  imprisoning  and 
putting  out  the  eyes  of  his  pupil  Theodore  Lascaris,  secured  totum- 
self  the  soTereignty. 

2.  In  the  beginnine  of  the  thirteenth  century  GermaOT  was 
governed  by  Frederick  11.^  who  paid  homage  to  the  pope  fi>r  the 
kingdom  of^Naples  and  Sicily,  which  was  possessed  by  his  son  Con- 
rad, and  afterwards  by  his  brother  Manfred,  who  usurped  the  crown 
in  violation  of  the  rignt  of  his  nephew  Conradin.  Pope  Clement  IV., 
jealous  of  the  domimon  of  the  imperial  family,  gave  the  investiture 
of  Naples  and  Sicily  to  Charles  of  Anjou,  brotner  of  Lewis  IX.  oC 
Firance,  who  defeated  and  put  to  death  nis  competitors.  The  Sicil* 
Jans  revenged  ^is  act  of  usurpation  and  cruelty  by  the  murder,  in 
one  night,  of  every  Frenchman  in  the  island.  This  shocking  masRa- 
cre,  termed  the  StcUian  vespers,  happened  on  Easter  Sunday,  1,282* 
It  was  followed  by  every  evil  that  comes  in  the  train  of  civil  war  and 
revolution. 

3.  The  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  had  been  signalized 
by  a  new  species  of  crusade.  The  Albigenses,  inhabitants  of  Alby 
in  the  Pays  de  Vaud,  were  bold  enough  to  dispute  many  of  the  tenets 
of  the  catholic  church,  judging  them  contrary  to  the  doctrines  ot 
scripture.  Innocent  III.  established  a  holy  commission  at  Thouloase, 
with  power  to  try  and  punish  those  heretics.  The  count  of  Thon- 
louse  opposed  thl^  persecution,  and  was,  for  the  punishment  ol'  hi^ 
offence,  compelled  by  the  pope  to  assist  in  a  crusade  against  his  oivn 
vassals,  Simon  de  Monfort  was  the  leader  of  this  pious  enterprise, 
which  was  marked  by  the  most  atrocious  cruelties.  The  benefits  of 
the  holy  commission  were  judged  by  the  popes  to  be  so  great,  that  it 
became  from  that  time  a  permanent  establishment,  known  by  the 
name  of  the  inquisition, 

4.  The  rise  of  the  house  of  Austria  may  be  dated  from  lt^4, 
when  Rodolphus  of  Hapsbour^,  a  Swiss  baron,  was  elected  emperor 
of  Germany.  He  owed  his  elevation  to  the  jealousies  of  the  elec- 
toral princes,  who  could  not  agree  in  the  choice  of  any  one  of  them- 
selves. The  king  of  Bohemia,  to  whom  Rodolphus  had  been  ste%%'- 
ard  of  the  household,  could  ill  brook  the  supremacy  of  his  former  de- 
pendent; and  refusing  him  the  customary  homage  for  his  Germanic 
possessions,  Rodolphus  stripped  him  of  Austria,  "which  has  ever  since 
femained  in  the  family  of  its  conqueror. 

5.  The  Italian  states  of  Venice,  Genoa,  and  Pisa,  were  at  this  time 
flourishing  and  opulent,  while  most  of  the  kingdoms  of  Europe  (ji 
we  except  England  under  Edward  I.,)  were  exhausted,  feeblai,  and 
disoiderly.  A  dawnine  of  civil  liberty  began  to  appear  in  Fiance 
under  Philip  IV.  {le  bel\  who  summoned  the  third  estate  to  (be 
national  assemblies,  whicn  had  hitherto  consisted  of  the  nobiiitj  and 
clergy,  1,303.  Pmhp  established  perpetual  courts  of  judicatinre  in 
France,  under  the  name  of  parliaments.    Over  these  the  parliaiaent 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODERN  mSTORT.  Ul 


«r  FuiB  powiicd  a  jvnsdiction  by  appeal;  bat  it  was  not  till  1 
tiaaes  tliat  it  anumed  any  authority  in  matters  of  State. 

6.  The  parliameDtof  Enetand  Imd  before  tills  era  begun  to  anume 
Rs  present  Gonstitutioo.  The  commons,  or  the  representatives  of 
oofmties  and  boroughs,  were  first  called  to  parliament  by  Henry 
UL  Before  that  time  this  assembly  consisted  only  of  the  greater 
barons  md  clergr*  But  of  the  rise  and  progress  of  the  consutotloD 
of  England  we  shall  afterwards  treat  more  paticnlarly  In  a  separate 
•actum. 

1.  The  spirit  of  the  popedom,  zealous  in  the  maintenance  and  ex« 
tension  of  ito  prerogatires,  continued  much  the  same  in  the  thirteenth 
and  fouiteeoui,  as  we  have  seen  it  in  the  three  preceding  centuries 
Philip  the  &ir  liad  subjected  his  clergy  to  bear  their  shave  of  the 
pobUc  taxes^  and  prohibited  all  contributions  to  be  levied  by  the  pope 
m  bis  dominions.  This  double  offence  was  highly  resented  l^  Boni- 
lace  VUL,  who  eipressed  his  indignation  by  a  sentence  of  excom 
and  interdict,  and  a  solemn  transference  of  the  kingdom 


of  France  to  the  emperor  Albert  Philip,  in  revenge,  sent  his  gen- 
eral Nopret  to  Rome,  who  threw  the  pope  into  prison.  The 
French,  however,  were  overpowered  by  the  papal  troops;  and  the 
death  of  Boni&ce  put  an  end  to  the  quarrel. 

8.  It  is  less  easy  to  justify  the  conduct  of  PhiUp  the  fair  to  the 
kniriits  templars  than  nis  Mhaviour  to  pope  Boniface.  The  whole 
of  tnia  order  had  uicurred  his  resentment,  m>m  suspicion  of  harbour- 
ing treasonable  designs.  He  had  influence  with  Clement  V.  to  pro- 
cure a  papal  bull  warranting  their  extirpation  from  all  the  christian 
kingdoms:  and  this  in&mous  proscription  was  carried  into  effect 
over  all  Europe.  Those  unfortunate  men  were  solemnly  tried,  not 
for  their  real  offence,  but  for  protended  impieties  and  idolatrous  prao- 
licc«|  and  conmiitted  to  the  flames  1,309—1,312. 


SECTION  XX. 
REVOLUTION  OF  SWITZERLAND. 

1.  Tmc  begfaming  of  the  fourteenth  century  was  disthgulshed  by 
fhe  reTOfaition  of  Switzerland,  and  the  rise  of  the  Helvetic  republic. 
The  eoqieror  Rodolpbus  of  Hapsbourg  was  hereditary  sovereign 
of  aereial  of  the  Swiss  cantons,  and  governed  his  states  with  much 
cqtdty  and  moderation.  Uis  successor  Albert,  a  tyrannical  pzince, 
fined  the  design  of  annexing  the  whole  of  the  provfaices  to  hia 
domlnloj^  and  of  erecting  them  into  a  principality  for  one  of  his 


of  Schweitz,  Ury,  and  Underwahl,  which  had 
always  reristed  the  authority  of  Austria,  combfaied  to  assert  their 
frccwn;  and  a  mall  anny  of  400  or  &00  men  defeated  an  immense 


liostoftbeAuBtrianslntbemMof  Morgatevt)916.  The  rest  of  tbt 
ontona  lyy  degrees  joined  the  anociation.  With  bvindble  peneTer- 
•noe  the  united  cantons  won  and  secured  their  dear4xrag)it  liberty^ 
after  sixty  niched  battles  with  thefar  enemies. 

t.  Cmthiuiim  rf  SmkteHumd.  The  thirteen  cantons  were  united 
byasoieBn  treaty,  which  stipuhted  tlie  propoi^ooal  soccouis  to  b^ 
finfahed  by  each  m  the  case  of  foreign  hostility,  and  the  measureg 
to  be  followed  for  securing  the  unioo  of  the  state^  and  accommoda»> 

adoBicitk  differences.    Wifli  respect  to  Us  faitenial  government 
KOHMDj  each  canloa  was  faidepeadent  Ofsometbeconstitafioa 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


142  MODERN  HISTORY. 

was  monarchical,  and  of  others  repabKcan.  Ail  matters  toochlni; 
the  general  lea^e  were  transacted  either  by  letters  sent  to  Zurich, 
and  tnence  officicilly  circulated  to  all  the  car.tons,  or  by  conferencesL 
The  general  diet,  where  two  deputies  attended  from  each  oanton.  ivaa 
held  once  a  year,  the  first  deputy  of  Zurich  presiding.  The  catholic 
and  protestant  cantons  likewise  held  their  separate  diets  on  occasional 
emergencies. 

3.  The  Swiss,  when  at  peace,  employed  their  troops  for  hire  in 
foreign  service,  judging  it  a  wise  policy  to  keep  alive  the  military 
Bpirit  of  the  nation;  and  the  armies  tlius  employed  have  been  equally 
distinguished  for  their  courage  and  fidehty.  The  industry  and 
economy  of  the  Swiss  are  proverbial ;  and  their  country  suoports  an 
abundant  population,  from  (he  zealous  promotion  of  agriciutnre  and 
manufactures. 


SECTION  XXI. 

STATE  OF  EUROPE  IN  THE  THIRTEEiYTH,  FOURTEENTH,  AND 
PART  OF  THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURIES. 

1.  The  rival  claims  of  superiority  between  the  popes  and  eii>- 
perors  still  continued.  Henry  VII.,  the  successor  of  Albert,  vindicate 
ed  his  right  by  the  sword,  triumphantly  fought  his  way  to  Rome, 
where  he  was  solemnly  crowned,  and  unposed  a  tribute  on  all  the 
states  of  Italy.  His  sudden  death  was  suspected  to  be  the  consequence 
of  papal  resentment.  In  his  time  the  seat  of  the  popedom  was  trans- 
ferred by  Clement  V.  from  Rome  to  Avignon,  1,309,  where  it  re- 
mained till  1,377.  The  factions  of  Italy  were  the  cause  of  this  re^ 
movaL  Lewis  of  Bavaria,  the  successor  of  Henry,  deposed  and  ex- 
communicated by  John  XXII.,  revenged  himself  br  deposing  the 
pope.  This  pontiff,  who  had  originally  been  a  cobbler,  surpassed 
most  of  his  predecessors  in  pride  and  tyranny.  He  kept  his  seat  od 
^e  papal  cnair,  and  leil  at  his  death  an  immense  treasure  accumi^ 
lated  by  the  sale  of  benetices ;  while  his  rival  the  emperor  died  In 
Indigence. 

2.  His  successor  in  the  empire,  Charies  IV.,  pi:||)lished,  in  l^SSS, 
Ihe  imperial  constitution,  termed  thegoiden  buU^  tne  fundamental  law 
cf  the  Germanic  body,  which  reduced  the  number  of  electors  tn 
•even,  and  settled  on  tnem  all  the  hereditary  offices  of  state.  The 
dectors  exemplified  their  new  rights  by  deposing  his  son  VVenceslaos 
for  incapacity.  1,400.  Three  separate  factions  of  the  French  and 
Italian  cardinals  having  elected  three  separate  popes,  the  emperor 
Sigismund  judged  this  division  of  the  church  to  oe  a  nt  opportunity 
fi>r  his  interference  to  reconcile  all  differences,  and  establish  his  own 
•upremacy.  He  summoned  a  eeneral  council  at  Constance  in  1,414, 
ai^  ended  the  dispute  by  degrading  all  the  three  pontiffs,  and  naming 
a  fourth,  Martin  Colonna.  This  division  of  the  papacy  is  tenn^ 
the  greai  tokism  of  the  west. 

S.  The  spiritual  business  of  the  council  of  Constance  was  no  le^ 
ftnportant  than  its  temporal.    John  Huss.  a  disciple  of  Wickliff^ 


tried  for  heresy,  in  denying  the  hierarcny.  ai^  satirizing  the  li^ 
iporallties  of  the  popes  ana  bishops.  He  aid  not  deny  the  chane, 
and,  refusing  to  confess  his  errors,  was  burnt  alive.  A  similar  m» 
was  the  portion  of  hii  friend  and  disciple,  Jerom  of  Prague)  vfhi^ 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


MODERN  HISTORY  .43 

diiplajed  at  his  eiecotioa  the  eloquence  of  an  apostle,  and  the  ooi^ 
fttaocr  (^  a  martyr,  1,416.  Sigtsmand  felt  tiie  conse^ucQce  of  these 
homble  proceediDga ;  for  the  Bohemians  opposed  his  succession  to 
their  Ticant  crown,  and  it  cost  him  a  war  of  sixteen  years  to  attain  it 
4.  Whatever  was  the  imperial  power  at  this  time,  it  derived  but 
imadl  consequence  from  its  actual  revenues.  The  wealth  of  the 
GenDODic  states  was  exclusively  possessed  by  their  separate  sove- 
reicDS,  and  the  emperor  had  uttJe  more  than  what  he  drew  from 
Bohemia  and  Hungary.  The  sovereignty  of  Italy  was  an  empty 
title.  The  interest  of  the  emperor  in  that  country  furnished  only  a 
•octree  of  Action  to  its  princes,  and  embroiled  the  states  in  perpetual 
quarrels.  A  series  of  conspiracies  and  civil  tumults  ibrm  the  annals 
of  the  principal  cities  for  above  200  years.  Naples  and  Sicily  were 
mined  oy  the  weak  and  disorderiy  government  of  the  two  Joannas. 
A  paifiioo  which  the  younger  of  these  conceived  for  a  soldier  of  the 
name  of  Stbrza  raised  him  to  the  sovereign^  of  Milan ;  and  her 
adoption,  first  of  Alphonzo  of  Arragon,  and  afterwluxis  of  Lewis  ol 
Anjoo,  laid  the  foundation  of  those  contests  l)etween  Spain  and 
Fmoce  for  the  sovereignty  of  the  two  Sicilies,  which  afterwards 
agitated  all  Europe. 


SECTION  XXII. 

HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND  IN  THE  THIRTEENTH  CENTURY. 

1.  Oil  the  death  of  John,  his  son  Henrv  III.  succeeded  to  the 
crown  ot  England  at  nine  years  of  age.  He  w:\s  a  prince  of  ami- 
febJe  dispoeitions,  but  of  weak  understanding.  His  preference  of 
foreign  nivourites  disgusted  his  nobles ;  and  the  want  of  economy  in  hit 
r»venuDent«  and  oppressive  exactions,  deprived  him  of  the  anecth>n 
rA  hH  people.  Montfort  earl  of  Leicester,  son  of  the  leader  of  the 
uiaade  against  the  Albi^enses,  and  brother-in-law  of  the  king,  con- 
mved  a  plan  for  usurping  the  government  He  formed  a  league 
irith  the  barons,  on  the  pretext  of  reforming  abuses,  and  compelled 
Henrr  to  delegate  all  the  regal  power  into  the  hands  of  twen^-fouf 
q{  their  number.  These  divided  among  themselves  the  offices  of 
eoveniment,  and  new-modelled  the  parliament,  by  summoning  a  cer- 
tain rnimber  of  knights  chosen  from  each  county.  This  measure 
trm  &tal  to  then-  own  power;  for  these  knights  or  representatives 
of  the  people,  indignant  at  Leicester's  usurpation,  determined  to 
rvstore  ue  royal  authority;  and  called  on  prince  Edward«  a  youth 
^'  intrepid  spirit,  to  avenge  his  fdther's  wrongs  and  save  Uie  king- 

doCD* 

t.  Leicester  raised  a  formidable  force,  and  defeated  the  royal 
army  mt  Lewes,  in  Sussex,  1,264,  and  made  both  the  king  and  prince 
Edward  his  pruoners.  lie  now  compelled  the  unpotent  Heniy  to 
nxiff  his  aatnority  by  a  solemn  treaty.  He  assumed  the  character 
of  cvgent,  and  called  a  parliament,  summoning  two  knights  from 
each  of  the  counties,  and  deputies  from  the  principal  boroughs,  th^ 
ri  rA  regular  plan  of  the  English  house  of  commons.  This  asaemb^ 
e  aercSog  its  just  rights,  and  asserting  with  firmness  die  re-establisE- 
tneiA  oftne  ancient  government  of  the  kingdom,  Leicester  ji^ed  it 

aient  to  release  the  prince  from  his  confinement    Edward  wii 

•oouer  at  liberty  than  he  took  the  field  aeainst  the  usurper,  wha 

defatted  and  slain  in  the  battle  of  Evesham,  on  the  4th  day  of 


y  Google 


MODERN  mSTORT. 

tst,  IMS,  Henry  was  now  restored  to  his  throne  by  the  am 
3  pliant  SOD,  who«  after  establishing  domestic  tFanqnillity,  em- 
ad  in  the  last  crusade  with  Lewis  IX.,  and  sisnaiized  his  prowess 
any  ralorous  exploits  in  Palestine.  He  had  the  honour  of  cod- 
ng  an  advantageous  triKe  for  ten  years  with  the  sultan  of  Baby- 
ind  was  on  his  return  to  Engluui  when  he  received  intelligence 
9  accession  to  the  crown  by  the  death  of  his  father,  1,272. 
Edward  Lprojected  the  conquest  of  Wales  in  the  begmnlng 
s  reign.  Tne  Welsh,  the  descendants  of  the  ancient  Britons 
had  escaped  the  Roman  and  Saxon  conquests,  preserved  their 
^y.  laws,  manners,  and  language.  Their  prince,  LeweUjfn, 
eel  his  customary  homage  to  the  king  of  England.  Edward  in- 
i  Wales,  and,  surrounding  the  arm^of  the  pnnce,who  retreated 
s  mountains^  cut  off  all  his  supplies,  and  compelled  him  to  an 
alified  submission.  The  terms  demanded  were,  the  sorrender 
part  of  the  country,  a  large  sum  of  money,  and  an  obligation  of 
Btual  fealty  to  the  crown  of  England.  The  Webh  infringed 
treaty,  and  Edward  marched  his  army  into  the  heart  of  the 
try.  where  the  troops  of  Lewellyn  made  a  most  desperate  but  in- 
tual  resistance,  hi  a  decisive  engagement,  in  1,283,  the  prince 
jlain.  His  brother  David,  betrayed  into  the  hands  of  the  coi>- 
or.  was  inhumanly  executed  on  a  gibbet ;  and  Wales^  complete- 
ibdued,  was  annexed  to  the  crown  of  Iceland.  With  a  policy 
lly  absurd  and  cruel,  Edward  ordered  the  Welsh  bards  to  be  put 
ath  wherever  found;  thereby  ensuring  the  perpetuation  of  tfieir 
ic  songs,  and  increasing  the  abhorrence  of  the  vanquished  peopla 
leir  baroarous  conqueror. 

The  conquest  of  Wales  inflamed  the  ambition  of  Edward,  and 
red  him  with  the  design  of  extending  his  dominion  to  the  ex* 
ity  of  the  island.  The  designs  of  this  enterprising  monarch  on 
;ingdom  of  Scotland  invite  our  attenticm  to  that  quarter. 


SECTION  XXUI. 

^RY   OP  SCOTLAND   FROM  THE   ELEVENTH   TO   THB 
FOURTEENTH  CENTURY. 


The  history  of  Scotland  before  the  reign  of  Malcolm  IlL,  l  ^ 
id  Camnore,  is  obscure  and  fabulous.  This  prince  succeeded  to 
hrooe  in  1,057  by  the  defeat  of  Macbeth,  the  murderer  of  his 
r  Duncan.  Espousing  the  cause  of  Edgar  Atheling,  heir  of  the 
n  kings  of  England,  whose  sister  he  married,  he  thus  provoked 
\r  with  William  the  conqueror,  which  was  equally  prejudicial 
•th  kingdoms.  In  an  expedition  of  Malcohn  into  England  it  is 
ed,  that,  ailer  concluding  a  truce,  he  was  compelled  by  William 
>  homage  for  his  kingdom.  The  truth  is,  thai  this  homage  was 
for  the  territories  in  Cumberland  and  Northumberland  won  br 
scots,  and  held  m  vassalage  of  the  English  crown ;  though  thf 
age  was  afterwards  absurdly  made  the  pretext  of  a  ckim  if 
if  sovereignty  over  all  Scotland  In  a  reign  of  twenty-^ev^i 
9  Malcolm  supported  a  spirited  contest  with  England,  both  voki 
am  L  and  his  son  Rufuis;  and  to  the  virtues  of  his  queen  Mn^ 
t,  his  kin£d(Mn,  ki  its  domestic  polk:;f,  owed  a  degree  of  ciyittB^ 
reittukaSe  m  those  ages  of  baxharaoL 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


M0DE31N  mSTORT. 


Davi< 


to  hu  coundy  and  to  mooarchy,  won  from  Stephen,  and  annexed  to 
his  crofrn,  Ae  whote  earldom  of  Northumberland.  In  th^  reim 
we  bear  of  no  claim  of  the  feudal  subjection  of  Scotland  to  S 
crown  of  England ;  though  the  accidental  fortune  of  war  afterwardb 
tumisbed  a  ground  for  it.  William  L,  (the  Uon),  taken  prisoTeTat 
A^""^  J>y  Henry  II  was  compelled,  as  the  price  of  his  release,  to 
do  bOBMfe  for  bis  whole  kingdom;  an  ohIigaUon  which  his  succes- 
^irtS"^  vohmtanly  discharged,  deemiog^it  to  have  been  nnS 

3.  On  the  death  of  Alexander  III.  without  male  issue,  in  1,286 
Bnic€  and  BaUol,  descendants  of  David  I.  by  the  female 'line,  were 
competitors  lor  the  croivn,  and  the  preteiisioas  of  eacli  were  support- 
ed by  a  formidable  party  m  the  kingdom.  i:dward  I.  of  Encknd 
fk  T"J!?P'^  ""^^^  ^^"<^^f^'  arrogated  to  himself,  in  that  characten! 
the  feudal  sovereignty  ot  the  kingdom,  compelling  all  the  barons  to 
rww  allegiance  to  hira,  and  taking  actual  po8se^.>ion  of  the  countrv 
by  h«  troop^  He  then  adjudged  the  crown  to  BaIio!,on  the  exprtii 
coodiUon  ot  his  swearing  fealty  to  him  as  lord  paramouiiL  BalioL 
.515'*:.!^?."  after  renouncing  his  ;\llegiance,  the  inflijrnant  EdwanJ 
Jl^rlo^i^-''"!*  n*^^l^°  ^"""^'^^'^  ^?'''''\  *»»^  compelled  the  weak 

4.  WiHtam  VVallaco,  one  ot  the  greatest  heroes  whom  history  re- 
ronj,  restored  the  lailen  honours  of  his  country.  Join.^d  bv  a  few 
p»mots  his  hrst  successes  in  attiickinj  the  English  garrisons  brought 
Dumben  to  his  patriotic  standard.  Their  sucxessot  were  signal  m?d 
conspicuous.  Victory  followed  upon  victory.  While  Edivard  was 
encased  on  the  continent,  his  troops  were  utterly  defeated  in  a  dcs- 
pirate  engagement  at  Stirling,  imd  Ibrced  to  evacuate  the  kingdom. 
^VaUace;  the  deliverer  ol  his  country,  now  assumed  tlie  title  of  cov- 
emor  of  Scotland  under  Baliol,  who  was  Edward^s  prisoner;  a  dis- 
UpcUoo  which  was  lollowed  by  the  envy  and  disafTection  of  many  ol 
the  nobles,  and  the  consequent  diminution  of  hi^  army.  The  brots 
were  derated  at  Falkirk.  Edward  returned  with  a  vast  acce«?sion  ol 
toroe.  After  a  fruitless  resistance  tlie  Scottish  barons  finally  obtained 
peace  by  a  capitidation,  from  which  the  brave  Wtdlace  was  excepted 
I'-'i  "^^  ^  fugitive  fur  some  time,  he  was  betrayed  into  the  hands  ot 
h^lwanL  who  put  him  to  death,  with  every  ciix:umstance  of  crueKv 
that  barbarous  revenge  could  dictate,  l,.i04.  ^ 

5.  ik:otland  found  a  second  champion  and  deliverer  in  Robert 
bnice^  Che  gramison  of  the  competitor  with  Baliol;  who,  deeply  n». 
^tmg  the  hamiUation  ol  his  country,  once  more  set  up  the  standanl 
of  war,  wd  gave  dehance  to  the  English  monarch,  to  whom  big 
bltaer  and  grandlather  had  meanly  sworn  allegiance.    Under  this  in- 
trepid leader  the  spirit  of  the  nation  was  roused  at  once.    The  Ene- 
iBih  were  attacked  m  every  quarter,  and  once  more  euUrely  driven 
^'^^  tbc  kmgdom.     Robert  Bruce  was  crowned  king  at  Scone, 
3r~;    w**^  ^  advancing  with  an  immense  anny,  and  died  at 
^^'iSt.'^u^  ''^t'^^f  July,  1,307.    He  enjoined  it  with  his  last 
'^'***«»  to  hjs  son,  Edward  U.,  to  prosecute  the  war  with  the  Scoti  to 
tbe  entire  reduction  of  the  country. 

N  19 


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14a  MODEON  HISTORT. 

SECTION  XXIV, 

HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND  IN  THE  FOURTEENTH  CENTURY. 

1.  Iiv  the  reign  of  Edwird  L  we  obcienre  the  constitution  of  Eog* 
land  gradually  advancing.  The  commons  bad  been  admitted  to  par- 
liament in  the  latter  period  of  his  fether  Henry  III.  A  statute  was 
passed  by  Edward,  wnich  declared,  that  no  tax  or  impost  should  be 
levied  without  the  consent  of  lords  and  commons.  Edward  ratified 
the  Magna  Charta  no  less  than  eleven  times  in  the  course  of  his  reign ; 
and  henceforward  tills  fundamental  law  began  to  be  regarded  as  sa- 
cred and  unalterable. 

2.  Edward  II.  was  in  character  the  very  opposite  of  his  iatber ; 
weak,  indolent,  and  capricious;  but  of  humane  and  benevolent  afibc* 
tions.  He  disgusted  his  nobles  bv  his  attachment  to  mean  and  imde- 
ser\'ing  f&vourites,  whom  he  raised  to  the  highest  dignities  of  the 
fitate,  and  honoured  with  his  exclusive  confidence.  Piers  Gaveston, 
a  vicious  and  trifling  minion,  whom  the  king  appointed  regent  when 
on  a  journey  to  Paris  to  marry  Isabella,  daughter  of  Philip  the  fair, 
disgusted  the  barons  to  such  a  pitch,  that  they  compelled  tne  king  to 
delegate  all  the  authority  of  government  to  certain  commissioners,  and 
to  abandon  his  favourite  to  their  resentment  He  was  doomed  to 
perpetual  imprisonment  and,  on  attempt  to  escape,  was  seized  and 
beheaded. 

3.  Edward,  in  obedience  to  his  father^s  will,  invaded  Scotland  with 
an  anny  of  100,000  men.  Kine  Robert  Bruce  met  this  iromeose 
force  with  30,000  men  at  BannocKbum,  and  defeated  them  with  pro- 
digious slaughter.  This  important  victorv  secured  the  independence 
of  Scotland.  Edward  escaped  by  sea  to  nis  own  dominions.  A  new 
favourite,  Spenser,  supplied  the  place  of  Gaveston;  but  hisuodeserv- 
ed  elevation  and  overoearing  character  completed  the  disaffection  of 
Uie  nobles  to  their  sovereign.  The  queen,  a  vicious  adulteress,  jixn- 
ed  the  malcontents,  and,  passing  over  to  Franc^.  obtained  from  her 
brother  Charles  IV.  an  army  to  invade  England,  and  dethrone  her 
husband.  Her  enterprise  was  successful  Spenser  and  his  father 
were  betrayed  into  tne  hands  of  their  enemies,  and  perished  on  a 
scaffold.  The  king  was  taken  prisoner,  tried  by  parliament,  and  sol- 
emnly deposed;  and  being  confined  to  prison,  was  soon  afler  put  to 
death  in  a  manner  shocking  to  humanity,  1,327. 

4.  Edward  III.,  crowned  at  fourteen  years  of  age,  could  not  sobmit 
to  the  regency  of  a  mother  stained  with  the  fodest  of  crimes.  His 
fittlier^s  death  was  revenged  bv  the  perpetual  imprisonment  of  l8al>el- 
la,  and  the  nubile  execution  of^her  paramour  Mortimer.  Bent  on  the 
conquest  ofScotland,  Edward  marched  to  the  north  with  a  prodinoua 
trmv,  vanquished  the  Scots  in  the  battle  of  Halldoun-hill,  and  p&ced 
on  the  throne  Edward  Baliol,his  vassal  and  tributary.  But  the  king^ 
dom  was  as  repugnant  as  ever  to  the  rule  of  England,  and  a  fiivoxira* 
bie  opportunity  was  taken  for  the  renewal  of  hostilities,  on  the  depart- 
ure oTEdwara  for  a  foreign  enterprise,  which  gave  full  scope  to  his 
unbition. 

5.  On  the  death  of  Charies  IV.  without  male  issue,  the  crovnx  of 
France  was  claimed  by  Edward  III.  of  England,  in  rignt  of  ixis  nsotlx 
er,  the  sister  of  Charles,  while,  in  the  mean  time,  the  throne  w«s  oo- 
cupied  by  the  male  heir,  Pinlip  of  Valois.    Edward  fitted  out  ai 


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MODERN  mSTORY  i47 

Dt  by  sea  and  land,  and,  obtaining  a  aignal  yictory  over 
die  French  fleet,  landed  on  the  coast  of  Normandy,  and  with  lus  son, 
the  black  prince,  ran  a  career  of  the  most  glorious  exploits.  Philip^ 
with  lOO/MO  men,  met  the  English  with  30,000,  and  was  entirely  de- 
feated io  the  field  of  Cressy,  Augost  26, 1 ,348.  Calais  was  taken  by 
the  Fjiglishy  and  remained  in  their  possession  210  years.  The  £i>- 
glish  are  said  to  have  first  used  artillery  in  the  battle  of  Cressy.  Fire 
arms  were  then  but  a  recent  invention  (1)340),  and  have  mnch  coq> 
tribuled  to  lessen  both  the  slaughter  and  the  firequency  of  wars.  Mr. 
Home  well  observes  that  war  »  now  reduced  nearly  to  a  matter  ot 
caknhtlon.  A  nation  knows  its  power,  and,  when  overmatched, 
eitherrields  to  its  enemies,  or  secures  itself  bv  alliance. 

6.  'Ae  Scots  in  the  mean  time  invaded  England,  and  were  defeated 
in  the  battle  of  Durham  b;^  Piiilippa«  the  heroic  queen  of  Edward  III. ; 
md  their  sovereign  David  11.  was  led  prisoner  to  London.  A  truce 
coQclnded  between  Edward  and  Philip  was  dissolved  by  the  death  erf 
the  latter.  Philip  was  succeeded  by  nis  son  John,  who  took  the  field 
with  6<X0OO  men  against  the  black  prince,  and  was  defeat^  by  him 
with  a  nr  infeiior  number  in  the  signal  battle  of  Poictieis,  September 
19.  i;3&6.  Jolm  king  of  France  was  led  in  triumph  to  London,  the 
feuow-^prisoner  of  David  king  of  Scotland.  But  England  derived  from 
Iboae  victories  nothing  but  honour.  The  French  continued  the  war 
with  great  vigour  durine  the  captivity  of  their  sovereign,  who  died 
in  LoodoD  m  1,364.  They  obtained  a  peace  by  the  cession  to  the 
English  of  Poitou,  St  Onge,  Perieord  and  other  provinces ;  and  Ed- 
ward consented  to  renounce  his  claim  to  the  crown  of  France.  Tiie 
death  of  the  black  prince,  a  most  heroic  and  virtuous  man,  plunged 
the  nation  in  grief,  and  broke  the  spirits  of  his  father,  who  did  not  long 
forriTe  him. 

1.  Richaid  II.  succeeded  his  grandfather,  in  1,377,  at  the  age  of 
cleica.  Charies  Vi.  soon  aAer  became  king  of  France  at  the  age 
of  twelve.  Both  kingdoms  sufiered  from  the  distractions  attending  a 
regal  minority.  In  England  the  contests  for  power  between  uxe 
' '  fa  uncles,  Lancaster,  York,  and*  Gloucester,  embroiled  all  public 
i;  and  the  consequent  disorders  required  a  stronger  hand  to 
them  than  Chat  of  the  weak  and  facikr.  Kichara.  TWng 
advMitace  of  the  king^s  absence,  then  engaged  in  qpelling  an  insur- 
recHoo  m  Ireland,  Henry  of  Lancaster  rose  in  open  rel^lHon,  and 
oonpelled  Richard,  at  his  return,  to  resign  the^crown.  The  parlia- 
1  confirmed  his  deposition,  and  he  was  soon  afker  privately  assa»- 
Thus  began  the  contentions  between  the  houses  oif  York 


SECTION  XXV, 

mOLAND    AND    FBANCE   IN   THE  FIFTEENTH    CENTURT. 
STATE  OF  MANNERS. 

f .  Hnmv  IV.  ascended  the  throne  on  the  deposition  of  Richaxdll.. 
t3d9 ;  and  had  bnmediately  to  combat  a  rebellion  raised  by  the  earl 
^Noitbnmberland,  for  placing  Mortimer,  the  heir  of  the  house  oi 
Torfc,  oo  the  throne.  The  Scots  and  Welsh  took  part  with  the  rebelii 
tai  thtkt  mited  forces  were  defeated  at  Shrewsbury,  and  their  lea£ 
Percy  (Hotspur),  killed  on  the  field.    A  second  rebdlieo 


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f48  MODERN  HISTORY. 

headed  b;^  the  archbbhop  of  York,  was  qnclled  bj  the  capital  puniBh- 
ment  of  its  author.  The  secular  ann  was  rigorously  extended 
against  the  followers  of  Wicklifif,  and  this  reign  saw  the  first  detestable 
examples  of  religions  persecution.  The  life  of  Henry  was  imbitter- 
ed  by  the  youthful  disorders  of  his  son  the  prbce  of  Wales,  who 
ailerwards  nobly  redeemed  his  character.  Henry  IV.  died  in  1,413, 
at  the  age  of  forty-six. 

2.  Henry  V.  toolc  advantage  of  the  disorders  of  France,  from  the 
temporary  insanity  of  its  sorereign  Charles  VL,  and  the  fiictiois 
struggles  for  power  between  the  dukes  of  Burgimdy  and  Orleaa*, 
to  invade  the  kingdom  with  a  large  army,  which  a  contagious  dis- 
temper wasted  down  to  a  fifth  of  its  numbers ;  yet  with  this  haDdftil 
of  resolute  and  hardy  troops,  he  defeated  the  French  army  of  60,000, 
under  the  constable  D^ Albert,  in  the  famous  battle  of  Agincourt,  in 
which  10,000  of  the  enemy  were  slain,  and  14,000  made  prisoners, 
October  24,  1,415.  Returning  to  England  to  recruit  his  forces,  he 
landed  again  with  an  army  of  25,000,  and  fought  bis  way  to  Paris. 
The  insane  monarch,  with  his  court,  fled  to  1  roye,  and  Henry  pur- 
suing, terminated  the  war  by  a  treaty  with  the  aueen-motner  of 
the  duke  of  Burgundy,  by  which  it  was  agreed  that  he  should  marry 
the  daughter  of  Charles  V I.,  and  receive  the  kingdom  of  France  as 
her  dowi7,  which,  till  the  death  of  her  father,  he  should  govern  a^ 
regent. 

3.  Mean  time  the  return  of  Henry  to  Fjigland  gave  the  dauphin 
hopes  of  the  recovery  of  his  kingdom.  He  was  victorious  io  an 
engagement  with  the  English  under  the  duke  of  Clarence  ;  but  hif 
success  was  of  no  longer  duration  than  the  absence  of  the  English 
sovereign,  who  was  himself  hastening  to  the  period  of  bis  triumph^. 
Seized  with  a  mortal  distemper,  Henry  died  in  the  34th  year  of  hi* 
age,  1,422,  one  of  the  most  heroic  princes  that  ever  swayed  the 
sceptre  of  England.  His  brother,  the  duke  o(  Bedford,  was  declared 
regent  of  Franco,  and  Henry  VI.,  an  infant  nine  months  old,  was  pn- 
claimed  king  at  Paris  and  at  London,  1 ,422. 

4.  Charles  VII.  recovered  France  by  slow  degrees.  With  the  au\ 
of  a  young  female  enthusiast,  the  maid  of  Orleans,  whom  the  credu- 
lity of  the  age  supposed  to  be  inspired  by  Heaven,  he  gained  seTeml 
important  advantages  over  the  English,  which  the  latter  inhomaiiiT 
revenged,  by  burning  this  heroine  as  a  sorceress.  Her  death  was  of 
equal  advantage  to  the  French  as  her  life  had  been.  The  gOTero- 
ment  of  the  English  was  universally  detested.  After  a  struggle  of 
many  years,  they  were  at  length,  in  1,450,  deprived  of  all  that  thej 
had  ever  possessed  in  France,  except  Calais  and  Guignes.  Chark*^, 
when  he  had  restored  his  kingdom  to  peace,  governed  it  with  admi- 
rable wisdom  and  moderation. 

5.  The  state  of  England  and  of  France,  the  two  most  poli^»i^f 
kingdoms  in  Europe,  furnishes  a  good  criterion  of  the  coDoition  cf 
society  in  those  ages  of  which  we  have  been  treating.    Even  :* 
the  large  cities  the  houses  were  roofed  with  thatch,  and  had    i« 
chimnies.     Glass  windows   were  extremely  rare,  and  the  floa^ 
were  covered  with  straw.    In  England  wine  was  sold  oolj  vx  fc 
shops  of  the  apothecaries.    Paper  made  from  Imen  rags  was  A^ 
Bdanufactured  in  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  centuij ;  and  thcs^^^ 
of  Unen  for  shirts  was  at  that  time  a  verv  rare  piece  of  Ingfery. 
Tet  even  before  that  a^e  the  progress  of  luxury  bad  exciteilm  «<>- 
rioos  alarm,  for  the  parliament  under  Edward  IIL  found  it  Decffi^mr% 
to  prohibit  the  use  of  gokl  and  silver  in  apparel  to  all  who  bM  t 

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MODEHN  HISTORY  149 

m  mndred  pounds  a  year ;  and  Charles  VI.  of  France  ordained,  that 
ttooe  ahiKila  presome  to  entertain  with  more  than  two  dishes  and  a 
mess  of  soup.  Before  the  reign  of  Edward  1.  the  whole  country  of 
y^Wl^nil  was  plundered  by  robbers  in  great  hands,  who  laid  waste 
entire  Tillages ;  and  some  of  the  household  olBccrs  of  Henry  ill. 
excused  themselves  for  robbing  on  the  highway,  because  the  king 
allowed  them  no  wages.  In  1,:>03  the  a]}bot  and  monks  of  Westmin- 
flter  were  indicted  for  robbing  the  king^s  exchequer,  but  acquitted. 
The  admirable  laws  of  Edward  I.,  wliich  acq^uired  him  the  title  of 
the  English  Justinian,  give  strong  testimony  ot  the  miserable  policy 
and  bamrism  of  the  preceding  times. 


SECTION  XXVI. 

DECLINE  AND  FALL  OF  THE  GREEK  EMPIRE. 

I.  Iff  the  fourteenth  centunjr  the  Turks  were  proceeding  by  de- 
grees to  encroach  on  the  frontiers  of  the  Greek  empire.  The  si^ 
tan  Ottoman  had  tixed  the  seat  of  his  government  at  Byrsa  in  Bi- 
tfaynia ;  and  his  son  Orcan  extended  his  sovereignty  to  the  Propontls, 
aiKl  obtained  in  marriage  the  daughter  of  the  emoeror  John  Uanta- 
cuzi*no6.  About  the  middle  of  the  century  the  1  urks  crossed  over 
into  Europe,  and  took  Adrianoplc.  Tiie  emperor  John  Palsologus, 
afler  meanly  soliciting  aid  from  the  pope,  concluded  a  humiliating 
treatT  with  sultan  Amurat,  and  gave  his  son  as  a  hostage  to  serve  in 
the  Tui^ish  anny. 

ii,  Baiazet,  the  succcsior  of  Amurat,  compelled  the  emperor  to 
destroy  his  fortof  Galata,  and  to  admit  a  Turki'^h  judge  into  the  city. 
He  prepared  now  to  besit  i;e  Constantinople  in  form,  when  ho  was 
forced  to  change  his  purpose,  and  defend  iiini^clf  against  the  victorious 
Tameriiine. 

3.  Timur-bok  or  Tamerlane,  a  prince  of  the  Usbek  Tartars,  and 
descended  from  Gengiskan,  after  the  conquest  of  Pei>ia,  a  great  part 
of  India  and  Syria,  was  invited  by  the  Asiatic  prince«,  enemies  of 
Bajazet,  to  protect  them  against  the  Ottoman  power,  wliich  threaten- 
ed to  overwhelm  them.  Tamerlane,  flattered  by  this  request,  im- 
periously summoned  the  Turk  to  renounce  his  conquests ;  but  the 
message  was  answered  with  a  proud  defiance.  The  armies  met  near 
Aoforta  (Ancyn)  m  Phrvgia,  and  Bajazet  was  totally  defeated  and 
Bnde  prisoner  by  Tamerlane,  1,402.  The  conqueror  made  Samar- 
caod  iae  capital  of  his  empire,  and  there  received  the  homage  of  all 
the  princes  of  the  east.  Tamerlane  was  illiterate,  but  yet  was  solici- 
tloui  for  the  cultivation  of  literature  and  science  in  his  dominions. 
Samarcand  became  for  a  while  the  seat  of  learning,  politeness,  and 
the  arts ;  hot  was  destined  to  relapse,  Jil'ter  a  short  i>eriod,  into  its 
ancient  bartKirism. 

4.  The  Turks,  after  the  death  of  Tamerlane,  resumed  their  pur- 
jume  of  destroying  the  empire  of  tlie  east  Amurat  11.,  a  pruice  ot' 
»iqgu2ar  character,  had.  on  the  faitii  of  a  solemn  treaty  with  the 
king  of  Poland,  devoted  his  days  to  retirement  and  study.  A  viola- 
ttoQof  the  trealT,  by  an  attack  from  the  Poles  on  his  domm ions,  made 
hkn  quit  his  solituae.  He  engaged  and  destroyed  the  Polish  army, 
witli  their  pertidlous  sovereign^  and  tlien  calmly  returned  to  his  re- 

ftt^  till  a  similar  crisis  of  public  expediency  once  more  brought 
I  mto  active  life.    He  left  his  dominioDS  to  hig  son  Mahomet ll.. 

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160  MODERN  HISTORT. 

•umamed  the  great,  who  resumed  the  project  for  the  destroctioD  of 
CooyBtantiDople ;  but  its  fall  was  a  secona  time  retarded  by  the  neces- 
mty  in  which  the  Turks  were  unexpectedly  placed,  of  defending 
their  own  dominions  against  a  powerful  invader. 

5.  Scanderbeg  (John  Castriot)  prince  of  Albania,  whose  territories 
had  been  seized  by  Amurat  I^  was  educated  by  the  sultan  as  his 
own  childj  and  when  of  age,  intrusted  with  the  command  of  an 
army,  which  he  employed  in  wrestine  from  Amurat  his  paternal 
kingdom,  1,443.  By  great  talents  andmilitarv  skill  he  mamtained 
his  independent  sovereignty  against  the  whole  Force  of  the  Turkish 
empire. 

6.  Mahomet  II.,  son  of  the  philosophic  Amurat^  a  jouth  of  twen- 
ty-one years  of  age,  resumea  the  plan  of  extinguishing  the  empire 
of  the  Greeks,  and  making  Constantinople  the  capital  of  the  Otto- 
man power.  Its  indolent  mhabitants  made  but  a  feeble  preparation 
for  defence,  and  the  powers  of  Europe  looked  on  with  supine  indif- 
ference. The  Turks  assailed  the  city  both  by  land  and  sea;  and, 
battering  down  its  walls  with  their  cannon,  entered  sword  in  hand, 
and  massacred  all  who  opposed  them.  The  emperor  Constantine 
was  slain ;  the  city  surrendered ;  and  thus  was  finally  extinguished 
the  eastern  empire  of  the  Romans,  A.  D.  1,453,  wnich,  from  the 
building  of  its  capital  by  Constantine  the  great,  had  subsisted  1,123 
years.  The  imperial  edifices  were  preserved  firom  destmctioo. 
The  churches  were  converted  into  mosques;  but  the  exercise  of 
their  religion  was  allowed  to  all  the  christians.  From  that  time  the 
Greek  christians  have  reeulariy  chosen  their  own  patriarch,  whom 
the  sultan  instals:  though  his  authority  continues  to  be  disputed  by 
the  Latin  patriarch,  who  is  chosen  by  the  pope.  Mahomet  the  great 
liberally  patronized  the  arts  and  sciences ;  and,  to  compensate  for 
the  migration  of  those  learned  Greeks,  who,  on  the  fall  of  the  empire, 
spread  themselves  over  the  countries  of  Europe,  invited  both  artists 
and  men  of  letters  to  his  capital  from  other  kingdoms. 

7.  The  taking  of  Constantmople  was  followed  by  the  conquest  of 
Greece  and  Epirus.  Italy  might  probably  have  met  a  similar  fate,  but 
by  means  of  their  fleet  the  Venetians  opposed  the  arms  of  Mahomet 
with  considerable  success,  and  even  attacked  him  in  Greece.  The 
contending  powers  soon  alter  put  an  end  to  hostilities  by  a  treaty. 
Mahomet  the  great  died  at  the  age  of  fifly-one,  1,481. 


SECTION  XXVIl. 

GOVERNMENT  AND  POLICY  OF  THE  TURKISH  EMPIRE. 

1  The  eovemment  of  Turkey  is  an  absolute  monarchy,  tlie 
whole  legislative  and  executive  authority  of  the  state  centeruig  in 
the  sultan,  whose  power  is  subject  to  no  constitutional  control  It  is^ 
however,  limited  m  some  degree  by  religious  opinion;  the  precepte 
of  the  Coran  inculcating  certain  duties  on  the  sovereign,  which  R 
wodd  be  held  an  impiety  to  transgress.  It  is  yet  more  strongly  limit- 
ed by  the  fear  of  deposition  and  assassination.  Under  these  restraiata 
the  prince  can  seldom  venture  on  an  extreme  abuse  of  power. 

2,  The  spirit  of  the  people  is  fitted  for  a  sulnection  bordering  on 
slavery.  Concubinage  being  agreeable  to  the  law  of  Mahomet^  the 
grand  seignior,  the  viziers,  are  t>om  of  female  slaves :  and  there  is 
■carcely  a  suligect  of  the  empire  of  ingenuous  blood  by  both  paienta. 

t  Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ODERN  HISTORY.  151 

It  Ib  m  finaamental  maxim  of  the  Turkish  policy,  that  all  the  officem 
cf  state  dionld  be  soch  as  the  sultan  can  entirely  command,  and  at 
toy  time  destroT,  without  danirer  to  himself. 

3.  The  grand  vizier  is  usually  entrusted  with  the  whole  functions 
of  government,  and  of  course  subjected  to  the  sole  responsibility  for 
aU  public  measures.  Subordinate  to  him  are  six  viziers  of  the  bench, 
who  are  his  counsel  and  assessors  in  cases  of  law,  of  which  he  is 
npceme  judge.  The  power  of  the  grand  vizier  is  absolute*,  over  all 
the  ratals  of  the  empire ;  but  he  cannot  put  to  death  a  be^ler- 
beg  or  a  bashaw  without  the  imperial  signature ;  nor  punish  a  nni- 
sary,  unless  through  the  medium  of  his  military  comman<^er.  The 
tie^rbegs  are  the  governors  of  several  provinces,  the  bishaws  of 
a  smcle  province.  All  dignities  in  the  Tukish  empire  are  personal, 
and  cKpeiident  on  the  sovereign's  pleasure. 

4.  llie  revenues  of  the  grand  seignior  arise  from  taxes  and  cus- 
toiDB  laid  on  the  subject,  annual  tributes  paid  by  the  Tartars,  stated 
giAs  from  the  governors  of  the  provinces,  and,  above  all,  the  contis- 
cations  of  estates,  from  the  viziers  and  oashaws  downwards  to  the 
lowest  sufajects  of  the  empire.  The  certain  and  fixed  revemies  ot 
the  sovereign  are  small  in  comparison  of  those  which  are  arbitrary. 
His  absolute  power  enables  him  to  execute  great  projects  at  a  amall 
expense. 


SECTION  XXVIIL 

FRANCE  AND    ITALY   IN    THE    END  OF   THE   FIFTEENTH 
CENTURY. 

1.  Scarcely  any  vestige  of  the  ancient  feudal  government  now 
remained  in  France.  The  onlv  subsisting  fie&  were  Burgundy  and 
Brittany.  Charles  the  bold,  duke  of  Burgundy,  who  sought  to  in- 
—  aae  his  territories  by  the  conquest  of  Switzerland  and  Lorraine. 
I  defeated  by  the  Swiss,  and  killed  in  battle.    He  lefl  no  son,  and 


Lewis  XI.  of  France  toolk  possession  of  Bui^undy  as  a  male  &e{^ 
lyl47.  The  duke's  dauchter  married  Maximilian,  son  of  the  empe- 
ror Frederick  IIL.  who,  oy  this  marriage,  acquired  the  sovereignty 
of  the  Netheriano. 

2.  The  a<x[uisitioD  of  Burgundy  and  of  Provence,  which  was  be- 
queathed to  Fiance  by  the  count  ae  laMarche,  increased  very  ereat- 
iy  the  power  of  the  crown.  Lewis  XI.,  an  odious  compound  of  vice, 
craelty,  and  superstition,  and  a  tyrant  to  his  people,  was  the  author 
of  many  wise  and  excellent  regulations  of  public  policy.  The  bar- 
barity of  the  jmbUc  executions  m  his  reign  is  hejoad  all  belief,-  yet 
the  wisdom  or  his  laws,  the  encouragement  which  he  gave  to  com- 
msfoe,  the  restraints  which  he  imposed  on  the  oppressions  of  the 
ocitfyty,  and  the  attention  which  he  bestowed  in  regulating  the  courts 
of  Jartice,  must  ever  be  mentioned  to  his  honour. 

i.  The  count  de  la  Marche,  beside  the  bequest  of  Provence  to 
L4rwk  XL,  left  him  hii  empty  title  of  sovereign  of  the  Two  Sicilies. 
Lewis  was  satisfied  with  the  substantial  gift:  but  his  son  Chariea 
VUL  was  dazzled  with  the  shadow.    In  Uie  beginning  of  his  rei^ 

ind  embarked  in  the  enterprise 


he  projected  the  C0Dq|iie8t  of  Naples,  and  embarked  in  the  enterprise 
mm  the  most  improvident  precipitancy. 
4.  The  dismembered  state  of^Ualy  was  favounhle  to  his  view*. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


IbL  MODERN  HISTORY 

The  popedoni,  during  the  transfereDce  of  its  seat  to  AvignoB,  had 
lost  many  of  its  territories.  Mantua,  Modena^  and  Ferrara,  nad  their 
independent  sovereiens.  Piedmont  beioneed  to  the  duke  of  Sayoy ; 
Genoa  and  Milan  to  the  family  of  Sforza.  rlorence,  under  the  Medi- 
cL  had  attained  a  very  high  pitch  of  splendour.  Cosmo,  the  founder 
of  that  family,  employed  a  vast  fortune,  acquired  by  commerce*  in 
the  improvement  of  his  country,  in  acts  of  public  munificence,  ana  in 
the  cultivation  of  the  sciences  and  elegant  arts.  His  high  reputation 
obtained  for  himself  and  his  posterity  the  chief  authority  in  his  native 
state.  Peter  de  Medici,  his  great  grandson,  ruled  in  Florence  at  the 
period  of  the  expedition  of  Charles  Vill.  into  Itily. 

5.  The  papacy  was  enjoyed  at  this  time  by  Alexander  VL,  a  mon- 
ster of  wickedness.  The  pope  and  the  duke  of  Milan,  who  baa  invited 
Charles  to  this  enterpiise,  immediately  betrayed  him,  and  joined  the 
interest  of  the  king  of  Naples.  Chturies,  alter  besieging  the  pope  in 
Rome,  and  forcing  him  to  submission,  devoutly  kissed  his  feet.  He 
now  marched  against  Naples,  while  its  timid  prince  Alphonso  fled  to 
Sicily,  and  his  son  to  the  isle  of  Ischia,  after  absolving  his  subjects 
from  their  allegiance.  Charles  entered  Naples  in  triumph,  and  was 
hailed  emperor  and  Augustus:  but  he  lost  his  new  kingdom  in  almost 
as  short  a  time  as  he  ^ad  gained  it  A  league  was  Tormed  against 
France  between  the  pope,  the  emperor  Maximilian,  Ferdinand  of  Ar- 
ragon,  Isabella  of  Castile,  and  the  Venetians ;  and  on  the  return  of 
Charles  to  France,  the  troops  which  he  had  left  to  guard  his  conquest 
were  entirely  driven  out  of  Italy, 

6.  It  has  been  remarked  that,  from  the  decisive  effect  of  this  con- 
federacy against  Charles  Vlll.,  the  sovereigns  of  Europe  derived  a 
iiseful  lesson  of  policy,  and  first  adopted  the  idea  of  preserving  a  bal- 
ance of  power,  by  that  ti\cit  league  which  is  understood  to  be  always 
subsisting,  for  the  prevention  of  the  inordinate  aggrandizement  of  any 
particular  state. 

7.  Charles  VIII.  died  at  the  age  of  twenty-eight,  1,498 ;  and,  leav- 
faig  no  children,  the  duke  of  Orleans  succeeded  to  the  throne  of 
France  by  the  title  of  Lewis  XII. 


SECTION  XXIX. 

HierORY  OF  SPAIN  IN   THE  FOURTEENTH  AND   FIFTEENTH 
CENTURIES. 

1.  We  CO  back  a  little  to  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century,  to 
trace  the  nistory  of  Spain.  Peter  of  Castile,  sumamed  the  cruel,  for 
BO  other  reason  but  that  he  employed  severe  means  to  support  his 
just  rights,  had  to  contend  against  a  bastard  brother,  Henry  of  Trans- 
tamarre,  who,  with  the  aid  of  a  French  banditti,  called  Malandrios, 
led  by  Bertrand  du  Guesclin,  strove  to  dispossess  him  of  his  kingdom. 
Peter  was  aided  by  Edward  the  black  prince,  then  sovereign  of  Gui- 
enne,  who  defeated  Transtamarre,  and  took  Bertrand  prisoner;  but^ 
OD  the  return  of  the  prince  to  England,  Peter  was  attacked  by  hii 
Ibrmer  enemies,  and  entirely  defeated.  Unable  to  restrain  his  ra^ 
In  the  first  view  with  Transtamarre,  the  latter  put  him  to  deatli  wi 
his  own  hand,  1,368 ;  and  thus  this  usurper  secured  for  himself  aid 
Us  posterity  the  tlirone  of  Castile. 

2.  The  weakness  and  debauchery  of  one  of  his  descendants,  Htii- 
ly  IV.  of  Castile,  occasioned  a  revolution  in  the  kingdom.    The  9^ 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MOJ)£RN  HISTORY.  153 

jDritT  of  the  nation  rose  in  rebellion ,  the  assembly  of  the  nobles  sol- 
emnly deposed  their  king,  and,  on  the  alleged  ground  of  his  dauf;hter 
Joanna  being  a  bastard,  compelled  him  to  settle  the  crown  on  his  sis- 
ter  Isabelitu  They  next  brought  about  a  marriage  between  Isabella 
and  Ferdinand  of  Arragon,  which  united  the  monarchies  of  Arragon 
and  Castile.  After  a  ruinous  civil  war  the  revolution  was  at  length 
completed  by  the  death  of  the  deposed  sovereign,  1,474,  and  the  re- 
tirement  of  his  daughter  Joanna  to  a  monastery,  1,479. 

S.  At  the  accession  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  to  the  thrones  of  Ar- 
ragoo  and  Castile,  Spain  was  in  a  state  of  great  disorder,  ironi  the 
lawless  depredations  of  the  nobles  and  their  vassals.  It  was  the  first 
obiect  of  the  new  sovereigns  to  repress  these  enormities,  by  subject 
ine  the  offenders  to  the  utmost  rigour  of  law,  enforced  by  the  sword. 
Tne  holy  brotherhood  was  instituted  for  the  discovers  and  punishment 
of  crimes ;  and  the  inauisition  (Sect  XIX,  6  3),  under  the  pretext  of 
extirpating  heresy  and  impiety,  afforded  the  most  detestable  exam- 
ples of  sanguinary  persecution. 

4.  The  Sloorisn  kingdom  of  Granada,  a  most  splendid  monarchy. 
bat  at  that  time  weakened  by  faction,  and  a  prey  to  civil  war,  offeree 
a  templing  object  to  the  ambition  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  Alboa- 
cen  was  at  war  with  his  nephew  Aboabdeli.  who  wanted  to  dethrone 
him ;  and  Ferdinand  aided  Aboabdeli,  in  tne  view  of  riiining  both ; 
for  no  sooner  was  the  latter  in  possession  of  the  crown  by  the  death 
of  Alboacen,  than  Ferdinimd  invaded  his  ally  with  the  whole  force  ot 
Arragon  juid  Castile.  Granada  was  bes^ie^ed  in  1,491,  and,  auer  a 
hiocl^de  of  eight  raontlis,  surrendered  to  the  victor.  Aboabdeli,  by 
a  mean  capitulation,  saved  his  iiie,  and  purchased  a  retreat  Tor  hk 
countrymen  to  a  mountainous  part  of  ihe  kinj^dom,  where  they  were 
5ii£lered  to  enjoy  unmolested  their  laws  and  their  religion.  Thus 
ended  the  dominion  of  the  Moors  in  Spain,  which  had  subbi^ted  for 
£00  years. 

o.  Ferdinand,  from  that  period,  took  the  title  of  king  of  Spain,  (n 
1,492  he  expelled  all  the  Jews  from  his  dominions,  on  the  absurd 
ground,  that  (hey  kept  in  their  hands  the  commerce  of  the  kingdom ; 
and  Spain  thus  lost  above  150,000  of  the  most  industrious  of  her  in- 
litibitants.  The  exiles  spread  themselves  over  the  other  kingdoms  ot 
Europe,  and  were  ot'ion  the  victims  ot^a  persecution  equally  inhuman. 
It  wouM  appear  that  Spain  has  felt,  even  to  the  present  times,  the  ef- 
Icctft  of  thiM  folly,  in  tlie  slow  progress  «f  the  arts,  and  that  deplora- 
ble inactivity  wnich  b  the  characteristic  of  her  people.  Even  the 
discovery  ol  the  new  world,  which  happened  at  this  very  period,  and 
which  stimukitcd  the  spirit  of  enterprise  and  industry  in  all  the  neigh- 
booring  kingdoms,  produced  but  a  leeble  impression  on  that  nation, 
which  might  in  a  great  degree  have  monopolized  its  benefits.  Of 
that  great  discovery  we  shall  aften\'ards  treat  in  a  separate  section 


SECTION  XXX. 

FRASCE,  SPAIN,  AND   ITALY,    IN   THE  END   OF  THE   TIT' 
TCENTH  AND  BEGINNING  OF  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY. 

L  Lcms  XH,  eagerly  bent  on  vindicating  his  right  to  Naples, 
covtcd  the  interest  of  pope  Alexander  VI.,  who  promised  his  aid  on 
ttoodifioD  that  hii  natural  son,  Cxsar  Borgia,  should  receive  from 
Lewis  the  duchy  of  Valentinois,  with  the  kmg  of  Navane^s  sister  ia 

Digitized  byXOOOgie 


1&4  MODERN  HISTORY 

marriage.  Lewis  crossed  the  Alp&  and  in  the  space  of  a  few  dayi 
was  master  of  Milan  and  Genoa.  Sforza  duke  or  Milan  htcmae  his 
prisoner  for  life.  Afraid  of  the  power  of  Ferdinand  of  Spain,  Lewis 
joined  with  him  in  the  conquest  of  Naples,  and  agreed  to  divide 
with  him  the  conquered  dommions,  the  pope  making  no  scrapie  to 
sanction  the  partition.  But  the  compromise  was  of  no  duration ; 
for  Alexander  VL,  and  Ferdinand,  judging  it  a  better  policy  to  share 
Italy  between  themselves,  united  their  interest  to  deprive  Lewis 
of  ois  new  territories.  The  Spaniards,  under  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova, 
defeated  the  French,  under  the  duke  de  P^emours  and  the  dievalier 
Bayard ;  and  Lewis  irrecoverably  lost  his  share  of  the  kingdom  of 
Naples. 

2.  Histoiy  relates  with  horror  the  crimes  of  pope  Alexander  V^ 
and  his  son  Caesar  Borgia;  their  murders,  robberies,  profiuiations* 
incests.  They  compassed  their  ends  in  attaining  every  object  of 
their  ambition,  but  with  the  universal  abhorrence  of  mankind,  and 
linallv  met  witli  an  ample  retribution  for  their  crimes.  The  pope 
died  by  poison,  prepared,  as  was  alleged,  by  himself  for  an  enemy ; 
and  Borgia,  stripped  of  all  his  possessions  by  pope  Julius  IL,  and  sent 
prisoner  to  Spain  by  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova,  perished  in  miserable 
obscurity. 

3.  Juuus  IL,  the  successor  of  Alexander,  projected  the  formidable 
league  of  Cambray,  1^508,  with  the  emperor,  the  kings  of  Fkvnce 
and  Spain,  the  duke  oi  Savoy,  and  king  of  Hungary,  for  the  destriK- 
tion  of  Venice,  and  the  division  of  her  territories  amone  the  confed- 
erates. They  accomplished  in  pari  their  design,  and  Venice  was  on 
the  verge  of  annihilation,  when  the  pope  changed  his  politics. 
Having  made  the  French  subservient  to  nis  views  of  plundering  the 
Venetians,  he  now  formed  a  new  league  with  the  Venetians,  Ger- 
mans, and  Spaniards,  to  expel  the  French  from  Italy,  and  appropriate 
all  their  conquests.  The  bwiss  and  the  English  oo-operated  in  this 
design.  The  French  made  a  brave  resistance  under  their  generals 
Bayard  and  Gaston  de  Foix,  but  were  finally  overpowered.  Lewis 
was  compelled  to  evacuate  Italy ;  Ferdinand,  with  the  aid  of  Henry 
VIII.  of  England,  stripped  him  of  Navarre,  and  forced  him  to  pur- 
chase a  peace.  He  died  in  1,515.  Though  unfortunate  in  his  milita- 
ry enterprises,  from  the  superior  abilities  of  his  rivals  pope  Julius 
and  Ferdinand,  yet  he  was  justly  esteemed  by  his  subject  for  the 
wisdom  and  equity  of  his  goveinment. 


SECTION  XXXI. 

HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND  FROM  THE  MIDDLE  OF  THE 
FIFTEENTH  TO  THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  SIXTEENTH 
CENTURY.    CIVIL  WARS  OF  YORK  AND  LANCASTER. 

L  We  have  seen  France  recovered  from  the  English  in  the  early 
part  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.,  by  the  talents  and  prowess  of  Charlef 
VIII.  During  the  minority  of  Henry,  who  was  a  prince  of  no  capa- 
city, England  was  embroiled  by  the  factious  contention  for  power 
between  his  uncles,  the  duke  of  Gloucester  and  the  cardinal  of  Wm- 
Chester.  The  latter,  to  promote  his  own  views  of  ambition,  married 
Henry  to  Margaret  of  Ai\|ou,  daughter  of  Regner  the  titular  kinaof 
"^"xiles,  a  woman  of  great  mental  endowmeg^.^^fjd^sifygta'  her«Mn 


MODERN  HISTORY.  155 

ol  character,  bat  whose  severity  in  the  persecution  of  her  enemies 
alieoated  a  great  part  of  Uie  nobles  from  their  allegiance,  and  in- 
creased the  partisans  of  a  rival  claimant  of  the  crown. 

2.  Thh  was  Richard  duke  of  York,  descended  by  his  mother  from 
Liooel,  second  son  of  Edward  UL,  and  elder  brother  to  John  of  Gaunt, 
the  progenitor  of  Henry  VI.  The  white  rose  distinguished  the  fac- 
tion of  I  ork,  and  the  red  rose  that  of  Lancaster.  The  party  of 
York  gained  much  strength  from  the  incapacity  of  Henry,  who  was 
sublect  to  periodical  madness ;  and  Richard  was  appointed  lieutenant 
and  protector  of  the  kingdom.  The  authority  oT  Henry  was  now 
annihilated;  but  Margaret  roused  her  husband,  in  an  interval  oi 
sanity,  to  assert  his  right;  and  the  nation  was  divided  in  arms  be- 
tween the  rival  parties.  In  the  battle  of  St  Albans  5,000  of  the 
Lancastrians  were  slain,  and  the  king  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  duke 
q(  York,  on  the  22d  day  of  May,  1,455.  Yet  the  parliament,  while 
it  confirmed  the  authonty  of  the  protector,  maintamed  its  allegiance 
to  the  king. 

3.  The  spirit  of  the  queen  reanimated  the  royal  partv ;  and  the 
Lancastrians  gained  such  advantage,  that  the  duke  of  York  iled  to 
Iceland,  while  his  cause  was  secretlv  maintained  in  EngLiod  bv  Guv 
earf  of  Warwick.  In  the  battle  of  ^Northampton  the  party  of  York 
again  prevailed,  and  Henry  once  more  was  broueht  prisoner  to  Lon-* 
don :  while  his  dauntless  queen  still  nobly  exerted  herself  to  retrieve 
bis  lortDnes.  York  now  claimed  the  crown  in  open  parliament,  but 
prevailed  only  to  have  his  right  of  succession  ascertained  on  Henry's 
deatlu  to  the  exclusion  of  the  royal  issue. 

4.  m  the  next  battle  the  duke  of  York  was  slain,  and  his  party  de- 
feated ;  but  his  successor  Edward,  supported  by  Warwick,  avenged 
this  disaster  by  a  signal  victory  near  Touton,  in  Yorltshire,  in 
which  40^000  of  the  Lancastrians  were  slain.  York  was  proclaimed 
king  by  tne  title  of  Edward  IV.,  while  Margaret,  with  her  dethroned 
fauwaod  and  infiint  son,  fled  into  Flanders. 

5.  Edward,  who  owed  his  crown  to  Warwick,  was  ungrateful 
to  his  benefactor;  and  the  imprudence  and  injustice  of  his  conduct 
forced  that  nobleman  at  length  to  take  part  with  the  faction  of  Lan- 
caster. Tho  conseauence  was,  that,  after  some  struggles.  Edward 
was  deposed,  and  Henry  VI.  once  more  restored  to  the  throne  by 
the  hands  of  Warwick,  now  known  by  the  epithet  of  the  king-maker 
bat  this  change  was  of  no  duration.  The  party  of  York  ultimately 
prerailed.  1  he  Lancastrians  were  defeated  in  the  battle  of  Biimet, 
and  the  brave  Warwk^k  was  slain  in  the  en{;agcment,  1,472. 

6.  The  intrepid  Rhu-garet,  whose  spirit  was  superior  to  every 
rhofi^  ci  fortune,  prepared  to  strike  a  last  blow  for  the  crown  of 
(England  in  the  battle  of  Tewksburv.  The  event  was  fatal  to  her 
hopes :  victorv  decVred  for  Edward.  Margaret  was  sent  prisoner  to 
the  tower  of  London ;  and  the  prince  her  son,  a  youth  of  high  spirit. 
when  brought  into  the  presence  of  his  conqueror,  having  noblv  darea 
to  jostify  his  enterprise  to  the  face  of  his  rival,  was  Imrbarousfy  mur- 
ciened  uy  the  dokes  of  Gloucester  and  Clarence,  Henry  VL  was 
$OQO  aAer  privately  pot  to  death  in  the  Tower.  The  heroic  Margarc  t^ 
rantooied  by  Lewis  XL,  died  in  France,  1,482. 

7.  Edward  IV.,  thus  secured  on  the  throne  by  the  death  of  all  his 
competitors,  abandoned  himself  without  reserve  to  the  uidulgence  of 
a  vickras  and  tyrannical  nature.  He  put  to  death,  on  the  most  frivo- 
loua  pretence,  nis  brother  Clarence.  Preparing  to  gratify  his  subjects 
by  a  w«r  with  France,  he  died  aaddenly  in  tl^^  Jp^;S(3?5ggiyear  ol 


tB6  MODERN  HISTORY. 

his  age,  poisoned,  as  was  suspected,  by  his  brother  Richard  duke  of 
Gloucester,  1,483. 

8.  Edward  left  two  sons,  the  elder,  Edward  V.,  a  boy  of  thirteen 
years  of  age.  Richard  duke  of  Gloucester,  named  protector  in  the 
minority  of  his  nephew,  hired,  bv  means  of  Buckingham,  a  mob  of 
the  dregs  of  the  populace  to  declare  their  wish  for  his  assumption 
of  the  crown.  He  yielded,  with  affected  reluctance,  to  this  voice  of 
the  nation,  and  was  pi-oclaimed  king  by  the  title  of  Richard  III.,  1.483. 
Edward  v.,  after  a  reign  of  two  monins,  with  his  brotlier  the  duke 
of  York,  were,  by  conmiand  of  the  usurper,  smothered  while  asleep, 
and  privately  buried  in  the  Tower. 

9.  These  atrocious  crimes  found  an  avenger  in  Henry  earl  of 
Richmond,  the  surviving  heir  of  the  house  of  Lancaster,  who,  aided 
by  Charles  VIll.  of  France,  landed  in  England,  and  revived  the  spirits 
of  a  party  almost  extinguished  in  the  kingdom.  He  gave  battle  to 
Richard  m  the  field  of  l^osworth,  and  entirely  defeated  the  army  of 
the  usurper,  who  was  slain  while  fighting  with  tlie  most  desperate 
courage,  August  22, 1.485.  The  crown  which  he  wore  in  the  engaee- 
ment  was  immediately  placed  on  the  head  of  the  conqueror.  This 
auspicious  day  put  an  end  to  the  civil  wars  of  York  and  Lancaster. 
Henry  Vll.  united  the  rights  of  both  families  by  his  marriage  with 
Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Edward  IV. 

10.  The  reign  of  Henry  VII.  was  of  twenty-four  years'  duration; 
and  under  his  wise  and  politic  government  the  Idngdom  recovered 
all  the  wounds  which  it  had  sustained  in  those  unhappy  contests. 
Industry,  good  order,  and  perfect  subordination,  were  the  fruit  of  the 
excellent  Taws  passed  in  thw  reign  ;  though  the  temper  of  the  sove- 
reign was  despotic,  and  }»is  avarice,  in  the  latter  part  of  his  reign, 
prompted  to  the  most  oppressive  exactions. 

H.  The  government  of  Henry  was  disturbed  by  two  very  singular 
enterprises;  the  attempt  of  Lambert  Simnel,  the  son  of  a' baker,  to 
counterfeit  the  pci-son  of  the  earl  of  Warwick,  son  of  the  duke  of 
Clarence;  and  tne  similar  attempt  of  Perkin  Warbeck,  son  of  a 
flemish  Jew,  to  counterfeit  the  duke  of  York,  who  had  been  smother- 
ed in  the  Tower  by  Richard  111.  Both  impostors  found  considerable 
support,  but  were  finally  defeated.  Simnel,  after  being  crowned 
king  of  Knfi;land  and  Ireland  at  Dublin,  ended  his  days  in  a  menial 
oftice  of  Henry's  household.  Perkin  supported  his  cause  by  force 
of  arms  for  five  years,  and  was  aided  by  a  great  proportion  of  the 
English  nobility.  Overpowered  at  length  he  surrendered  to  Henry, 
who  condemned  him  to  perpetual  imprisonment;  but  his  ambitious 
spirit  meditated  a  new  insurrection,  and  he  was  put  to  death  as  il 
traitor,  Henry  VII.  died  in  1,509,  in  the  filly-third  year  of  his  age, 
and  the  twenty-fourth  of  his  reign. 


SECTION  xxxn. 

HISTORY  OF  SCOTLAND  FROM  THE  MIDDLE  OF  THJ 
FOURTEENTH  CENTURY  TO  THE  END  OF  THE  REIGN  Of 
JAMES  V. 

1.  Ill  no  country  of  Europe  had  the  feudal  aristocracy  attajoed  to 
a  i^reater  height  Uiaa  in  Scotland.  The  power  of  the  greater 
iMiroDSf  while  It  rendered  them  independent,  and  often  the  rirals 


MODEKJN  mSTORY  157 

f  iheir  foverelpL  was  a  perpetual  source  of  turbulence  and  dU- 
.'-vr  10  the  kingdom.  It  was  therefore  a  constant  policy  of  the 
>•  M.-h  kia^s  to  humble  the  nobles,  and  break  their  factious  com- 
.  .^■.rrA  Kubeft  1.  Attempted  to  retrench  the  vast  territorial  po»- 
•  -.  'i*  o(  his  barons,  by  requirinc;  every  landholder  to  produce  the 

•  r(  hi<  c:-tatc;  but  was  resolutely  answered,  that  the  sword  was 
.  • .:  <:h.nti'r  of  possession* 
:.  *hi  tiie  death  of  Hubert  in  1,329,  and  during  the  minority  oi 

-«  iKivid,  Edward  Baliol,  the  son  of  John  formerly  king  o^ 
^  .  .L  Hiih  the  aid  of  Edward  Hi.  of  £n inland,  and  of  many  oi 
.  . » i.  ■>  baroii-',  invaded  the  kingdom,  and  was  crowned  at  Scone, 
<* ..  '•  I  p-  >«"ia»  i)a\id  was  conveyed  for  security  to  France.  The 
T .  I  .i  !i.'j  iunce  of  Baliol  on  tiie  Ent^li^h  monarch  deprived  him  of 
A    I'M*  of  the  people.    Kohert,  the  sti^ward  of  hicotlaud,  Kan- 

■..  .y.t.\  Duiiijlas,  supported  the  iJruciiUi  interest^  and,  assisted  by 
• » -'.d'^u  rc^Lorod  iJavid  to  his  throne.     This  prince  was  destined 

.•  -I.  I  at  my  re\  crses  of  fortune ;  for,  in  a  subsequent  invasion  ol 

i.  Z."h  tf-rrilory  by  the  Scots,  he  was  taken  prisoner  in  the  hat- 

•    •:  iM'lnm,  and  conveyed  to  London.      He   remained  eleven 

»'  >  ui  cij/n  il> ,  and  witnessed  a  similar  fate  of  a  brother  monarch, 

.  i  k.i'Mi  iraiice.  taken  prisoner  by  the  black  prince  in  tiie  battle 

!'  •■u»*r<,     David  was  ninsomed  by  his  subjects,  and  rcstore<l  tu 

*  k.i€-  mi  in  K:5o7  ;  and  ended  a  turbulent  reit;n  in  1,370-1.    The 
•'i  utrH'd  at  his  demise  to  his  nephew  Robert,  the  high  steward 

•  *    •   i/L  m  virtii*»  of  a  destination  made  by  Robert  I, 

'  lur-  rei»n  ot  Robert  11.,  which  was  of  twenty  years'  duration, 
*-*  •p»'t»i  iu  a  senes  of  hostilities  between  the  bcots  and  English, 
r  Oi- :*!»»  of  no  material  consequence  to  either  kingdom.     The 

•  »  kjij  in.lnU*nt  di-«posiuon  of  his  successor  Robert  UL,  who  found 
•rrU  u'wqual  to  the  conle«»t  *vilh  his  factious  nobles,  preempted 

u>  n-'i  »n  llie  govenmient  to  his  brother,  the  duke  of  Albany. 
'-  -•  <ai''i:MiH  mnn  formed  the  de-ii;n  of  u^un>ing  the  throne  by  the 
'•  '  Wt  \.\  hn  ui'phews  tlie  sous  of  Robert.  The  elder,  Rotlisay.  a 
.'..•i»<:<  hiirh  spirit,  was  inipriv)ned  on  pietence  of  treasonable  ae- 

•  --,  ui\  -Lirved  to  death.    The  younger,  James,  escaped  a  similar 

•  h.  h  w.is  iiiteniied  tor  him;   but  oa  his  passige  to  France, 

•  .   J*  rlie  was  sent  lor  Siifety  by  his  lather,  he  Wiis  taken  by  an£ng- 
■ »'  ;|>  o(  W'lr,  and  hrou^ht  pri-ioner  to  Eoiidon.    The  weiik  Robert 

':  4  miiVfr  tikc'^  mialbrtunes,  and  died,  1,10j,  after  a  reign  of  hiUea 

i  iumH  l^  a  prince  of  great  natural  endowmenW^  pro6ted  by  » 
»  ty  of  ei^hti-en  yean*  at  tJie  ro!u*t  of  England,  m  adorning  Ym 
'  '*  with  e\ery  valuable  accompltHliment.  At  his  return  to  hk 
t  f'4Eu  which  in  hb*  alwenre  had  l»een  weakly  governed  by  the 
^'.  \  AllMny,  and  sufliTed  under  all  the  disonlers  of  anarchy^  he 
>  :^  whole  attention  to  the  improvement  and  civilization  of  hit 
f"  .  '^  bT  tiie  enactment  of  many  excellent  law^  entbrced  with  a 
« lie  auliiority.    The  factions  of  the  nobles,  their  dangerous  com- 

••'vAs  aod  liieir  domineering  tymimy  over  tJieir  dependoalf,  the 
r  •  ii  ioQrc<.'«  of  the  people's  miseries,  were  tirmly  restrained,  aoi 

•  "i  tererely  pontikhtnL    Hut  tiiese  wholes(*me  iiuiovationi,  white 
T  procured  to  Jamc«  the  afTections  of  the  nation  at  large,  ezciled 

^'  %*iit«i  of  the  oobility,  and  cave  birth  to  a  coa^tpiracy.  headed 
•r  tktearl  of  Atbole,  the  king^s  uncle,  which  terminated  fai  tba 
'-.'tier  of  thte  exccUeiit  prince,  in  the  44th  year  of  his  ace»  A.  IX 

Ni*7.  Digitized  by  ^OOgie 


^PilyW 


Ib8  MODERI^  HISTORT. 

5.  His  son  James  II.  Inherited  a  considerable  portion  of  the  talents 
of  his  iather;  and,  m  the  like  purpose  of  restnuning  the  inordinate 
power  of  his  nobles,  pursued  the  same  maxims  of  goremmentf  which 
an  impetuous  temper  prompted  him«  in  some  instances,  to  cany  to 
the  most  blameabie  excess.  The  earl  of  Douglas,  trusting  to  a  pow- 
erful vassalage,  had  assimied  an  authority  above  the  laws,  and  a  state 
and  splendoi|r  rival  to  those  of  his  sovereif;n.  He  was  seized,  and 
beheaded  without  accusation  or  trial.  His  successor  imprudently 
running  the  same  career,  and  boldly  justifying,  in  a  conference,  his 
rebellious  practices,  was  put  to  death  by  the  klng^s  own  hand.  Thas 
were  the  factions  of  the  nobles  quelled  by  a  barbarous  rigour  ot 
authority.  To  his  people  James  was  beneficent  and  humane,  and 
his  laws  contributed  materially  to  their  civilization  and  prosperity. 
He  was  killed,  in  the  30th  year  of  his  age,  bythe  bm^stlng  of  a  can- 
non, in  besieging  the  castle  of  Roxburgh,  A.  D.  1.460. 

6.  His  son  James  111.,  without  the  talents  of  his  predecessors, 
affected  to  tread  in  the  same  steps.  To  humble  his  nobles  he  be- 
stowed his  confidence  on  mean  ravourites,  an  insult  which  the  for- 
mer avenged  by  rebellion.  His  brothers  Albany  and  Mar,  aided 
by  Edward  IV.  of  England,  attempted  a  revolution  in  the  idngdoiii, 
whicii  was  frustrated  only  by  the  death  of  Edward.  In  a  second  re- 
bellion the  confederate  nobles  forced  the  prince  of  Rothsay,  eldest  son 
of  James,  to  appear  in  arms  against  his  father.  In  an  engagement 
near  Bannockbum  the  rebels  were  successful,  and  the  king  was  slain 
in  tlic  35th  near  of  his  age.  1,488. 

7.  James  IV.,  a  great  and  most  accomplished  prince,  whose  talents 
were  equalled  by  his  virtues,  while  his  measures  of  government  wert* 
dictated  by  a  true  spirit  of  patriotism,  won  by  a  well-placed  confi- 
dence the  afl'ections  of  his  nobility.  In  his  marriage  with  Mar^jarct, 
the  daughter  of  Henry  VU.  of  England,  both  sovereigns  wisel> 
sought  a  Dond  of  amity  between  the  kingdoms ;  but  this  purpose  wits 
frustrated  in  the  succeeding  reign  of  Henry  VIIL  The  high  spirit  of 
the  rival  monarchs  was  easily  intlamed  by  trifling  causes  of  olfencr; 
and  France,  then  at  war  with  England,  courted  the  aid  of  her  an- 
cient ally.    James  invaded  England  witli  a  powerful  army,  which  lie 

wished  to  lead  to  immediate  action;  but  the  prudent  delays  of  Surrev, 
......  .  ...         .         ....  ,     ..     .  y 


I  gallant  James  perished  in  the  fight, 
whole  of  the  Scottish  nobles,  A.  D.  1,513. 

8.  Under  the  lone  minority  of  his  son  James  V.,  an  bfant  at  the 
time  of  his  father^s  death,  the  kingdom  was  feebly  ruled  by  his  uncle 
Albany.  The  aristocracv  began  to  resume  its  ancient  spirit  of  inde- 
pendence, which  was  ifi-brooked  by  a  prince  of  a  proud  and  un- 
controlable  mind,  who  felt  the  keenest  jealousy  of  a  high  preroear 
live.  With  a  systematic  policy  he  employed  the  church  to  abuse  3ie 
nobility,  conferring  all  tlie  otHces  of  state  on  able  ecclesiastics.  The 
cardimd  Beaton  co-operated  with  great  zeal  in  the  designs  of  bi# 
master,  and  under  him  ruled  the  kingdom. 

9.  Henry  Vm..  embroiled  with  the  papacy,  sought  an  alliaiKS 
with  the  lung  of  scots ;  but  the  ecclestastxal  counsellors  of  the  lit- 
ter defeated  Uiis  beneficial  purpose.  A  ivar  was  thus  provoked,  aid 
James  was  reluctantly  compelfed  to  court  those  nobles  whom  it  bul 
hitherto  been  his  darling  olnect  to  humiliate.  They  now  detenniied 
on  a  disgraceful  revenge,  in  an  attack  on  the  Scottish  border  the 
English  were  repelied|  and  an  opportunity  ofiered  to  the  Scott  of 


MODERN  HISTORY.  169 

cottiD^  off  their  retreat  The  kioe  gave  bis  orders  to  that  end,  but 
his  baroQS  obstinately  refused  to  advance  beyond  the  frontier.  One 
measure  more  was  wantine  to  drive  their  sovereign  to  despair.  In  a 
Bobsequent  engagement  with  the  English  10,000  of  the  Scots  deliber^ 
ateW  surrendered  themselves  prisoners  to  dOO  of  the  enemy.  The 
high  spirit  of  James  sunk  under  nis  contending  passions,  and  he  died  oi 
a  tookeo  heart  in  the  33d  year  of  his  age.  A.  D.  1,642,  a  few  days 
after  the  birth  of  a  daughter,  yet  more  muortunate  than  her  father 
Mary  queen  of  Scots. 

SECTION  XXXIIL 

OF  THE  ANCIENT  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  SCOTTISH  GOVERN* 

MENT. 

1.  Wb  have  seen  that  it  was  a  constant  policy  of  the  Scottish  kings 
to  abase  the  power  of  their  nobles ;  and  that  the  struggle  for  power 
was  the  source  of  much  misery  and  bloodshed.  But  this  policy  was 
necessary,  from  the  dangerous  ambition  and  lawless  tyranny  ofthose 
nobles,  who  frequently  aimed  at  overturning  the  throne,  and  exercis- 
ed the  severest  oppression  on  all  their  dependents.  The  interests, 
therefore,  of  the  people,  no  less  than  the  security  of  the  prince,  de- 
manded tne  repression  of  this  overweening  and  destructive  power. 
The  aristocracy  was,  however,  preserved,  no  less  by  its  own  strength 
than  by  the  concurrence  of  circumstances,  and  chieOy  by  the  violent 
and  unhappy  fate  of  the  sovereigns.  Meantime,  though  the  meas 
ures  wbicn  the  kin§s  pursued  were  not  successful,  yet  their  coiu-o- 

Sueoces  were  benclMJ.ol.    They  restrained,  if  they  did  not  destroy, 
)e  spirit  of  feudal  oppressioa,  and  eave  biKh  to  order,  wise  laws, 
and  a  more  tranquil  administnition  ofgovemment 

i  The  legislative  power,  though  nominally  resident  in  the  parlia^ 
ment,  was  virtually  in  the  king,  who,  by  his  influence,  entirely  con- 
troled  its  proceedings.  The  parliament  consisted  of  three  estate?, 
Hi*:  nobles,  the  dignilied  clergy,  and  the  less  barons,  who  were  tlie 
representatives  of  the  towns  and  shires.  The  disposed  of  benetices, 
gave  the  crown  the  entire  command  of  the  churchmen,  who  were 
equal  to  the  nobles  in  number ;  and  at  least  a  migority  of  the  com- 
mons were  the  dependents  of  the  sovereign.  A  committee,  tcmi«  d 
tiie  lords  of  the  articles,  prepared  every  measure  that  was  to  come 
t>eforc  the  pariiament.  By  the  mode  of  its  election  this  committee 
w»  m  effect  nominated  by  the  king.  It  is  to  the  credit  of  the  Scot- 
ti^  princes,  that  there  arc  few  inst^mces  of  their  abusine  an  autliorit:f 
to  evtensive  as  that  which  they  constitutionally  enjoyed. 

3.  The  kin^  had  anciently  the  supreme  jurb^iction  in  all  causes^ 
dvil  and  crimmai,  which  he  generally  exercised  through  the  medium 
of  his  privy  council ;  but  in  1.425  James  1.  instituted  the  court  of  se^* 
^ioos,  coo^i^ting  of  the  chancellor  and  certain  judges  chosen  from  the 
fjiree  estatcsi  This  court  was  new-modelled  by  James  V.,  and  its 
juriffictioo  limited  to  civil  causes,  the  cognizance  of  crimes  being 
cc'nuBitted  to  the  justiciary.  The  chancellor  was  the  highest  officer 
tifthit  cfxnvn,  and  president  of  the  parliament  To  the  chamberlain 
belonged  the  care  of  the  finances  and  the  public  pohce :  to  the  high 
Mcward  the  charge  of  the  kicg^s  household ;  the  constable  regulated 
an  matters  of  miutary arrangement;  and  the  manhal  was  the  king^ 
,  and  master  of  the  horse.  .    ........ ^ 

Digitized  by  VjOO^  IC 


m'vwim^mmmmmmmB^mmn'. 


100  MODERN  HISTORIC. 


4.  The  revenue  of  the  sovereien  consisted  of  his  domaiD,  whkh 
was  extensive,  of  the  feudal  casualties  and  forfeitures^  the  profits  of 
the  wardships  of  his  vassals,  the  rents  of  vacant  heneoces,  the  peci>- 
niarv  lines  for  offences,  and  the  aids  or  presents  occasionally  given 
by  the  subject ;  a  revenue  at  all  times  sutHcient  for  the  purposes  of 
government,  and  the  support  of  the  dignity  of  the  crown. 

5.  The  political  principles  which  regulated  the  conduct  of  the  Scots 
toward  other  nations  were  obvious  and  simple.  It  had  ever  been  an 
object  of  ambition  to  England  to  acquire  the  sovereignty  of  Scotland, 
which  was  constantly  on  its  guard  against  this  design  of  its  more  potent 
neighbour.  It  was  the  wisest  policy  for  ^Scotland  to  attach  itsetfto 
France,  the  natural  enemy  of  England  ;  an  alliance  reciprocally  court- 
ed from  similar  motives.  In  tiiose  days  this  attachment  was  Justly 
deemed  patriotic ;  while  the  Scots,  who  were  the  partisans  of  Eng- 
land, were  with  equal  justice  regarded  as  tniitors  to  their  country. 
In  the  period  of  which  we  now  treat,  it  was  a  settled  policy  of  the 
English  sovereigns  to  have  a  secret  taction  in  their  pay  in  Scotland, 
for  the  purpose  of  dividing  and  thus  enslaving  the  nation;  and  to  tliis 
source  all  the  subsequent  disorders  of  the  lalter  kingdom  are  to  be 
attributed. 


SECTION  XXXIV. 

A  VIEW  OF  THE  PROGRESS  OF  LITERATURE  AND  SCIExNCK 
IN  EUROPE,  FROM  THE  REVIVAL  OF  LETTERS  TO  THE 
END  OF  THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURY. 

1.  The  fii'st  restorers  of  learning  in  Europe  were  the  Arabl:ui5, 
who,  in  the  course  of  tlioir  A-ialic  cou'iuests,  becoming  acquainltd 
with  some  of  the  ancient  Gret-Iv  aulli(us,  di.-covered  an'lj\i>tly  ai)nre- 
ciated  the  knowledge  and  iinnroveinent  to  be  derived  j'rom  them. 
The  calipbs  procured  from  tiie  eastern  em{)t'rni's  copies  of  the  au- 
ctent  manuscripts,  and  liad  llierii  carefully  translated  into  Aral»ic ;  t  — 
teeming  principally  those  wtiich  treated  of  mathematics,  physics,  and 
metaphysics.  They  dis-eminaled  their  knowledge  in  the  course  ot 
their  conquest*,  and'  founded  bchools  and  colleges  in  all  llie  countries 
which  they  subdued. 

2.  The  western  kingdoms  of  Europe  became  first  acquainted  with 
the  learning  of  the  ancients  throue^li  the  medium  of  those  Arabian 
translations.    Charlemagne  caused  Latin  translations  to  be  made  froin     j 
the  Arabian,  and  Ibunded,  after  the  example  of  the  cidiphs,  the  uui-    i 
versities  of  Bononia,  Favia,  Osnaburg,  and  Paris.    Alfred  wth  a  sim*-    ^ 
lar  spirit,  and  by  similar  means,  introduced  a  taste  for  literature  in  '  I 
England ;  bat  the  subsequeut  disorders  of  tlie  kingdom  re  plunged  i: 
into  barbarism.  The  Normans,  however,  brought  from  the  continent 
•ome  thicture  of  ancient  learning,  which  was  kept  alive  m  the  monaf^    ; 
teries,  where  the  monks  were  meritoriously  employed  in  transcrit^   ■ 
ing  a  few  of  the  ancient  authora,  along  with  the  legendary  lives  of 
the  saints. 

3.  In  this  dawn  of  literature  in  England  appjeared  Heniy  of  Huntkig* 
ton  and  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  names  distinguished  in  the  eaifiesl 
annak  of  poetry  and  romance ;  John  of  Salisbury)  a  moralist;  WiU 
liam  of  Malmesoury.  annalist  of  the  history  of  England  befort  the 
leign  of  Stephen ;  Gkaldus  Cambrensis,  known  in  \&  fiel^  of  luato- 


MODERN  HISTORY.  161 

•T,  theology,  and  poetry ;  Joseph  of  Exeter,  author  of  two  Latin  epic 
pi«  oks  ou  the  Trojan  war,  and  the  war  of  Antioch,  or  the  crusade, 
Hiiich  are  read  with  plciisnre  even  in  the  present  day, 

4.  But  this  era  ol  a  good  taste  in  letters  was  of  short  duration. 
The  Li*te  for  classical  composition  and  hi^^torical  intbnnation  yielded 
it»  llie  barbarous  subtleties  of  scliolastic  divinity  taught  by  Lombard 
4ii.l  Aliehuid,  and  to  the  al>struse  doctrines  of  the  Roman  law,  which 
iwujin  to  engage  the  general  attention  from  the  recent  discovery  of 
liic  pi:uiect'5  at  Aiii.il[ihi,  1,137.  The  amusements  of  the  vulgar 
in  thov.'  pcricHis  were  metrical  and  prose  romances,  unintelligihie 
f  ropliecit  s  aiid  fabies  of  giants  and  enclianters. 

5.  In  the  middle  of  tlie  thirteenth  century  appeared  a  distinguish- 
**d  grnius  K()^er  Bacon,  an  I'.n^liah  friar,  whose  comprehensive  mind 
wa*  h:l»d  with  all  the  stores  of  ancient  learning;  who  possessed  a 
•h-v'dmmn ling  judgment  to  separate  the  precious  ore  from  the  dross, 
and  a  Tw)wer  uf  invention  tilled  to  advance  in  every  science  which  was 
Ch*  rt!  jrct  of  liis  sliuly.  ile  saw  tlie  insuiliciency  of  the  school  phi- 
\r^  H^^'^V-  «^'^^'  li'"^^  recommended  the  prosecution  of  knowledge  by  ex- 
p*  riniL'.it  auil  the  olisiTvalion  of  natni*e.  lie  made  discoveries  of 
Tf.poriano?  in  a^tn»nomy,  opiics,  chemi>try,  medicine,  and  mechanics, 
lit*  ref  nin*?d  the  kalen  !ar,  di*iCovered  tiie  construction  of  telescopic 
;:!a*«H-.  lor^<jtlen  alUT  hi^  time,  imd  revived  by  Galileo,  and  has  left  a 
;» am  iiilimatiou  of  his  knowledge  of  the  composiiion  of  gun-powder. 
i<'t  thi*  .superior  geniu*  l)eliev«Ml  in  the  possibility  of  di'^oovering  an 
elivir  for  tiie  p;oi*)nc.i'ion  of  hie,  in  the  transmutation  of  metals  into 
gold,  and  injudicial  a-iirology. 

♦>.  A  gem  ral  l\<{(i  prevaiK'd  for  poetical  composition  in  the  twelfth 
if.  I  thiric»'nth  crnlurio'^.  The  troubadours  of  IVovence  wrote  son- 
r.iis,  malni;aL'J,  and  satiiical  ballads;  and  excelled  in  extempore  dia- 
i  4ue«<  on  the  xubjict  of  love,  which  they  treated  in  a  metaphysicjd 
iiitl  I^l.ito'.ic  ttr.ii.i.  They  contcnditd  for  the  prize  of  poetry  at  sol- 
•  ma  in«*vliiigs  where  princes,  nobles,  and  the  most  illustrious  ladies 
dt'-enilrd  to  tlecidt:  between  the  rival  banls;  and  some  of  those  prin- 
C'-^,  a**  KiC'iard  I.  of  Knj^land,  I'rederick  1.  emperor  of  Germany,  are 
«'«lel>raicd  as  iroubadoui-s  of  eminence.  Many  fragments  yet  remain 
A  iheir  compo-^i lions. 

7.  The  traii^li  ivnce  of  the  papal  seat  to  Avignon,  in  the  fourteenth 
<-«.atary,  fimiiiariz-.^l  the  Italian  poets  with  llie  songs  of  the  trouba- 
litHirs,  and  give  a  tincture  of  the  Frovencd  style  to  their  compo- 
•i*.  >n>  which  is  very  ob-ervable  in  the  poetry  of  Petrarch  and  of 
B  iiite.  Tiitf  Dniiiu  Comedia  ol  Dante  tli"st  introduced  the  machine- 
ry iA  ang»-Is  aiul  devils  in  the  room  of  the  pagan  mythology,  and  is  a 
w-rk  cojitaiiung  ujany  examples  of  the  terrible  subhmc.  The  iSoh- 
%^u  and  Ciin^i/ni  of  IVtrarch  are  highly  lender  and  pathetic,  though 
^•L»ii»*d  i\ith  a  quaintne««s  and  conceit,  which  is  a  prevalent  feature 
Qi  Ibc  1  Lilian  poi'try.  I'he  Deawierous  of  Boccacio,  a  work  of  the 
^ame  age,  ks  a  mit^ter-piece  for  invention,  ingenious  narrative,  and 
acquaintance  with  human  nature.  These  author  have  lOJica  the 
Mondard  of  the  Italian  language. 

8.  Coutempomry  with  them,  and  of  rival  merit,  was  tlic  Englteh 
Ciiaucer,  who  displays  all  the  tiilents  of  iiocxacio,  through  the  me- 
i*iintt  of  excellent  iH>«*try.  The  works  of  (-haucer  discover  an  exteo- 
•ivo  kuowlvtlge  of  the  &*Mences,  an  acquaintance  both  with  ancient 
aad  mMcni  leaminc,  particularly  the  hientture  of  France  and  Italy, 
aaii  aUive  all,  a  most  acute  discernment  of  life  and  manners. 

9.  (If  iimilar  character  are  the  poems  of  Gower,  bat  of  a  eraTer 

02  21 

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162  MODERN  UISTORT. 

ciftst,  and  a  more  chasiened  morality.    Equa/.  co  these  eminent  men 
in  every  species  of  literary  merit  was  the  accomplished  James  L  <^ 
Scotland,  of  which  his  remaining  writings  bear  convincing  testimony 
The  douDtfiil  Rowley  of  Bristol  is  said  to  have  adorned  me  fifteenUi 
centniT. 

10.  Spain  at  this  period  began  to  emerge  from  ignorance  and  bar- 
barism, and  to  produce  a  few  of  those  works  which  are  enumerated 
with  approbation  in  the  whimsical  but  judicious  criticism  of  Cervan- 
tes.   (Don  Quixote,  b.  1,  c  6.) 

11.  Though  poetry  attained  in  those  ages  a  considerable  degree 
of  splendour,  yet  there  was  little  advancement  in  general  literature 
and  science.  Histoiy  was  disgraced  by  the  intermixture  of  mlFacle 
and  fable ;  yet  we  find  much  curious  information  in  the  writings 
of  Matthew  of  Westminster,  of  Wabingham,  Everard,  Duysburg,  and 
the  Chronicles  of  Froissart  and  Monstrelet  Philip  de  Commines 
happily  describes  the  reigns  of  Lewis  XL  and  Charles  VIII.  of 
France.  Villani  and  Flatina  are  viluable  recorders  of  the  affidrs  of 
Italy. 

12.  A  taste  for  classical  learning  in  the  fifteenth  century  led  to  the 
discovery  of  many  of  the  ancient  authors.  Poggio  discovered  the 
writings  of  Quintilian  and  several  of  the  compositions  of  Cicero, 
which  stimulated  to  farther  research,  and  to  the  recovery  of  many 
valuable  remains  of  Greek  and  Roman  literature.  But  this  taste  was 
not  generally  difiused.  France  and  Endand  were  extremely  barba- 
rous. The  library  at  Oxford  containecTonly  600  volumes,  and  there 
were  but  four  classics  in  the  royal  library  at  Paris.  But  a  brighter 
period  was  approaching.  On  the  fall  of  the  eastern  empire,  in  the 
end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  the  diBpersion  of  the  Greeks  difiiised  a 
taste  for  polite  literature  over  dl  the  west  of  Europe.  A  succession 
of  popes,  endowed  with  a  liberal  and  enlightened  spirit  gave  every 
encouragement  to  learning  and  the  sciences;  and,  above  all,  the 
noble  discovery  of  the  art  of  printing  contributed  to  their  rapid  ad- 
vancement ana  dissemination,  and  gave  a  certain  assurance  of  the 
perpetuation  of  eveiy  valuable  art,  and  the  progressive  improvement 
of  human  knowledge. 

13.  The  rise  of  dramatic  composition  among  the  modems  is  to  be 
traced  to  the  absurd  and  ludicrous  representation,  in  the  churches^ 
of  the  scripture  histories,  called  in  England  mysteries,  miracles,  and 
moralities.  These  were  first  exhibited  in  the  twelfth  century,  and 
continued  to  the  sixteenth,  when  they  were  prohibited  by  law  in 
England.  Of  these  we  have  amusing  specimens  in  Warton's  His* 
tory  of  English  Poetry.  Pro&ne  dramas  were  substituted  in  their 
place ;  and  a  mixture  of  the  sacred  and  proiane  appears  to  have 
been  known  in  France  as  early  as  1,300.  In  Spain  tne  farcical  mys- 
teries keep  their  ground  to  the  present  day,  and  no  regular  compo^ 
sition  for  the  stage  was  known  tul  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century 
The  Italians  are  allowed  by  their  own  writers  to  have  borrowed 
their  theatre  from  the  French  and  English. 

See  Kett^s  Elements  of  General  Knowledge,  voL  I. 


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MODERN  HISTORY  163 


SECTION  XXXV. 

VIEW  OF  THE  PROGRESS  OF  COMMERCE  IN  EUROPE  BEFORE 
THE  PORTUGUESE  DISCOVERIES. 

1.  BooBE  we  gire  ao  account  of  the  discoreries  of  the  Portu- 
guese in  the  fifteenth  century,  in  exploring  a  new  route  to  India,  we 
shall  present  a  short  view  of  the  progress  of  conuncrce  in  Europe 
down  to  that  period. 

The  boldest  naval  enterprise  of  (he  ancients  was  the  Periplus  ot 
llanno,  who  sailed  iVom  Carthage  to  the  coast  of  Guinea,  within 
four  or  five  degrees  of  the  equator,  A.  C.  570.  The  ancients  did 
not  know  that  Africa  was  almost  circumnavieable.  They  had  a  ver? 
Lmited  knowledge  of  the  habitable  earth.  They  believed  that  both 
the  torrid  and  frigid  zones  were  uninhabitable;  and  they  were  very 
imperfectly  acquainted  with  a  ^reat  part  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Au 
rica.  Denmark,  Sweden,  Prussia,  Poland,  and  the  greater  part  ol 
Rusria,  were  unknown  to  them.  In  Ptolemy's  description  of  the 
globe,  the  63d  degree  of  latitude  is  the  limit  of  the  earth  to  the 
north,  and  the  equator  to  the  south. 

2.  Britain  was  circumnavigated  in  the  time  of  Domitian.  The 
Romam  frequented  it  for  the  purposes  of  commerce ;  and  Tacitus 
oientioaa  London  as  a  celebrated  resort  of  merchants.  The  com- 
ineroe  of  the  ancients  was,  however,  chiefly  confined  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean. In  the  flourishing  periods  of  the  eastern  empire  the  mer- 
diaiMfise  of  India  was  imported  from  Alexandria;  but,  after  the  con- 
qucd  of  Egypt  by  the  Arabians,  it  was  carried  up  the  Indus,  and 
Uieiice  by  Gnd  to  the  Oxus,  whicn  then  ran  directly  into  the  Caspian 
sea;  thence  it  was  brought  up  the  Wol^a,  and  again  carried  overland 
to  the  Don,  whence  it  descended  into  the  Euxine. 

3.  After  the  fall  of  the  western  empire  commerce  was  lonjg  at  a 
itand  in  Europe.  When  Attila  was  ravaging  Italy  the  Veneti  took 
refuse  in  the  small  islands  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Adriatic,^ 
and  there  founded  Venice.  A.  D.  452,  which  began  very  early  to 
e^uip  smalJ  Beets,  and  tracle  to  the  coasts  of  Egypt  and  the  Levant, 
for  spices  and  other  merchandise  of  Arabia  and  India.  Genoa,  Flor- 
ence, and  Pisa,  imitated  this  example,  and  be^  to  acquire  consider- 
able wealth ;  out  Venice  retained  her  supenority  over  these  rival 
asatefl,  and  gained  considerable  territory  on  the  opposite  coast  of  lllyr* 
icon  and  Dalmatia. 

4.  The  maritime  cities  of  Italy  profited  by  the  cmsades,  in  furnish- 
ing the  armies  with  supplies,  and  bringing  home  the  produce  of  the 
«tft  The  Italian  merchants  establLsTied  manufactures  similar  to 
those  of  Constantinople.  Kogero  king  of  Sicily  brought  artisans 
fnm  Athens,  and  established  a  silk  manufacture  at  Palermo  in  1,130. 
The  logar  cane  was  planted  in  Sicily  m  the  twelAh  century,  and 
theiKe  carried  to  Maoeura,  and  finally  made  its  way  to  the  West 

IsidlCSb 

5.  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  the  Italians  were  the 
ofil J  commercial  people  of  Europe.  Venice  set  the  first  example 
«f  a  national  bank  in  1,157,  which  has  maintained  its  credit  to  the 
present  times.  The  only  trade  of  France,  Spain,  and  Germany,  at 
xhm  time,  was  carried  on  at  stated  ikirs  and  maricets,  to  which  traders 

>rted  from  all  quarters,  pay hig  a  tax  to  the  sovereigoB  or  the  lords 

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164  MODERN  HISTORY. 

etihe  territory.  The  more  enterprising  bought  a  privilege  of  ez 
amptioD,  by  paying  at  once  a  large  sum,  and  were  thence  caUed  free 

6.  In  the  middle  ages  the  Italian  merchants,  usually  called  Lom- 
bards, were  the  factors  of  ail  the  European  nations,  and  were  en* 
ticed,  by  privileges  granted  by  the  sovereigns,  to  settle  in  Fnmce, 
Spain,  Germany,  and  England.  They  were  not  onljy  traders  in  com- 
modities, but  bankers,  or  money  dealers.  In  this  last  business  they 
found  a  severe  restraint  from  the  canon  law  prohibiting  the  taking 
of  interest ;  and  hence,  from  the  necessary  privacy  of  their  bargaiu<. 
there  were  no  bounds  to  exorbitant  usury.  The  Jews,  too,  wh<» 
were  the  chief  dealers  in  money,  brought  disrepute  on  the  trade  cf 
banking,  and  frequently  suffered,  on  that  account,  the  most  intoler- 
able persecution  and  confiscation  of  their  fortunes.  To  guard  agaiiL-^ 
these  bjuries  they  Invented  biUa  of  exchange, 

7.  The  Lomburd  merchants  excited  a  spirit  of  commerce,  and 
gave  birth  to  manufactures,  which  were  generally  encouraged  by 
Qie  sovereigns  in  the  different  kingdoms  of  Europe.  Among  tlic 
chief  encouragements  was  the  institution  of  corporations  or  monop- 
olies, the  earliest  of  which  are  traced  up  to  the  efeventh  century ; 
a  policy  beneficial,  and  perhaps  necessarjr,  where  the  spirit  of  indus- 
try is  low,  and  manuiacturcs  are  in  their  infancy ;  but  of  hurtful  cuih 
sequence  where  trade  and  manufactures  are  flourishing. 

8.  Commerce  began  to  spread  toward  tlie  north  of  Europe  about 
the  end  of  tlie  twelfth  century.  The  sea-ports  on  the  Baltic  tnulcd 
with  France  and  Britain,  and  with  the  Mediterranean  by  the  sti])!e 
of  the  isle  of  Oleroo,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Garonne,  then  possessmi 
by  the  English.  The  commercial  laws  of  Oleron  and  Wisbuy  (on 
the  Baltic)  regulated  for  many  ages  the  trade  of  Europe.    To  pro- 

ect  their  trade  from  piracy,  Lubec,  Hamburgh,  and  most  of  the  nortli- 
em  sea-ports,  joined  m  a  confederacy,  under  certain  general  regula- 
tions,  termed  the  league  of  Hue  hanse-towjif ;  a  union  so  beneficial  in 
its  nature,  and  so  formidaBle  in  point  of  strength,  that  its  alliance  was 
courted  by  the  predominant  powers  of  Europe, 

9.  For  the  trade  of  the  hanse-towna  with  the  southern  kingd«^m«, 
•Bniges,  on  the  coiist  of  Flanders,  was  found  a  convenient  eiUrep*4. 

and  thither  the  Mediterranean  merchants  brought  the  commodities 
of  India  and  the  Levant  to  exchange  whh  the  produce  and  manuiac- 
turcs of  the  north.  The  Flemings  now  began  to  encourage  tra<}o 
and  manufactures,  which  thence  spread  to  the  Brabanters  :  but  tlieii 
growth  being  checked  by  the  impolitic  sovereigns  of  tho#e  prov- 
mces,  they  found  a  more  favourable  field  in  England,  which  was  dtb- 
tined  to  derive  from  them  the  great  source  of  its  national  opulence. 

10.  The  Britons  had  very  early  seen  the  importance  of  commerce' 
Bede  relates  that  London  was  frequented  by  loreigners  for  the  pur- 
pose of  trade  in  614 ;  and  William  of  Malmesbury  speaks  of  it,  in 
1^041,  as  a  most  populous  and  wealthy  city.  The  cinq[ue  po^t^. 
Dover,  Hastings,  livthe,  Romney,  and  Sandwich,  obtained  m  thata^e 
their  privileges  ancf  immunities,  on  condition  of  furnishing  each  tix-* 
0hip8  of  war.  These  ports  are  now  eight  in  number,  and  send  thefr 
meni>ers  to  parliament. 

11.  The  woollen  manufacture  of  England  was  considerable  in  the 
twelfth  century.  Henry  IL  incorporated  the  weavers  of  LondDD<« 
and  gave  them  various  privileges.  By  a  law  passed  in  his  reign,  all 
doth  made  of  foreign  wool  was  condemned  to  be  burnt  Scotiind 
«t  this  time  seems  to  have  possessed  a  considerable  source  of  wedth, 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODERN  HISTORY. 

•s  if  eyident  from  the  payment  of  the  ransom  of  William  the  Hod, 
wbkh  was  10.000  merks.  eaual  to  lOO^OOOL  sterling  of  present 
mone  J.  The  English  found  it  difficult  to  raise  double  that  sum  for  the 
ransom  of  Richard  L,  and  the  Scots  contributed  a  proportion  of  ii 
The  EnglBh  sovereigns  at  first  drew  a  considerable  revenue  from 
the  custom  on  wool  exported  to  be  manufactured  abroad;  but  becom- 
ing soon  sensible  of  the  benefit  of  encouraging  its  home  manufacture. 
they  invited,  for  that  purpose,  the  ibreicn  artisans  and  merchants  to 
reside  in  England,  and  gave  them  valuable  immunities.  Edward  HI. 
Hits  pecuiia^y  attentive  to  trade  and  manufactures, as  appears  by  the 
Jaws  pasKd  in  his  reign ;  and  he  was  bountiful  in  the  encouragement 
of  foreign  artisans.  The  succeeding  reigns  were  not  so  favourable. 
During  the  civil  wai^  of  York  and  Lancaster  the  spirit  of  trade  and 
mana»ctures  greatly  declined;  nor  did  thev  begin  to  revive  and 
flourish  till  the  accession  of  Henry  VII.  In  that  interval  of  their  d^ 
cay  in  England  commerce  and  tlic  arts  were  encouraged  in  Scotland 
by  James  1.  and  his  succeasors,  as  much  as  the  comparatively  rudft 
and  turbulent  state  of  the  kingdom  would  permit.  The  herring  fish- 
ery then  began  to  be  vigorously  promoted ;  and  the  duties  laid  on 
lilt'  exportation  of  woollen  cloth  show  that  tliis  manufacture  was  then 
coa<iderable  among  the  Scots.  Glasgow  began  to  acquire  wealth 
•y  the  fiiiheries  in  l,t20,  but  had  little  or  no  foreign  trade  till  after 
tlie  discovery  of  .\merica  and  the  West  Indies. 

12.  Henry  VII.  gave  the  most  liberal  encouragement  to  trade  and 
ai.inuiactun'S,  particularly  the  woollen,  by  inviting  foreign  artisanSi 
.1!.!  establishing  them  at  Leeds,  Waketield,  Haliiax,  and  other  placea 
Ti\e  navigiitiou  acts  were  pahsed  in  his  rei^n,  and  commercial  treaties 
farmed  with  the  continental  kingdoms  tor  the  protection  of  the 
uu  rciiant-^hipping.  Such  was  the  state  of  commerce  at  the  timt 
uhen  the  Portuguese  made  those  great  discoveries  which  opei>- 
^  a  new  route  to  india^  and  gave  a  circulation  to  their  wealth  over 
o^ost  of  the  nations  of  Europe. 


SECTION  XXXVL 
r>iscovERi£S  or  the  Portuguese  in  the  fifteenth 

CENTURY,  AND  THEIR  EFFECTS  ON  THE  COMMERCE  OF 
EUROPE. 

I.  The  polarity  of  the  magnet  had  been  known  in  Europe  m 
early  as  the  thirteenth  century ;  but  the  compass  was  not  used  in 
sailing  till  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth ;  and  another  century  had 
elapsed  from  that  period,  while  yet  the  European  mariners  scarcely 
f«Dtttred  oat  of  tiie  sight  of  their  coasts.  The  eastern  ocean  was 
ittle  Imowo;  and  the  Atlantic  was  supposed  to  be  a  boundless  e» 
psDK  of  sea,  extending  probably  to  the  eastern  shores  of  Asia.  In 
Che  belief  that  the  torrid  zone  was  nninhabitable,  a  promontory  oo 
the  African  coast,  in  the  29th  degree  of  north  latitude,  was  termed 
Cape  Noo,  as  forming  an  impassable  limit 

S»  lo  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  John  king  of  Pq»> 
tiii^  seat  a  iew  vessels  to  explore  the  African  coast;  and  these 
dt>«jbtinf  Cape  Non  proceeded  to  Cape  Boyador,  within  two  d»- 
grcset  of  the  northern  tropic.  Prince  Henry,  the  son  of  John,  equlp' 
ped  miiiicle^Pi  whicb,  beinc  driven  oat  to  sea,  landed  oo  the  idaM 


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166  MODERN  HISTORY, 

of  Porto  Santo.  This  iniroliintary  experiment  emboldened  €tm 
mariners  to  abandon  their  timid  mode  of  coasting,  and  launch  into  the 
open  sea.  In  1.420  the  Portuguese  discovered  Madeira,  where  tbey 
established  a  colony,  and  planted  the  Cyprus  vine,  and  the  sugar  cane. 

3.  The  spirit  of  enterprise  being  thus  awakened,  prince  Henry 
obtained  from  Eugene  Iv.  a  bull  granting  to  the  Portuguese  the 
property  of  all  the  countries  which  they  might  discover  between 
Cape  Non  and  India.  Under  John  II.  of  Portugal  the  Cape  Verd 
islands  were  discovered  and  colonized;  and  the  fleets,  advancinj^  to 
the  coast  of  Guinea,  brought  home  gold  dust,  gums,  and  ivory.  Hav- 
ing passed  the  equator,  me  Portuguese  entered  a  new  hemisphere, 
and  boldly  proceeded  to  the  extremity  of  the  continent.  In  1,479  a 
fleet  under  Vasco  de  Gama  doubled  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and, 
sailing  onwards  beyond  the  mouths  of  the  Arabian  and  Persian  golUs^ 
arrived  at  Calicut,  on  the  Malabar  coast,  after  a  voyage  of  U500 
leagues,  performed  in  thirteen  months. 

4.  De  Gama  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  rajah  of  CaUcut,  a 
tributary  of  the  Mogul  empire,  and  returned  to  Lisbon  with  speci- 
mens of  the  wealth  and  produce  of  the  country.  A  succeeding  fleet 
formed  settlements,  and.  vanquishing  the  opposition  of  the  native 
princes,  soon  achieved  tne  conquest  of  all  the  coast  of  Malabar. 
The  citv  of  Goa,  taken  by  storm,  became  the  residence  of  a  Portu- 
guese viceroy  and  the  capital  of  their  Indian  settlements. 

5.  The  Venetians,  who  had  hitherto  engrossed  the  Indian  trade 
by  Alexandria,  now  lost  it  for  ever.  After  an  inefiectual  project  of 
cutting  through  the  isthmus  of  Suez,  they  attempted  to  intercept  the 
Portuguese  by  their  fleets  stationed  at  the  mouth  of  the  Red  sea  and 
Persian  jgulii  but  were  every  where  encountered  by  a  superior 
force.  The  Portuguese  made  settlements  in  both  the  gulfs,  aiid 
vigorously  prosecuted  their  conquests  on  the  Indian  coast  and  8ea« 
The  rich  island  of  Ceylon,  the  kingdoms  of  Pegu,  Siam.  and  Malac- 
ca^ were  speedily  subdued,  and  a  settlement  established  in  BengaL 
Tney  proceeded  onward  to  China,  hitherto  scarcely  known  to  the  Eu- 
ropeans but  by  the  account  of  a  single  Venetian  traveller,  Marco  Paolo, 
in  the  thirteenth  century;  and  ttey  obtained  the  emperor's  pennis- 
fiion  to  form  a  settlement  at  Macao,  thus  opening  a  commerce  with 
that  immense  empire,  and  ^e  neighbouring  islands  of  Japan.  In  the 
space  of  fifty  yeaiB  the  Portuguese  were  masters  of  the  whole  trade 
cdf  the  Indian  ocean,  and  sovereigns  of  a  large  extent  of  Asiatic 
territory. 

6.  These  discoveries  produced  a  wonderful  effect  on  the  conv 
merce  of  Europe.  The  produce  of  the  spice  islands  was  computed 
to  be  worth  annually  200,000  ducats  to  Lisbon.  The  Venetians, 
after  every  effort  to  destroy  the  trade  of  the  Portuguese,  offered  to 
become  sole  purchasers  of  all  the  spice  brought  to  Europe,  but  were 
refused.  Commercial  industry  was  roused  in  every  quarter,  and 
manufactures  made  a  rapid  progress.  Lyons,  Tours,  Abbeville,  Mar- 
seilles, Bordeaux,  acquired  immense  wealth.  Antwerp  and  Amster- 
dam became  the  great  marts  of  the  north.  The  former  owed  its 
splendour  ^  the  decline  of  firuges,  which  was  ruined  by  civil  com- 
motions ;  and  the  Portuguese  made  Antwerp  their  entrepot  for  th^ 
supply  of  the  northern  kingdoms.  It  continued  highly  flourlshitf 
till  the  revolt  of  the  Netherlands,  in  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  centuij, 
when  it  was  taken  by  Ihe  Spaniards,  and  its  port  destroyed  by  bloc£« 
log  up  the  Scheld. 

".  The  trade  of  Holland  rose  on  the  fall  of  Antwerp.    Amsterdini 


y  Google 


MODERN  HISTORY  67 

coDsUlanble  after  the  decUoe  of  the  hanseatic  confederacj 
m  1|428,  bat  rose  Into  splendour  and  high  commercial  opulence  from 
the  des^vctlon  of  Antwerp.  The  Unued  Ptoyinces,  dependent  on 
bdortry  alone  for  their  support,  became  a  model  of  commercial  ac- 
tswHtf  to  ail  nations. 

8.  Britain  felt  the  efiect  of  that  general  stimulus  which  the  For- 
turoese  discoveries  gave  to  the  trade  of  £urope ;  but  other  causes 
had  a  mora  sensible  operation  io  that  end  in  E^iand.  The  reformat 
tioQ,  by  suppressing  the  convents,  and  restoring  many  thousands  to 
society,  wSa  the  cutting  off  the  papal  exactions,  wliich  drained  the 
kiofidocn  of  its  wealth,  Uie  politic  lawd  passed  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
VllL,  and  the  active  patriotism  of  Elizabeth,  were  vigorous  incentives 
to  natiooal  industry. 

9.  From  the  time  of  Henry  VUL  to  the  present,  the  commerce 
and  manu&ctures  of  England  have  been  uniformly  progressive. 
The  rental  of  England  in  umds  and  houses  did  not  then  exceed  five 
miUkms/Kr  asmum  ;  it  is  now  above  ei^bteen  millions.  The  unman- 
o&ctured  wool  of  one  year's  growth  is  supposed  to  be  worth  two 
miOioQs;  when  manufactured,  as  it  now  is,  by  British  hands,  it  is 
worth  eight  millions.  Above  a  million  and  a  half  of  hands  are  eno- 
ployed  in  that  manu&cture  alone ;  half  a  million  are  employed  in 
xhe  manofictures  of  iron,  steel,  copper,  brass,  lead ;  the  linen  man- 
dtactares  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  occupy  neariy  a  million ; 
and  a  number  not  much  inferior  is  employed  in  the  fisheries.  It  is 
presmnable.  on  the  whole,  that  nearly  a  fourth  of  the  population  of  the 
united  kingaoms  is  actually  employed  in  commerce  and  manufactures. 

10.  The  vast  increase  of  the  national  wealth  of  Britain  appears 
chiefly,  1,  from  the  increase  of  population,  which  is  suppc^d  to 
be  neariv  6ye  to  one  (at  least  in  the  large  cities)  since  the  reign 
of  EUzaoeth;  2,  from  the  great  addition  made  to  the  cultivated 
kinds  of  the  kingdom,  and  the  high  improvement  of  agriculture 
hwce  Chat  period,  whence  more  than  quauruple  the  quantity  of  food 
ttprodnced;  3.  from  the  increase  of^the  conunercial  shipping,  at 
fejtft  aijcfold  within  the  same  time ;  4,  from  the  comparative  low  rate 
af  inlerest,  which  is  demonstrative  of  the  increase  of  wealth.  The 
cooaeqnences  of  the  diffusion  of  the  commercial  spirit  are  most  im- 
portant to  the  national  weliiire.  From  general  industry  arises  afflu- 
ence, jomed  to  a  spirit  of  independence ;  and  on  this  spuit  rests  the 
fceectom  of  the  Bntish  constitution,  and  all  the  bleasmgs  which  are 
o^ed  onder  its  protection. 


SECTION  xxxvn. 

OOMAlfT  AND  lUANCE  IN  THE  REIGNS  OP  CHARLES  7. 
AND  FRANCIS  L 


1.  Wb  retome  the  detail  of  the  history  of  Europe  at  the  beginning 
«f  the  sixteenth  century,  previously  remariung,  that  the  Germanic 
empire  continued  for  above  fifhr  years  in  a  state  of  languid  tranquilli^ 
ty^mm  the  time  of  Albert  IL,  the  successor  of  Sigismund,  during  the 
long  reign  of  Frederick  HL,  whose  son  Maximilian  acquired,  by  hia 
nafmee  with  Mary,  duchess  of  Burgundy,  the  sovereipty  of  the 
Ifetiiennidi.  Maximilian  was  elected  Emperor  in  1,493 ;  and,  by 
caUbttshing  a  perpetual  peace  between  the  separate  Germanic  stateii 
UkJ  the  foundatiaQ  of  the  subsequent  gnmdeur  of  the  empire. 

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!68  MODERN  HISTORY. 

2.  Philip  archduke  of  Austria,  son  of  Masdmilian,  married  Jane,  the 
daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella;  and  of  that  marriage  the  eldest 
son  was  Charles  V.,  who  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Spain  in  1,516, 
and,  on  the  deatli  of  his  grandfather  Maximilian,  preferred  his  claim 
to  the  vacant  imperial  throne.  He  had  for  his  competitor  Francis  1. 
{^France,  who  had  distinguished  himself  by  the  conquest  of  the  Mil- 
anese, and  the  adjustment  of  the  contending  interests  of  the  Italian 
states.  The  German  electors,  afraid  of  the  exorbitant  power  both  of 
Charles  and  of  Francis,  would  have  rejected  both,  and  conferred  the 
imperial  crown  on  Frederick  duke  of  JSaxony ;  but  this  extraordinary 
man  declined  the  proffered  dignity,  and  his  council  determined  the 
election  in  favour  of  Charles  ofAustria,  1,519. 

3.  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.  were  now  declared  enemies,  and  their 
mutual  claims  on  each  other's  dominions  were  the  subject  of  perpet- 
ual hostility.  The  emperor  claimed  Artois  as  pant  of  the  Nether- 
lands. Francis  prepared  to  make  good  his  right  to  the  Two  Sicilies, 
Charles  had  to  detend  Milan,  and  to  support  his  title  to  Navarr*% 
which  had  been  wrested  from  France  by  his  grandfcUhsr  FerJiriaraL 
Henry  VIII.  of  Enghmd  was  courted  by  the  rival  monarchs,  as  ihr- 
weight  of  England  was  sufficient  to  turn  the  scale,  where  the  power 
of  each  was  nearly  balanced. 

4.  The  iiret  hostile  attack  was  made  by  Francis  on  the  kingdom  of 
Navarre,  which  he  won  and  lost  in  the  course  of  a  few  months.  Tlie 
emperor  attacked  Picardy,  and  his  troops  at  the  same  time  drove  ilje 
French  out  of  the  Milanese.  On  the  death  of  Leo  X.,  Charles  placed 
cardinal  Adrian  on  the  papal  throne,  1,521 ;  and  by  the  promise  of 
eievatine  Wolsey.  the  minister  of  Henry  Vlll.,  to  that  dignity,  on  the 
death  of  Adrian,  gained  tiic  alliance  of  the  English  moniu'ch  in  his  war 
against  France. 

6.  At  this  critical  time  Francis  imprudently  quarrelled  with  his 
best  general,  the  constable  of  Bourbon,  who,  in  revenge,  desert*/<i 
the  emperor,  and  was  by  him  invested  with  the  chiet  command  of  his 
annies.  The  imperial  generals  were  far  superior  inabilities  to  their 
opponents.  The  French  were  defeated  at  Biagrassa,  and  Charles 
was  carrying  every  thing  before  him  in  Italy,  when  Francis  entered 
the  Milanese,  and  retook  the  capital ;  but,  in  the  subsequent  battle  of 
Pavia,  his  troops  were  entirely  defeated,  and  the  French  monarcii 
became  the  constable  of  Bourbon's  prisoner,  1,525. 

6.  The  emperor  made  no  advantage  of  his  good  fortune.  By  the 
treaty  of  Madrid,  Francis  regained  his  liberty,  on  yielding  to  Charkvs 
the  duchv  of  Burgundy,  and  the  superiority  of  tlanders  and  Artoi*. 
He  gave  his  two  sons  as  hostages  for  the  fulfilment  of  these  conditions ; 
but  the  states  refused  to  ratify  them,  and  the  failure  was  compromLs^d 
for  a  sum  of  money. 

7.  On  the  renewal  of  the  war,  Henry  Vlll.  took  part  with  France, 
and  Charles  lost  an  opportunity  of  obtaining  the  sovereignty  of  Italy. 
The  papal  army  in  tne  French  interest  was  defeated  by  the  coo^ta- 
ble  of  Bourbon,  and  the  pope  himself  made  prisoner ;  but  Bourbon 
was  killed  in  the  siege  of  Rome,  and  Charles  allowed  the  pops  t^ 
purchase  his  release. 

8.  After  the  conclusion  of  the  peace  of  Cambray,  1,529,  Charfes 
Tinted  Italy^nd  received  the  imperial  diadem  from  pope  Cieostfit 
VIL  The  Turics  having  invaded  Hungary,  the  emperor  marcbed 
against  them  in  person,  and  compelled  the  sultan  Solyman,  with- an 
aimy  of  300,000  men,  to  evacuate  the  country.  He  soon  after  §vd^ 
baiiced  for  Africa,  to  replace  the  dethrooed  Muley  Hassan  in  the 

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MODERlt  HISl^Rf.  169 

9on!relgnty  of  Tunis  and  Akiers,  which  had  been  nsmped  by  Haj- 
ndin  Baxtorossa ;  and  he  acnieved  the  enterprise  with  nonour.  tik 
reputation  at  this  period  exceeded  that  of  all  the  sovereigns  of  En- 
rope,  for  political  ability,  real  power,  and  the  extent  and  opulence  of 
his  dominions. 

9.  Francis  was  glad  to  ally  himself  even  with  the  Turks  to  cope 
with  the  imperialists,  and  Barbarossa  invaded  Italy ;  but  the  troops  of 
Charles  preveqied  the  co-operation  of  the  French*  and  separately 
defeated  and  dispersed  the  allied  powers,  while  another  army  of  Uia 
Imperialists  ravaged  Champagne  and  Picardy.. 

10.  Id  the  interval  of  a  truce,  which  was  concluded  at  Nice,  for 
ten  years  between  the  rival  monarchs,  Charles  passed  through 
France  to  the  Netherlands,  and  was  entertained  by  Francis  with  the 
nxwt  magnificent  hospitality.  He  had  promised  to  grant  to  the  French 
king  his  favourite  desire,  the  investiture  ot  Milan ;  but  ^ling  to  keep 
his  wonL  the  war  was  renewed  with  double  animosity.  The  Frenco 
and  TWkish  fleets  attacked  Nice,  but  were  dispersed  by  the  Cre- 
Doese  admiral,  Andrea  Doria.  In  Italy  the  French  were  victori- 
ous in  the  battle  of  Cerizotes,  but  drew  no  benefit  from  this  partial 
advantage.  The  imperialists,  on  the  whole,  had  a  decided  superior- 
ity, and  France  must  have  been  undone,  if  the  disorders  of  Germany. 
from  the  contending  interests  of  the  catholics  and  protestants,  had 
not  forced  the  emperor  to  conclude  the  treaty  of  Crepi  with  Francis, 
1,544.  At  the  same  time  Francis  purchased  a  peace  with  Henry 
V  IlL,  who  had  again  taken  part  with  his  rival.  Francis  died  soon 
aller,  in  1,547 ;  a  prince  of  great  spirit  and  abilities,  and  of  a  gener- 
ous and  noble  mind,  unfortunate  only  from  the  necessity  of  strug- 
l^ling  against  a  power  which  overmatched  him  both  in  policy  ami 
n  resoorces. 

1 1.  A  short  time  before  this  period,  was  founded  the  order  of  the 
^^soitB  by  Ignatius  Lovola,  1,535.  Tne  principle  of  the  order  was 
fflplicit  obedience  and  submission  to  the  pope.  The  brethren  were 
Kvt  confined  to  their  cloisters,  but  allowed  to  mix  with  the  worid; 
od  thus,  by  gaining  the  conhdencc  of  princes  and  statesmen,  they 

vere  enabled  to  direct  the  policy  of  nations  to  the  ereat  end  of  estab- 
a»hing  the  supreme  authority  of  the  holy  see.  The  wealtli  which 
(bey  accumulated,  the  extent  of  their  power,  and  the  supposed  con- 
teqoences  of  their  intrigues  to  the  peace  of  nations,  excited  at  length 
t  general  hostility  to  their  order ;  and  the  iustitution  has  recently 
)eeo  abolished  in  all  the  kingdoms  of  Europe. 

I8L  If  Charies  V.  aimed  nt  universiil  empire,  he  was  ever  at  a  dis- 
*skDce  from  the  object  of  his  wishes.  The  formidable  confederacy  of 
'iie  protei>tants  to  preserve  their  liberties  and  their  religion,  gave 
him  perpetual  disquiet  in  Germany.  He  never  could  form  hts  do- 
BunaoDs  into  a  well  connected  body,  from  the  separate  national  Inter* 
csti  of  the  Spanianls,  Flemish,  and  Germans ;  and  even  the  imperial 
autes  were  divided  by  their  jealousies,  politk:al  and  religious.  Th^. 
boslilitie«  of  foreign  powers  gave  him  continual  annoyance.  He  found 
fD  Henry  IL.  the  successor  ot  Francis,  an  antagonist  as  formidable  at 
JUs  friher.  His  cares  and  diihculties  increased  as  he  advanced  in  life* 
nod  at  length  entirely  broke  the  vigour  of  his  mind.  In  a  state  or 
mt^taocholj  despondencv  he  retired  from  the  world  at  the  age  of  fifty* 
111,  retigning  first  the  kingdom  of  Spain  to  his  son  Philip  iL,  Ij^A^ 
tod  afterwards  the  imperisd  crown  in  favour  of  his  brother  Feidinandi 
wboivaa  elected  emperor  on  the  24th  day  of  February,  1,568. 

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Vm  MODERN  mSTORT. 


SECTION  XXXVffl. 


08SERVATI0NS  ON  THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  GERMAN 

EMPIRE. 

1.  Previoislt  to  this  reign  of  MaximOian  I.,  the  Germanic  einmre 
was  subject  to  all  th^  disorders  of  the  feudal  govemmeats.  The 
(eneral  diets  of  the  state  were  tumultuous  and  indecisive,  and  their 
constant  wars  with  one  another  kept  the  whole  in  anarchT  and  bar- 
barism. Wenceslaus,  in  1,383,  endeavoured  to  remedy  those  evib 
by  the  enactment  of  a  general  peace :  but  no  effectual  measures 
were  taken  for  securmg  it  Albert  11.  attempted  to  accompfoh 
the  same  end,  and  had  some  success.  He  divided  Germany  into  six 
circles,  each  regulated  bv  its  own  diet ;  but  the  jealousies  of  the  states 
prompted  them  constantly  to  hostilities,  which  there  was  no  superior 
power  sufficient  to  restrain. 

2.  At  length  Maximilian  I.  procured,  in  1,500,  that  solemn  enacl- 
ment  which  established  a  perpetual  peace  among  the  Genomut 
states,  under  the  coeent  penalty  of  the  aggressor  being  treated  as  » 
common  enemy.  He  established  tlie  imperial  chamber  lor  the  settle- 
ment of  all  differences.  The  empire  was  divided  anew  into  ten  cip» 
des,  each  circle  sending  its  representatives  to  the  imperial  chamber, 
and  bound  to  enforce  the  pubhc  laws  through  its  own  territory.  A 
regency  was  appointed  to  subsist  in  the  intervals  of  the  diet,  composed 
W*  twenty  members,  over  whom  the  emperor  presided. 

3.  These  regulations,  however  wise,  would  probably  hare  fiuled 
of  their  end,  iAhe  influence  of  the  house  of  Austria,  which  has  for 
three  centuries  continued  to  occupy  the  imperial  throne,  bad  not 
enforced  obedience  to  them.  The  ambition  and  policy  of  Charles 
V.  would  have  been  dangerous  to  the  freedom  of  the  German  pm- 
ces.  if  the  new  system  ol  preserving  a  balance  of  power  in  Europe 
had  not  made  these  princes  find  allies  and  protectors  sufficaenl  to 
traverse  the  emperor^s  schemes  of  absolute  dominion.  He  attained, 
however,  an  authority  far  beyond  that  of  any  of  his  predcceaion. 
The  succeeding  emperors  imitated  his  policy ;  but,  as  they  did  Dot 
possess  equal  taIentE>.  they  found  yet  stronger  obstacles  to  their  e»- 
croQchments  on  the  freedom  of  the  states. 

4.  The  Germanic  liberties  were  settled  for  the  last  time  by  the 
treaty  of  Westphalia,  in  1,648,  which  fixed  the  emperor's  preroga-^ 
tives^  and  the  privileges  of  the  states.  The  constitution  of  the  esk- 
pire  IS  not  framed  for  the  ordinary  ends  of  government,  the  promr- 
ity  and  happiness  of  the  people.  It  reearas  not  the  rights  of^tbe 
sobyects,  but  only  the  independence  of  Sie  several  princes;  and  iia 
sole  object  is  to  maintain  e<ich  in  the  enjoyment  of  his  sorereigat^s 
and  prevent  usurpations  and  encroachments  on  one  anolher'*a  terri- 
tories. It  has  no  relation  to  the  particular  government  of  the  states 
each  of  which  has  its  own  laws  and  constitution,  some  more  free»  aiaJ 
others  more  despotic 

5.  The  general  diet  has  the  power  of  enacting  the  public  law*  ^ 
the  empire.  It  consists  of  three  colleges,  the  electors,  the  prioctf^ 
and  the  free  cities.  All  such  public  laws,  and  all  general  mearac*^ 
aie  the  su^ct  of  the  separate  deliberation  of  the  electoral 
tad  that  of  the  princes.  When  jointly  approved  by  themi  the 

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MODERN  HISTORY.  17i 

CioD  is  canrtned  by  the  college  of  the  free  cities,  aixl«  if  agreed  to, 
becomes  a  yiacUum  of  the  empire.  If  approved  fioaUy  bv  the  em- 
]ieror,  it  is  a  eonckmtm^  or  general  law.  it  disapproyed,  the  resolo- 
tioD  is  of  no  effect  Moreover,  the  emperor  must  be  Uie  proposer  of 
all  general  laws.  Still  farther,  no  complamt  or  request  can  be  made 
bv  any  of  the  princes  to  the  diet  without  the  approbation  df  tbe 
elector  archbishop  of  Mentz,  who  may  refuse  it  at  his  pleasure. 
ThaK  constitutional  defects  are  the  more  hurtful  in  their  conse- 
quences, from  the  separate  and  oAen  contending  interests  of  the  prin- 
ces, who  have  all  the  rights  of  sovereignty,  the  power  of  contracting 
foreign  alliances,  and  are  frequently  possessed  of  foreign  dominions 
of  fitfgreater  value  than  their  imperial  territories. 

6.  'Ae  Germanic  constitution  nasj  however,  in  some  respects,  its 
vlva&ta^es.  The  particular  diets  of  each  circle  tend  to  mute  those 
vinces  m  all  matters  of  national  concern,  whatever  may  be  the  dis- 
i^oidance  of  their  individual  interests.  The  regulations  made  in 
those  <fiets  compensate  the  want  of  a  general  legislative  power.  Be- 
side tbe  circukur  diets,  the  electors,  the  princes,  the  free  cities,  the 
catholics,  and  the  protestants,  hold  their  particular  diets.  When  theii 
common  interests  require  it;  and  these  powers  balance  one  another. 
CoBsideredj  therefore,  solely  in  the  light  of  a  league  of  several  inde- 
pendent princes  and  states,  associating  for  their  common  benefit,  the 
Germanic  constitution  has  many  advantages;  in  promoting  f;eneral 
barmooj,  securing  the  rights  of  its  members,  and  preventing  the 
weak  mm  being  oppressed  by  the  strong. 


SECTION  XXXUL 

Or  THE  REFORMATION  IN  GERMANY   AND  SWITZERLAND, 
AND  THE  REVOLUTION  IN  DENMARK  AND  SWEDEN. 

1.  Tbb  age  of  Charies  V.  is  the  era  of  the  reformation  of  reli- 
cloQ,  of  tbe  discovery  of  the  new  world,  and  of  the  highest  tplen- 
door  of  the  fine  arts  in  Italy  and  the  south  of  Europe.  We  shall 
treat  in  oider  of  each  of  these  great  obgects ;  and,  first,  of  the  refer- 


The  voluptnous  taste  and  the  splendid  prc\|ects  of  pope  Leo  X. 
■cmsndinr  laree  supplies  of  money^  he  instituted  through  all  the 
chrirtiankingdoffis  a  sale  of  indulgences,  or  remittances  from  the 
pwa  of  pomtory.  This  traffic  being  abused  to  the  most  shockmg 
purposes,  Burtin  Luther,  an  Augustine  friar,  ventured  to  preach 
agamsi  i^  and  to  inveigh  with  acrimony  against  the  power  which 
authorized  it  He  found  many  wiUinj^  hearers,  particulariy  in  the 
tkCLanie  of  Saxony,  of  which  the  pnnce  Frederick  was  his  friend 
mA  protector.  Leo  A.  condemned  his  tenets  by  a  papal  bull,  which 
cnly  increased  the  zeal  and  indignation  of  the  preacher.  In  a  book 
which  be  published,  entitled  tlie  Babflonisk  CaptivUif^  he  applied 
an  the  acnptural  attributes  of  the  whore  of  Babylon  to  the  papal 
hierarchy,  and  attacked  with  equal  force  and  virulence  the  docorines 
of  tranwinstantiation,  purgatory,  the  celibacy  of  the  priests,  and  the 
rcfioal  of  wine  to  the  people  in  the  communion.  The  book  being 
cxjodenmed  to  the  fiames,  Luther  biuned  the  pope's  ball  and  the 
^ecrelais  at  Wittemberg,  1 ,520. 

±  One  of  the  first  champions,  who  took  ap  the  pen  against  Lb- 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


I7r  MODERJV  HISTORY. 

ther,  waa  Henry  VIII.  of  England ;  whose  book,  presented  to  pope 
Leo,  procured  him  the  title  now  annexed  to  his  crown,  of  defender  of 
the  mith.  The  rest  of  Europe  seemed  to  pay  little  attentioiQ  to 
these  rising  controversies.  Charles  V.,  studious  of  the  friendship  of 
the  pope,  took  part  against  Luther,  and  summoned  him  to  answer 
for  his  doctrines  in  the  diet  of  Worms.  The  reformer  defended 
himself  with  great  spiilt,  and,  aided  by  his  friend  the  elector,  made 
a  safe  escape  into  Saxony,  where  the  mass  was  now  universally 
abolished,  the  images  destroyed,  and  the  convents  shut  up.  The 
friars  and  nuns  returned  to  the  world,  and  Luther  took  a  nun  for  hia 
wife.  Nor  did  these  secularized  priests  abuse  their  new  freedom, 
for  their  manners  were  decent,  and  their  life  exemplary. 

3.  Erasmus  has  justly  censured  the  impolicy  of  the  catholic  clergy 
m  their  modes  of  resisting  and  suppressing  the  new  doctrines.  They 
allowed  them  to  be  discussed  in  sermons  before  the  people,  and  em- 
ployed for  that  purpose  furious  and  bigoted  declaimers^  who  only 
mcreased  and  widened  differences.  They  would  not  yield  in  the 
most  insigniticant  trifle,  nor  acknowledge  a  single  fault ;  and  they 
persecuted  with  the  utmost  cruelty  all  whose  opinions  were  not 
agreeable  to  their  own  standard  of  faith.  How  wise  is  the  counsel  of 
lord  Bacon !  ^^  There  is  no  better  way  to  stop  the  rise  of  new  sects 
and  schisms,  than  to  reform  abuses,  compound  the  lesser  differences, 
proceed  mildly  from  the  first,  refrain  from  sanguinary  persecutions^ 
and  rather  to  soften  and  win  the  principal  leaders,  ij  gracing  and 
advancing  them,  than  to  enrage  them  oy  violence  and  bitterness.^' 
Bac  Mor.  Ess.  Sect,  1.   Ess,  U. 

4.  Switzerland  followed  in  the  path  of  reformation.  Zuinelius  of 
Zurich  preached  the  new  tenets  with  such  zeal  and  effect^  that  the 
whole  canton  was  converted,  and  the  senate  publicly  abohshed  the 
mass,  and  purified  the  churches.  Berne  took  the  same  measures 
with  greater  solemnity,  after  a  discussion  in  the  senate  which  lasted 
two  months.  Basle  imitated  the  same  example.  Other  cantons 
armed  in  defence  of  their  faith ;  and  in  a  desperate  engagement,  in 
which  the  protestants  were  defeated,  Zumglius  was  slain,  1,53L 

5.  Lutheranism  was  now  making  its  progress  towards  the  north 
of  Europe.  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Norway,  were  at  this  tune  gov- 
erned by  Christiem  IL,  the  Nero  of  the  north.  The  Swedes,  re- 
luctantly submitting  to  the  yoke,  were  kept  in  awe  bv  Troll,  arch- 
bishop of  Upsal,  a  ralthfol  minister  of  the  tyrant  in  all  his  scnemes 
of  opfiression  and  cruelty.  On  intelligence  of  a  revolt,  the  kin^ 
and  nis  primate,  armed  with  a  bull  from  pope  Leo  X.,  massacred 
the  whole  body  of  the  nobles  and  senators,  amidst  the  festivity  of  a 
Danquet.  Gustavus  Vasa,  grand  nephew  of  Charles  Canutson. 
formerly  king  of  Sweden,  escaped  from  this  carnage,  and  concealea 
himself  in  Uie  mines  of  Dalecarlia.  Bv  degrees  assembling  a  8ma^ 
army,  he  defeated  the  generals  of  Cnristiem,  whose  cruelties  at 
length  determined  the  united  nations  to  vindicate  their  rights,  by  a 
solemn  sentence  of  deposition.  The  tyrant  fled  to  Flandeis,  and 
Frederick  duke  of  Hoistein  was  elected  sovereign  of  the  three 
kingdoms ;  but  Sweden,  adhering  to  her  heroic  deliverer,  and  the 
heir  of  her  ancient  kings,  acknowledged  alone  the  sovereignty  of 
Gustavus  Vasa,  1,521.  The  bull  of  Leo  X.,  and  its  bloody  conse- 
quences, were  sufficient  to  convert  Sweden  and  Denmark  to  the 
tenets  ol  the  reformed  religion.  Gustavus  emoyed  his  sceptre  manf 
years  in  peace,  and  contrmuted  greatly  to  the  happiness  and  pr«^ 
perity  of  iiifl  kingdom. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  Its 

e.  As  eMrly  m  1^25.  the  states  of  Saxony,  Brunswick,  Hesse  Cas- 
•ri,  and  the  cities  of  Strasbur^h  and  FnnOtfort,  had  embraced  tt!e 
^'^r^  of  the  refonnatioiL  Luther  had  now  a  species  of  spiritual 
control,  which  he  exercised  by  means  of  a  synodof  six  refonnera. 
ffe  succe«ful  example  gave  rise  to  refonnere  of  different  kinds, 
whose  doctnnes  were  less  consonant  to  reason  or  good  policy.  Two 
tuatKS  of  Saxony,  Storck  and  Muncer,  condemned  infant  baptism, 
and  therefore  were  termed  anabaptists.  They  preached  univereal 
equality  and  freedom  of  religious  opinion,  but,  with  singular  mconsis- 
tcncy,  attempted  to  propagate  their  doctrines  by  the  swonl.  Ther 
were  defeated  at  Mulhausen,  and  Muncer  died  on  a  scaffold :  but  tha 
P*^.,^*?®^.^?  acquire  new  courage.  They  surprised  Munster, 
expeUcd  the  bishop,  and  anointed  for  Sieir  king  a  taifor  named  Jack 
u}fl^  who  defended  the  city  with  the  most  desperate  courage, 
but  fell  atlength,  with  his  party  under  the  superior  Ibrce  of  regiiS 
troops.  Ihe  anabaptists,  thus  sanguinary  in  their  original  tenets 
and  pracUces,  have  long  ago  become  peaceable  and  hwmless  sub- 

7.  The  miited  power  of  the  pope  and  emperor  found  it  impossi- 
Ue  to  check  the  progress  of  the  reformation.  The  diet  of  Spires 
proposed  Mticles  of  accommodation  between  the  Lutherans  and 
ratlioljc^  Fourteen  cities  of  Gennany,  and  several  of  the  electors 
protested  formally  agamst  those  articles;  and  hence  the  Lutheran 
party  acqmred  the  name  of  proteHanU.  They  presented  to  the 
u-^mbly  at  Augsburg  a  confession  of  their  &ith,  which  is  the  stand- 
.inl  of  the  protectant  doctrines. 

^L«^tKl{?^"^iHl^  and  conduct  of  the  protestant  leadere,  coro- 
par&dfnth  those  of  the  higher  clergy  among  the  cathoUcs,  formed 
a  coDtnist  very  fevourable  to  the  progress  of  the  refonnaOon.  The 
•olcmn  maimer  m  which  the  states  of  Switzeriand,  and  particularly 
(lencva,  had  proceeded,  m  calmly  discussing  every  point  of  contri 
jersy,  and  yielding  only  to  the  force  of  rational  conviction,  attracted 
the  respect  of  all  Europe.  John  Calvin,  a  Frenchman,  Ucomlmr  a 
zealomconvert  to  the  new  doctrines,  was  the  first  who  gave  them  a 
systematic  fonn  by  his  InstUutwni,  and  enforced  their  authority  bv 
the  esCaM»bment  of  synods,  consistories,  and  deacons.  The  magii 
tracy  of  Geneva  me  these  ordinances  the  authority  of  law  :lnd 
they  were  adopted  by  six  of  the  Swiss  cantons,  by  the  protestants  ol 
*  ranee,  and  the  presbytenans  of  Scotland  andEngland.  The  ablest 
advocates  of  Calvm  will  find  it  difficult  to  vindiSite  him  from  the 
charge  of  mtoleraoa*  and  tiie  spirit  of  pereecution;  but  these,  which 
arevices  or  defecte  of  the  iwfividual,  attach  not  m  the  least  to  the 
dortnnes  of  the  reformation,  which  are  subject  to  tiie  test  of  reason, 
^S^wVr^ fiSTth  ""^  '^'^^'^'''^ ^^  ^^  ™?° ^*»«  propagat- 
Un^ii^suppoJtoSi.  TS^Smti^aJSSS!^^ 
to  the  snlgect  of  the  ensuing  section.  ^  if^u^»miMj 

See  Kelt's  Elementa  of  General  Knowledge,  VoL  L 


yGt>ogk 


174  MODERN  HISTORY. 


SECTION  XL. 

OF  THE  REFORBIATION  IN  ENGLAND  UNDER  HENRY   VHI^ 
AND  HIS  SUCCESSORS. 

1.  WiCKUFF,  Id  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century,  by  an  at- 
tack on  tlie  doctrines  of  transubstantiation,  indulgences^  and  auricular 
confeflsiou,  and  still  more  by  a  translation  of  the  scriptures  bto  the 
vernacular  tongue,  had  prepared  the  minds  of  the  people  of  England 
fi>r  a  revolution  in  relleious  opinions;  but  his  professed  followers 
were  not  numerous,  llie  intemperate  passions  of  Henry  VUL  were 
the  immediate  cause  of  the  reformation  in  England,  ne  had  been 
married  eighteen  years  to  Catharine  of  Spain,  aunt  of  Charles  V., 
by  whom  he  had  three  children,  one  of  them,  Manr,  aflerwards  queen 
^England;  when,  falling  in  love  with  Anna  buUen,  he  solicited 
Clement  VII.  for  a  divorce  from  Catharine,  on  the  score  of  her  for- 
mer maniaee  to  his  elder  brother  Arthur.  The  pope  found  himself 
in  the  painful  dilemma  of  either  affronting  the  emperor,  or  mortally 
offending  the  king  of  England.  In  hope  that  the  king's  passion 
might  cool,  he  protracted  the  time  by  preliminaries  and  negotiations, 
but  to  no  purpose.  Henry  was  resolutely  bent  on  accomplishing 
his  wishes.  The  Sorbonne  and  other  French  universities  eave  an 
opinion  in  his  favour.  Armed  with  this  sanction,  he  caused  Cranmer 
archbishop  of  Canterbury  to  annul  his  marriage.  The  repudiated 
queen  gave  place  to  Anna  Bullen.  On  tbis  occasion  Wolsej,  the 
minister  of  Henry,  lost  the  favour  of  his  master,  by  opposmg,  as 
was  believed,  bis  darling  measure. 

2.  Clement  VII.,  from  this  specimen  of  the  wayward  temper  of 
Henry,  resolved  to  keep  well  with  the  emperor,  and  Issued  his  bull, 
condemnatory  of  the  sentence  of  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
Henry  immediately  proclaimed  himself  head  of  the  church  of  Eng- 
knd ;  the  parliament  ratified  his  title^  and  the  pope's  authority  was 
instantly  suppressed  in  all  his  dominions,  1,534.  He  proceeded  to 
abolish  the  monasteries,  and  confiscate  their  treasures  and  revenues, 
electing  out  of  the  latter  six  new  bishoprics  and  a  college.  The 
immoralities  of  the  monks  were  sedulously  exposed,  the  forgery  of 
relics,  false  miracles,  &c.  held  op  to  the  popular  scorn. 

3.  Vet  Henry,  though  a  reformer,  and  pope  in  his  own  kingdom, 
had  not  renounced  the  religion  of  Rome:  he  was  equalljr  an  enemy 
to  the  tenets  of  Luther  and  Calvin  as  to  the  pope^s  jurisdiction  in 
England.  Inconstant  in  his  affections,  and  a  stranger  to  all  humanity, 
he  removed  Anna  Bullen  from  the  throne  to  the  scaffold,  to  gratify  a 
new  passion  for  Jane  Seymour,  a  maid  of  honour,  who  happily  died 
about  ayear  after.  To  her  succeeded  Anne  of  Cleves,  whom  he 
divorced  in  nine  months,  to  make  way  for  Catharine  Howard.  She 
underwent  the  same  fate  with  Anna  Bullen,  on  a  similar  suspicion  of 
infidelity  to  his  bed.  His  sixUi  wife,  Catharine  Parr,  with  difficult/ 
retained  her  hazardous  elevation,  but  had  the  good  fortune  to  so^ 
vhre  the  tyrant 

4.  On  the  death  of  Henry  Vlll..  1,647,  and  the  accession  of  his  san 
Edward  \1.,  the  protestant  religion  prevailed  in  England,  and  ^ibs 
favoured  by  the  sovereign ;  but  he  died  at  the  early  age  of  iifteen, 
l,&53 i  BOd  the  sceptre  passed  to  the  hands  of  his  sister  Mary,  an  io* 

Digitized  by  V^OOQIC  , 


MODERN  fflSTORY.  llj 

>  t 

tolennt  catholic,  and  most  cruel  persecutor  of  the  protestants.  In 
hcT  veigO)  which  was  of  five  years'  duration,  above  800  miserable 
tktiiiis  were  burnt  at  a  stake,  martyrs  to  tbeir  religious  ODinions. 
Mary  inherited  a  coogeniai  spirit  with  her  husband,  Phiiip  11.  of  Spafaii 
whose  intolerance  cost  him  the  loss  of  a  third  part  of  his  dominions. 

5u  Mary  was  succeeded  in  1,658  by  her  sister  Elizabeth,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Aoioa  Bullen,  a  protestant,  the  more  zealous  from  an  abhor* 
lence  o£  the  character  of  her  predecessor,  in  her  reign  the  religion 
of  England  became  stationary.  The  hierarchy  was  established  in  iti 
present  Ibxm,  by  archbishops,  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons,  the  klnt* 
Deing  by  law  the  bead  of  tiie  church.  The  liturgy  had  been  settled 
m  tl£  reign  of  Edward  VI.  The  canons  are  agreeable  chiefly  to  the 
Lotbenn  tenets. 

Of  the  reformation  in  Scotland  we  shall  afterwards  treat  under  a 
sepanta  section. 

SECTION  XLl. 

OF  THE  mSCOVERT  AND  CONQUEST  OF  AMERICA  BY  THK 
SPANIARDS. 

1.  Amoro  those  great  events  which  distinguished  the  age  of  Charles 
V.  was  the  conquest  of  Mexico  by  Fernando  Cortez,  and  of  Peru  by 
the  two  brothers,  Francis  and  Gonzalo  Fizarro.  The  discovery  oif 
Amerka  preceded  the  first  of  these  events  about  twenty-seven  years; 
bat  the  account  of  it  has  been  postponed,  tliat  the  whole  may  be 
shortly  treated  in  connexion. 

Chnstopher  Columbus,  a  Genoese,  a  man  of  an  enterprising  spirit, 
having  in  vain  solicited  encouragement  from  his  native  state,  from 
Portugal,  and  from  England,  to  attempt  discoveries  in  the  western 
ocean,  applied  to  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Spain.  Under  the  patron- 
age w  Isabella,  as  queen  of  Castile,  he  was  furnished  with  three 
small  ships,  ninety  men,  and  a  few  thousand  ducats  for  the  expense 
of  his  voyage.  Af\er  thirty-three  days^  sail  from  the  Canaries  he  dis- 
covered San  Salvador.  September,  1,492;  and  soon  afler  the  islands 
of  Cuba  and  Hispaniola.  lie  returned  to  Spain,  and  brought  a  few 
of  the  natives,  some  presents  of  gold,  and  curiosities  of  tiie  country. 
He  was  treated  b^  the  Spaniards  with  the  highest  honourau  and  soon 
iopplied  with  a  suitable  armament  for  the  prosecution  of  his  discore- 
ries.  In  his  second  voyage  he  discovered  tne  Caribbees  and  Jamaica. 
In  a  third  voyage  he  descried  the  continent  of  America,  within  ten 
degrees  of  the  equator,  toward  the  isthmus  of  Panama.  The  next 
year  the  geographer  Americus  followed  the  track  of  Columbus,  and 
had  the  undeserved  honour  of  giving  his  name  to  this  continent 

2.  The  inhabitants  of  America  and  its  islands  were  a  race  of  men 
quite  new  to  the  Europeans.  They  are  of  the  colour  of  copper.  In 
•ome  quarters,  as  in  Mexico  and  Peru,  the  Spaniards  are  said  to  have 
(band  a  flourishing  empire,  and  a  people  polished,  refinecL  and  luxiH 
rioos ;  in  others,  man  was  a  naked  savage,  the  member  or  a  wandef- 

S;  tribe,  whose  sole  occupation  was  hunting  or  war.  The  savages 
the  continent  were  characterized  by  their  cruelty  to  their  enemiefl| 
llieir  contempt  of  death,  and  their  generous  affection  for  their  friends^ 
The  inhabitants  of  the  islands  were  a  milder  nice«of  gentler  manneiVi 
mtpd  leaa  hardy  conformation  of  body  and  mind.  The  larger  animalu, 
mM  the  Imiei  the  cow,  were  unknown  in  America. 

Digitized  by  CjOOQ  iC  ^^ 


J76  MODERN  HISTORy.  , 

3.  Those  oewly-dlscoyered  countries  were  believed  to  contain  in 
ezhaostiUe  treasures.  Tlie  Spaniards,  under  the  pretence  of  reli 
gion  and  policy,  treated  the  inhabitants  with  the  most  sbockinf  inhu- 
man!^. The  rack,  the  scouree,  the  &geot,  were  employed  to  con- 
vert  mem  to  Christianity.  They  were  nunted  like  wild  beasts,  or 
burnt  alive  in  their  thickets  and  fastnesses.  Hispaniola,  containing 
three  millions  of  inhabitants,  and  Cuba,  containing  above  600,000, 
were  absolutely  depopulated  in  a  few  years.  It  was  now  resolved  to 
explore  the  continent ;  and  Fernando  Cortez,  with  eleven  ships  and 
617  men,  sailed  for  that  purpose  from  Cuba  in  1,519.  Landing  at 
Tabasco,  he  advanced,  though  with  a  brave  opposition  from  the  na- 
tives, into  the  interior  of  the  country.  The  state  of  Tlascala,  aAer 
ineffectual  resistance,  became  the  allv  of  the  Spaniards.  On  the  ap- 
proach of  the  Spaniards  to  Mexico,  the  terror  of  their  name  had  pav- 
ed the  way  for  an  easy  conquest 

4.  The  Mexican  empire,  though  founded  little  more  than  a  century 
before  this  period,  had  arisen  to  ^rcat  splendour,  lis  sovereign,  Mon- 
tezuma^  received  the  mvaders  with  the  reverence  due  to  superior 
bein^.  But  a  short  acquaintance  opened  the  eyes  of  the  Mexkrana. 
Findmg  nothing  in  the  Slpaniards  beyond  what  was  human,  they  were 
darin£  enough  to  attack  and  put  to  death  a  few  of  them.  The  in- 
trepid Cortez  immediately  marched  to  the  palace  with  fifty  men, 
and  putting  the  emperor  in  irons,  carried  him  off  prisoner  to  his 
camp;  where  he  afterwards  persuaded  him  to  acknowledge  himself 
a  vassal  of  the  king  of  Castile,  to  hold  his  crown  of  the  lung  as  his 
superior,  and  to  subject  his  dominions  to  the  payment  of  an  annual 
tribute. 

5.  Velasquez,  governor  of  Cuba,  jealous  of  Cortez,  attempted  to 
supersede  him,  bv  despatching  a  superior  army  to  the  continent;  but 
Cortez  defeated  nis  troops,  and  compelled  them  to  join  his  own  ban- 
ners. In  an  attack  by  the  Mexicans  tor  the  rescue  of  theb  sovereign, 
Montezuma,  having  offered  to  mediate  between  them  and  their  ene- 
mies^ waB  iodignanuy  put  to  death  by  his  own  subjects.  The  whole 
empire,  under  its  new  sovereign,  Guatimozin,  was  now  armed  against 
the  Spaniards ;  and  while  the  plains  were  covered  with  their  archers 
and  spearmen,  the  lake  <>f  Mexico  was  filled  with  armed  canoes.  To 
oppose  the  latter  the  Spaniards  built  a  few  vessels  under  the  waUs  of 
their  city,  and  soon  evmced  their  superiority  to  their  feeble  foe  on 
both  elements.  The  monarch  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  officers  of 
Cortez,  and  was  stretched  naked  on  burning  coals,  because  he  refiB^ 
ed  to  discover  his  treasures.  Soon  after  a  conspiracy  against  the 
Spaniards  was  discovered,  and  the  wretched  Guatimozin,  with  all  the 

Srinces  of  his  blood,  were  executed  on  a  gibbet.    This  was  the  last 
low  to  the  power  of  the  Mexicans;  and  Cortez  was  now  absolute 
master  of  the  whole  empire,  1^25. 

6.  In  the  year  1,631  Diego  D^Almagro  and  Francis  Pizarro,  with 
250  foot,  60  horse,  and  12  small  pieces  of  cannon,  landed  in  Peru,  a 
large  and  flourishing  empire,  governed  by  an  ancient  race  of  mon- 
arcns  nanied  Incas.  The  Inca  Atabalipa  receiving  the  Spaniards  with 
reverence^  they  immediately  reqjuiied  him  to  embrace  the  christian 
^th,  and  surrender  all  his  dominions  to  the  emperor  Charles  V.,who 
had  obtaioed  a  gift  of  them  from  the  pope.  The  proposal  being  mis- 
understood, or  received  with  hesitation,  Pizarro  seized  the  monarch 
as  his  prisoner,  whUe  his  troops  massacred  bfiOO  of  the  Peruvians  on 
the  spot  The  empire  was  now  plundered  of  prodigious  treasures  in 
gold  and  pieoious  stones ;  and  Atabalipa,  being  suspected  of  conceal 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODERN  HtarrORY.  177 

iDf  a  ptft  from  his  iosBtiable  faiTaden,  was  soleiimly  tried  aa  a  crimi- 
ng and  stnuDgied  at  n  stake. 

7.  The  coarase  of  the  Spaniards  surpassed  even  their  inhomanity. 
D^Almagro  marched  500  leagues,  through  coDtinual  opposition,  to 
Ciaco,  and  penetrated  across  the  Cordilleras  into  Chili,  two  degrees 
beyood  the  southern  tropic  He  was  slain  in  a  civil  war  between 
hmi  and  his  associate  Francis  Pizarro,  who  was  soon  after  assassinated 
by  tike  ^gariy  of  his  rival  A  few  years  after  the  Spaniards  discover^ 
ed  the  inexliaustibie  silver  mines  of  Potosi,  whicn  they  compelled 
the  Peravians  to  Work  for  their  advantaee.  They  are  now  wroueht 
by  the  negroes  of  Africa.  The  native  Peruvians,  who  are  a  weakly 
moe  of  men,  were  soon  ahnost  exterminated  by  cruelty  and  intoler- 
able labour.  The  humane  bishop  of  Chiapa  remonstrated  with  suc- 
cess to  Charies  V.  on  this  sul^eet ;  and  the  residue  of  tius  miserable 
people  have  been  since  treated  with  more  indulgence. 

6.  The  Spanish  acquisitions  in  America  belong  to  the  crown,  and 
not  to  the  state:  they  are  the  absolute  property  of  the  sovereign, 
and  regolated  solely  by  his  wilL  They  consist  of  three  provinces, 
Mexico*  Peru,  and  Terra  Firma;  and  are  governed  by  three  vke- 
roys,  who  exercise  supreme  civil  and  military  authority  over  their 
respective  provinces.  There  are  eleven  courts  of  audience  for  the 
administration  of  justice,  with  whose  judicial  proceedings  the  vke- 
roys  cannot  interiere:  and  their  judgments  are  subject  to  appeal  to 
the  rojai  council  of  tne  hidies,  whose  jurisdiction  extends  to  every 
denttrtment,  ecclesiastical,  civil,  military,  and  commercial  A  tribu- 
nal in  Spain,  called  Casa  de  la  Contratacion,  regulates  the  departure 
of  the  fleets,  and  their  destination  and  equipment,  under  the  control 
of  Che  council  of  the  indies. 

9.  Tlie  goki  and  silver  of  Spanish  America,  though  the  exclusive 
property  ^  the  crown  of  Spam,  has,  by  means  of  war,  marriages  of 
princes,  and  extension  of  commerce,  come  into  general  circu&tion, 
and  Ins  greatly  ux:reased  the  quantity  of  specie,  and  diminished  the 
vahie  of  money  over  all  Europe. 


SECTION  XUl. 

POSSESSIOKS  OF  THE  OTHER  EUROPEAN  NATIONS  IN  AMER- 
ICA.    THE  UNITED  STATES. 

TBb  example  of  the  Spaniards  excited  a  desire  in  the  other 
DOS  of  Europe  to  participate  with  them  in  the  riches  of  the  new 
world.  The  French,  in  1,657,  attempted  to  form  a  settlement  on 
the  coast  of  Brazil,  where  the  Portuguese  had  already  established 
theoiselves  from  the  beginning  of  the  century.  The  colony  was 
divided  by  Action,  and  was  soon  utterly  destroyed  by  the  Portu- 
fua^e.  It  is  one  of  the  richest  of  the  American  settlements,  both 
mm  the  produce  of  its  soil,  and  its  mines  of  gold  and  precious 


S.  The  Spaniards  were  hi  possession  of  Florida  when  the  French 
attempted  to  colonize  It  in  1,564,  without  success.  The  French 
eelablhhed  a  settlement  in  Acadie  in  1,604,  and  founded  Quebec  hi 
'  I  m  1^608.    But  these  settlements  were  perpetually  subject  to 


atteck  fran  the  English*    In  1,629  the  French  had  not  a  loot  of 
leniUMj  io  America.    Canada  has  been  repeatedly  taken  by  the 

•  Digitized  by"^OOQlC 


178  MODERN  HISTORY. 

English,  and  restored,  by  different  treaties,  to  the  French ;  but  8inc« 
the  peace  of  1,763  it  has  been  a  British  settlement  The  French 
drew  their  greatest  advantages  from  the  islands  of  St  DoniingO| 
Guadaloupe,  and  Martinico.  From  their  continental  poasessionB  ot 
Louisiana,  and  the  settlements  on  the  Mississippi,  which  they  have 
now  lost,  they  never  derived  any  soHd  benefit 

3.  The  Dutch  have  no  settlement  on  the  continent  of  America, 
but  Surinam,  a  part  of  Guiana ;  and,  in  the  West-Indies,  the  islands 
of  Currassoa  and  St  Eustat^us.  The  Danes  possess  the  inconsidera- 
ble islands  of  St  Thomas  and  Santa  Cniz. 

4.  The  British  have  extensive  settlements  on  the  continent  of 
America,  and  in  the  West-India  islands.  Endand  derived  her  right 
to  her  settlements  in  P^orth  America  from  the  first  discovcrp'  of  the 
country  by  Sebastian  Cabot  in' 1,497,  the  year  before  the  discovery 
of  the  continent  of  South  America  by  Columbus;  but  no  attempts 
were  made  by  the  English  to  colonize  any  part  of  the  country  till 
nearly  a  century  afterward.  This  remarkable  neglect  is  in  some 
measure  accounted  for  by  the  frugal  maxims  of  Henry  VII.,  and  the 
unnropitious  circumstances  of  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII.,  of  Edward  VL, 
ana  or  the  bigoted  Mary :  rei^  peculiarly  adverse  to  the  extension 
of  industry,  ti*ade,  and  navigation. 

5.  In  1,585  sir  Walter  Raleigh  undertook  to  settle  a  colony  m  Vir- 
ginia, so  named  in  honour  of  his  queen ;  but  his  attempts  were  fruit- 
less. Two  colonies,  destined  for  settlement,  were  successively  sent 
over  to  the  Virginian  territorr;  but  the  first  was  reduced  to  great  dis- 
tress, and  taken  back  to  ELngland  by  sir  Francis  Drake ;  the  second, 
left  unsupported,  could  never  afterward  be  found. 

6.  In  1,606  king  James  granted  a  patent  for  settling  two  planta- 
tions on  the  main  coasts  oi  North  America.  Dividing  that  portion 
of  the  country,  which  stretches  from  the  thirty-fourth  to  the  forty- 
fifth  degree  of  latitude,  into  two  districts  nearly  equal,  he  granted 
the  southern,  called  the  first  colony,  to  the  London  company,  and 
the  northern,  called  the  second,  to  the  Plymouth  company.  On 
the  reception  of  this  patent  several  persons  of  distinction  m  the  Eng  - 
lish  nation  undertook  to  settle  the  southern  colony;  and  in  1,607  iS& 
first  permanent  colony  was  settled  in  Virginia. 

7.  The  first  settlement  in  the  northern  district  was  made  at  Ply- 
mouth in  ]  ,620,  by  a  number  of  puritans,  who,  having  a  few  years 
before  left  England,  to  liberate  themselves  from  the  oppressions  of 
the  episcopal  hierarcbv.  had  found  a  temporary  asvlum  in  Holland. 
In  1,629  the  patent  of  Massachusetts  was  confirmed  by  king  Charles 
I. ;  and  in  the  following  vear  a  large  body  of  English  non-conformists 
settled  that  territory.  The  settlement  of  Connecticut  was  begun  in 
1,636  by  emigrants  from  Massachusetts.  The  settlement  of  Provi- 
dence, in  libode  Island,  was  begun  the  same  year  by  Roger  >Vil- 
Uams,  a  clergyman,  who,  for  his  refusal  to  submit  to  the  control  of 
the  government  of  Massachusetts,  in  religious  matters,  had  been  ex- 
iled from  that  coIodv.  New  York,  origmally  settled  by  the  Dutch, 
and  by  them  called  New  Netherlands,  was  taken  from  them  by  the 
English  in  1,664,  at  which  time  it  was  subjected  to  the  British  crown, 
and  settled  by  English  colonists.  New  Jersey  was  settled  in  1,667, 
principally  by  qnakers  from  England.  The  charter  of  Pennsylvania 
was  given  in  l/i81  by  king  Charles  H.  to  WilUam  Penn ;  and  a  se^ 
tlement  was  beenn  the  same  vear  by  a  colony  consisting  princiimlfr 
of  quakers.    iTie  patent  of  Maryland  was  given  bv  king  Cliarles  L 

<)  lord  Baiiimore  in  1,632;  and  two  years  afterward  the  colony  vmsi 

Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  179 

settled  by  a  body  of  Roman  catholics  from  England.  The  charter 
of  Carolina  was  granted  by  Charles  II.  to  the  earl  of  Clarendon  and 
aereml  associates  in  1,663;  and  that  colony  was  soon  ailer  settled  by 
the  Elngiish.  In  1,729  the  province  was  divided  into  two  distinct  . 
governments,  one  of  which  was  called  North,  and  the  other 
Sooth  Carolina.  The  charter  of  Georgia  was  given  in  1,732  by  king 
Cieorge  II.  to  a  number  of  persons  in  England,  who,  from  motives  oi 

gitriotism  and  humanity,  prqjected  a  settlement  in  that  wild  territory. 
y  this  roeasare  it  was  intended  to  obtain,  first,  possession  of  nn  exten- 
sive tract  of  country ;  to  strengthen  the  province  of  Carolina ;  to 
rescue  a  great  number  of  people  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  from 
the  miseries  of  poverty ;  to  open  an  asylum  for  persecuted  protest 
tants  in  difierent  parts  of  Eurooe ;  and  to  attempt  the  conversion  and 
civilization  of  the  natives.  Under  the  guidance  of  general  Ogle- 
thorpe a  colony  was  settled  here  m  1,733.  Nova  Scotia  was  settled 
m  toe  reign  otJames  1.  The  Floridas  were  ceded  by  Spain  to  Great 
Britain  at  the  peace  of  1,763;  but  they  were  reduced  by  the  arms 
of  his  catholic  majesty  during  the  American  war,  and  guaranteed  to 
ihe  crown  of  Spain  by  the  dednitive  treaty  of  1,783. 

8.  Ail  the  British  colonies  in  North  America  were  subject  to  the 
^▼enunent  of  Great  Britain  from  the  time  of  their  settlement  un- 
Ulthe  year  1,775.  Opposition  to  certain  measures  of  the  British  ' 
pariiament,  the  tendency  of  which,  was  to  claim  for  the  king  and 
partiameot  of  Great  Britain,  a  right  to  tax  colonies,  that  did  not  send 
repr»entatives  to  parliament,  and  were  therefore  hostile  to  rights  and 
Ub«HJes,  that  had  oeen  enjoyed  and  exercised  by  the  colonics  from 
\helr  origin,  having  induced  the  government  to  send  troops  to  Amer 
ica  to  enibrce  submission  to  their  laws,  hostilities  commenced  in 
April,  1,776.  In  1,776  the  American  congress  declared  the  United 
States  independent  In  September  1,783,  a  definitive  treaty  of  peace 
was  coocliided,  by  which  his  Britannic  majesty  acknowledged  the 
United  States  of  America  to  t>e  free,  sovereign,  and  independent 
Tftates.  In  1,789  the  government  of  these  states  was  organized,  con- 
fonnobly  to  the  federal  constitution ;  and  George  Washington,  who 
had  beeo  commander  inchief  of  the  revolutionary  army,  was  inaugu- 
rated ttie  first  president 

9,  The  British  colonies  in  America,  and  the  United  States,  are 
greatly  inferior  to  the  Spanish  American  colonies  in  natural  riches, 
MS  they  produce  neither  silver  nor  gold,  nor  cochineal ;  jet  they 
are  in  general  of  fertile  soil,  and  considerably  improved  by  industry. 
They  afibrda  profitable  market  for  European  manufactures.  Canada 
famishes  for  exportation  wheat,  tlonr,  flax-seed,  lumber,  dsh,  ]>otash, 
oil,  ginseng,  furs,  pelts,  and  various  other  commodities.  The  pro- 
duce of  the  vVe^t  India  islands  (Jamaica,  Barbadoes,St  Christopher's* 
Antigna,  the  Granadas,  and  other  islands),  in  sugai^  coflfee.  cocoa- 
mm,  molanei,  cotton,  and  other  articles,  is  of  ^ery  gieat  value  to 
the  mother  country.  The  northern  states  in  the  federal  union  fuj> 
mJeh  masts,  ship  timber,  lumber,  potash,  furs,  pelts,  fish,  beef,  pork, 
bntter,  cheese,  rye,  and  maize ;  the  middlie  states,  tlonr,  maize, 
Bax-9ted^  peas,  deer  skins,  and  other  pelts;  and  the  southern  statea. 
rk^  flour,  indigo,  cotton,  tobacco,  pork,  live  oak,  tar,  pitch,  ani 
gcspentine* 


y  Google 


.80  MODERN  HETTORY. 


SECTION  XUOL 

OF  THE  STATE  OF  THE  FINE  ARTS  IN  EUROPE  IN  THE  AGE 
OF  LEOX. 

1.  Iir  eDnmeratiDg  those  mat  olgecte  which  characterized  the 
end  of  the  fifteenth  and  the  oeguming  of  the  sixteenth  century,  we 
remarked  the  high  adrancement  to  which  the  fine  arts  attained  in 
Europe  in  the  age  of  Leo  X.  The  strong  bent  which  the  human 
mind  seems  to  take«  in  certain  periods,  to  one  class  of  pursuits  in 
preference  to  ail  others,  as  in  the  age  of  Leo  X.,  to  tlie  fine  arts  oi 
painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture,  may  be  partly  explained  fixun 
porai  causes;  such  as  the  peacefiil  state  of  a  counUy,  the  genius  or 
taster  and  the  ISbenl  encouragement  of  its  soyereigns,  the  general 
emumtion  that  arises  where  one  or  two  artists  are  of  confess^  emi- 
nence^ and  the  aid  which  men  derire  from  the  studies  and  works  of 
one  another.  These  causes  have  doubtless  great  influence,  but  do 
not  seem  entirely  sufficient  to  account  for  the  fiict  The  operation 
^  of  such  causes  must  be  slow  and  graduaL  In  the  case  of  the  fine 
'  arts,  the  transitioa  fix)m  obscuritr  to  splendour  was  rapid  and  instan- 
taneous. From  the  contemptible  nkediocrity  in  which  they  had  re- 
mained for  ages,  they  rose  at  one  step  to  the  highest  pitch  of  excel- 
lence. 

2.  The  arts  of  painting  and  sculpture  were  buried  in  the  west  un- 
der the  ruins  of  Uie  Roman  empire.  They  ^dually  declined  in 
the  latter  a^es,  as  we  may  perceive  by  the  senes  of  tlie  coins  of  the 
lower  empire.  The  Ostrogotiis,  instead  of  destroying,  sought  to 
preserve  tne  monuments  of  taste  and  genius.  They  were  even  the 
mventors  of  some  of  the  arts  dependent  on  design,  as  the  compodtion 
of  Mosaic  But,  in  the  middle  ages,  those  arts  were  at  a  very  low 
ebb  in  Europe.  They  began,  however,  to  revive  a  Dttle  about  Uie 
end  of  the  thirteenth  century.  Cimabue,  a  Florentine,  from  the 
sight  of  the  paintmgs  of  some  Greek  artists  in  one  of  the  churches, 
began  to  attempt  similar  performances,  and  soon  excelled  his  models. 
His  scholars  were  Ghiotto,  Gaddi.  Tassi  Cavillmi,  and  Stephano  Flo- 
rentino ;  and  they  formed  an  academy  at  Florence  in  1,350. 
'  3.  The  works  of  those  early  painters,  with  some  fidelity  of  imita^ 
Cion,  had  not  a  spark  of  grace  or  elegance :  and  such  continued  to  be 
the  state  of  the  art  till  toward  the  em  of  tne  fifteenth  century,  when 
it  arose  at  once  to  the  summit  of  perfection.  Raphael  pamted  at 
first  in  the  hard  manner  of  his  master  Perugino;  but  soon  deserted 
it,  and  struck  at  once  into  the  noble,  elegant,  and  gradeful ;  in  short, 
the  unitation  of  the  cuUime,  This  change  was  the  result  of  genius 
alone.  The  ancient  sctuptves  were  familiar  to  the  earlv  pamters, 
hut  they  had  looked  on  them  with  cold  indifference.  They  were 
new  surveved  by  other  eyes.  Michael  Angelo^  RaphaeL  and  Leo- 
nardo da  Vinci,  were  animated  by  the  same  genius  that  formed  the 
Grecian  Appellee  Zeuxis,  Glycon,  Phidias,  and  Praxiteles. 

4.  Nor  was  Italy  alone  thus  distinguished  Germany,  Flanders,  and 
Switzerland,  produced  in  the  same  age  artists  of  consummate  merit 
Before  the  notice  c^  these  we  shall  briefly  charactenze  the  schooli 
ofltaly. 

5.  First  m  order  u  the  school  of  Florence,  of  which  the  most  eit 
iMQt  master  was  Michael  Angelo,  bom  in^^M- Jgb^P*s  ««^ 


MODERN  HISTORY.  181 

chtncterised  by  a  profound  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  of  the  human 
fi|rare^  perhaps  chiefly  formed  on  the  coDtemplation  of  the  ancient 
scolpturet.  His  paintings  exhibit  the  ^rand,  tne  sublime,  and  terri- 
\'\e  ;  but  he  drew  not  from  the  antique  its  simple  erace  and  beauty. 

6.  The  Roman  school  was  founded  by  Raphael  d^Uibino.  bom  in 
K 183.  This  great  painter  united  almost  every  excellence  of  the  art 
la  invention,  grace,  majestic  simplicity,  forcible  expression  of  the 
iKiarions,  he  stands  unrivalled,  and  tar  beyond  all  competition.  He 
tr.is  borrowed  liberally,  but  without  servility,  from  the  antique. 

7.  Of  the  school  of  Lombardy,  or  the  Venetian,  the  most  eminent 
artist*  were  Titian,  Giorgione,  Corregio,  and  Parmeggiano.  Titinn 
i^  most  eminent  in  portrait,  and  in  the  painting  of  female  beauty. 
Such  19  the  truth  of  his  colouring,  that  his  figures  are  nature  it.«oir. 
It  vnvi  the  testimony  of  Michael  Angelo  to  the  merits  of  Titian,  that, 
if  he  had  studied  at  Rome  or  Florence,  amidst  the  master-piecos  nf 
antiquity,  he  would  have  eclipsed  all  the  painters  in  the  world.  Ti 
ti.in  lived  to  the  age  of  a  hundred.  Giorgione,  with  similar  merit.->, 
was  cut  ofl"  in  the  dower  of  his  youth.  Correggio  was  superior  iii 
colouring,  and  in  the  knowledge  of  light  and  shade,  to  all  who  have 
preceded  or  followed  him.  This  knowledge  was  the  result  of  study. 
in  other  painters  those  effects  are  frequently  accidental,  as  we  oIh 
•icrve  that  they  are  not  uniform.  Parmeggiano  imitated  the  graceful 
manner  of  Raphael,  but  carried  it  to  a  degree  of  affectation. 

8.  Such  were  the  three  original  Italian  schools.  The  character  of 
the  Florentine  is  grandeur  and  sublimity,  with  great  excellence  of 
design,  bat  a  want  of  grace,  of  skill  in  colouring,  and  effect  of  iigiit 
and  shade.  The  character  of  the  Roman  is  equal  excellence  of  do- 
sign,  a  grandeur  tempered  with  moderation  and  simplicity,  a  high 
degree  of  grace  and  elegance,  and  a  superior  knowledge,  though  not 
nn  excellence,  m  colouring.  The  character  of  the  Venetian  is  the 
pcrfectioa  of  colouring,  and  the  utmost  force  of  light  aud  shade, 
with  an  inferiority  in  every  other  particular. 

9.  To  the  school  of  Raphael  succeeded  the  second  Roman  school, 
or  that  of  the  Caraccis.  three  brothers,  of  whom  Annibal  was  the 
most  &moas.  His  scholars  were,  Guercino,  Albano,  Laniiranc,  Dom- 
enichino,  and  Guide.  Of  these  eminent  painters  the  first  and  last 
were  the  best.  The  elegant  contours  of  Guercino,  and  the  strength 
sweetness,  and  majesty  ofGuido,  are  the  admiration  of  all  true  judges 
of  painting. 

10  In  the  same  aj^e  the  Flemish  school,  though  of  a  quite  differ* 
ent  character,  and  inferior  to  the  Italian,  shone  with  great  lustre. 
Oil  paintmg  was  invented  by  the  Flemings  in  the  fifteenth  century ; 
and,  in  that  age,  Heemskirk,  Frans  Floris,  Quintin  Matsys,  and  the 
German  Albert  Durer,  were  deservedly  distinguished.  Of  tlie  Flem- 
*eh  school,  Rubens^  though  a  painter  of  a  much  later  age,  is  the 
chief  ornament  His  figures,  though  too  corpulent,  are  drawn  with 
gre:tt  truth  and  nature.  He  possesses  faiexhaustible  invention,  and 
rreat  skill  in  the  expression  of  the  passions.  Switzerland  produced 
riam  Holbein^  a  painter  of  great  enunence  in  portrait,  and  remarka- 
ble for  truth  of  colouring,  rnm  his  residence  at  the  oourt  of  Henry 
VUL  there  are  more  specimens  of  his  works  in  Britain  than  of  anv 
"iher  foreign  painter.  Holland  had  likewbe  its  painters,  whose  chiei 
merit  was  Uie  faithful  representation  of  Tnlgar  nature,  and  perfect 
knowledge  of  the  mechanism  of  the  art,  the  power  of*  colours,  wai 
the  e&ct  of  light  and  ihade^ 

U.  With  the  art  rf  palatini,  sciilptM*  «nd«t|i^^ 


182  MODERN  HISTORY. 

wise  revived  in  the  same  age,  and  brought  almost  to  perfection. 
The  universal  genius  of  Michael  Angelo  pnone  equally  conspicuous 
in  all  the  three  departments.  His  statue  of  Bacchus  was  juofied  bj 
Raphael  to  be  the  work  of  Phidias  or  Praxiteles.  The  Grecian  ar- 
chitecture was  tirst  revived  by  the  Florentines  in  the  fourteenth  cea* 
tury ;  and  the  cathedral  of  Pisa  was  constructed  partly  from  the  ma- 
terials of  an  ancient  Greek  temple.  The  art  arrived  at  perfection  in 
the  age  of  Leo  X.,  when  the  church  of  St  Peter's  at  Rome,  under 
the  direction  of  Bramante^  San  Gailo,  Raphael,  and  Michael  Angelo, 
exhibited  the  noblest  specimen  of  architecture  in  the  worid. 

12.  The  invention  ot  the  art  of  engraving  on  copper  by  Tomaso 
Finiguerrn.  a  goklsmith  of  Florence,  is  dated  about  1 ,460.  From  Ita- 
ly it  travelled  into  Flanders,  where  it  was  first  practised  by  Martin 
dchoen  of  Antwerp.  His  scholar  was  the  celebrated  Albert  Durer, 
who  engraved  excellently  both  on  copper  and  on  wood.  Etching  on 
copper  by  means  of  aquafortis,  which  gives  more  ease  than  the  stroke 
of  the  graver,  was  discovered  by  Farmeggiano,  who  executed  in  that 
manner  his  own  beautiful  designs.  No  art  underwent,  in  its  early 
stages,  so  rapid  an  improvement  as  that  of  engraving.  In  the  course 
of  150  years  from  its  invention  it  attained  nearly  to  its  perfection  ; 

^  for  there  has  been  little  proportional  improvement  in  the  last  century 
'  since  the  days  of  Audran,  roilly,  and  Edelinck. 

13.  The  art  of  engraving  in  mezzotinto  is  of  much  later  date  than 
the  ordinary  mode  of  engraving  on  copper.  It  was  the  invention  of 
prince  Rupert  about  1,650.    fi  is  characterized  by  a  softness  equal 

.  to  that  of  the  pencil,  and  a  happy  blending  of  light  and  shade,  and  is 
thereibre  peculiarly  adapted  to  portrait,  where  those  requisites  are 
most  essential. 

14.  The  age  of  Leo  X.  was  likewise  an  era  of  very  high  literary 

Slendour ;  but  of  the  distinguished  writers  of  that  period  we  shall 
terwards  treat,  in  a  connected  view  of  the.  progress  of  literature 
and  the  sciences  during  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries. 


SECTION  XLIV. 

or  THE  OTTOMAN  POWER  IN  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY. 

1.  From  the  period  of  the  taking  of  Constantinople,  in  the  middle 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  the  Turks  were  a  great  and  conquering 
people.  In  the  sixteenth  century,  Selim  1.,  afler  he  had  subdued 
Syna  and  Mesopotamia,  undertook  the  con(}ucst  of  Ei^ypt,  then  gov- 
erned by  the  Mamelukes,  a  race  of  Circassians,  who  had  seized  the 
country  in  1,250,  and  put  an  end  to  the  government  of  the  Arabian 
princes,  the  posterity  of  Saladin.  The  conquc^'^^t  of  Egypt  by  Selim 
made  little  change  m  the  form  of  its  government.  It  professes  to 
own  the  sovereignty  of  the  Turks,  but  is  in  reality  stiH  governed  by 
the  Mameluke  beys. 

2.  Solyman  (the  magnificent)  son  of  Sr^im,  was,  like  his  prede- 
cessors, a  great  conqueror.  The  island  of  Uliodes,  possessed  by  the 
knights  of  St  John,  was  a  darling  objort  of  lii^  ambition.  These 
knights  had  expelled  the  Saracens  from  iho  i  !;»nd  in  1,310.  Soly- 
man attacked  Rhodes  with  140,000  mm  ani  4im)  ships.  The  Rho- 
dian  knights,  aided  by  the  English,  (^i!iari>\  :«n(i  SpnuiardS}  madca 
noble  defence;  but,  after  a  siege  of  many  n  ..i>ths,  were  forced  to 
capituhte  afid  Gvacoate  the  iisland,  m  Ub'li.    Since  tliat  time  Rhodea 

*^  •  '  DigitizadbyV^OOgie 


I 


MODERN  HISTORY.  189 

In  been  the  jiroiierty  of  the  Turks.  The  commercial  laws  of  the 
iBcieiit  Rhodiaos  were  adof>ted  by  the  Romans,  and  at  this  day  are 
the  foondatioa  of  the  maritime  jurisprudence  of  all  the  nations  of 
Cnropeb 

3k  Solyman  subdued  the  greater  part  of  Hungary,  Moldavia,  and 
Wabcliia;  and  took  from  the  Persians  Georgia  and  Baedat  His 
m  SeDm  IL  took  Cyprus  from  the  Venetians  in  1.571.  They  ap- 
puedtodie  pope  for  aid,  who,  together  with  Philip  11.  of  Spain,  enter- 
^i  lato  a  triple  alliance  against  the  Ottoman  power.  An  armament  of 
f oO  ibips  of  war,  comm^ed  by  Philip^s  natural  brother,  Don  John 
of  Anrifia,  was  opposed  to  250  Turkish  gallics  in  the  gulf  of  liC- 
pnto,Bnr  Corinth;  and  the  Turks  were  defeated,  with  the  loss  of 
I  'o)  4m  and  1 5,000  men,  1 ,57 1 .  This  great  victory  was  soon  after 
ivt^ymed  by  the  taking  of  Tunis  by  the  same  commander. 

i  Art  these  successes  were  of  little  consequence.  The  Otto- 
trm  power  continued  extremely  formidable.  Under  Amurath  IL  the 
Torbmade  encroachments  on  Hungary,  and  subdued  a  part  of  Per- 
fci.  Slahomet  111.,  though  a  barbari;in  m  his  private  character,  sup- 
PiTtni  the  dignity  of  the  empire,  and  extended  its  dominions.  The 
t  cooiD  power  declined  from  his  time,  and  yielded  to  that  of  the 
I* nam  under  Schah-Abbas  the  ereat,  who  wrested  from  the  Turks 
« kirse  part  of  their  late-acquired  dominions. 


SECTION  XLV. 

STATE  OE  PERSIA  AND  OTHER  ASIATIC  KINGDOMS  IN  THE 
SIXTEENTH  AND  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURIES. 

1-  Tk  great  empire  of  Persia,  in  the  end  of  the  fiAeenth  century, 
■r>  icrwcat  a  revolution  on  account  of  religion.  Haydar  or  Sophi,  a 
'^iiCHn  enthushtst,  establishi*d  a  new  sect  of  Mahometans,  which 
'*  'j  Afi  (0  be  the  successor  of  Mahomet  instead  of  Omar,  and  abol- 
-V j  the  pil^imqges  to  Mecca.  The  Persians  eagerly  embraced  a 
-•'nne  which  diSlinguished  them  from  their  enemies  the  Turks; 
.'li  famael,  the  son  of  Sophi,  following  the  example  of  Mahomet, 

-'  ited  hti  opinions  by  the  sword.  He  subdued  all  Persia  and  Ar> 
"^aia,  and  lef^  this  vast  empire  to  his  descendants. 

t  Scbah-AtybaH,  sumamed  tlie  prcat,  Wiia  the  great-grandson  of 
l*siel  SophL  He  ruled  bis  empire  with  despotic  sway,  but  with 
^<  able  policy.     He  regainea  the  provinces  which  had   been 

•  C'-a  by  the  Turt^,  and  drove  the  Portu)(iiese  from  their  settlement 

•  •>niraz.  He  rebuilt  the  fallen  cities  of  Persia,  and  contributed 
f"*  Illy  to  the  introduction  of  arts  and  civilization.  His  son  Schah 
>M  reigned  weakly  and  unfortnuatclv.  In  his  time  Schah-Gean,  the 
r -a;  Mogul,  deprived  Persia  of  Cancfahji' ;  and  the  Turks  took  Bag- 
'.vm  l^iB.  From  that  period  the  Persi;ui  mouarcliy  gradually  de» 
^'ined.  Its  sovereigns  became  the  most  despicable  slaves  to  their 
"^  Bioisters;  and  a  revolution  in  the  bee;inning  of  the  eighteenth 
'.'titiiry  put  an  end  to  the  dynasty  of  the  bophis,  and  gave  the  throne 
*j  ftr  Afghan  princes,  a  race  of  Tartars. 

•>  The  government  of  Persia  is  almost  as  despotic  as  that  of  Tnt* 
v-x.  The  sovereign  draws  a  small  yearly  lax  from  every  subiect, 
ttl  teceiTea  likewise  stated  gifts  on  parUcular  occasions.  The 
ODwniiberediiBXj,  with  the  ezclosion  of  femulesj  but  the  sooaoi 

■      Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


184  MODERN  HISTORY. 

ft  daaghter  succeed  in  their  course.    There  Is  do  other  rank  fai  Per- 
tia  than  that  annexed  to  office,  which  is  held  during  the  monarch^ 

Siasure.  The  national  relieion  is  the  Mahometan^  as  reformed  by 
phL  The  sect  of  the  Gueores  preserve  the  religion  of  Zoroaster, 
as  contained  in  the  Zendavesta  ana  Sadder,  and  keep  alive  the  sacred 
fire.    (Part  L,  Sect  XL) 

4.  The  poe^  of  the  Persians  displays  great  fency  and  luxuriance 
of  imagenr.  The  epic  poet  Firdousi  is  said  to  nval  the  variooi 
merits  of  Homer  and  Anosto;  and  the  writmes  of  Sadi  and  Hafez, 
both  in  prose  and  poetry,  are  admired  by  all  who  are  conversant  in 
orientalliterature. 

5.  Tartary.  From  this  vast  tract  of  country  sprang  those  con- 
querors who  produced  all  the  great  revolutions  in  Asia.  Tartary  is  no 
more  than  a  vast  desert,  inhabited  by  wandering  tribes,  who  follow 
the  life  of  the  ancient  Scythians.  The  Turfi,  a  race  of  Tartan 
overwhelmed  the  empire  of  the  caliphs.  Mahmoud,  a  Tartar,  cod^ 
quered  Persia  and  ereat  part  of  Inma  in  the  tenth  ceoturv.  The 
Tartar  Gengiscan  subdued  India,  China,  Persia,  and  Astatic  itussia,  in 
the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century.  Batoucan,  one  of  his  sons, 
rava£iM  to  me  frontiers  of  Germany.  Tamerlane,  the  scourse  of 
the  Turks,  and  the  conqueror  of  a  great  part  of  Asia,  was  m  the 
race  of  Gengiscan.  Babar.  great-grandson  of  Tamerlane^  subdued 
all  the  country  between  Samarcsmd  and  Agra  in  the  empire  of  the 
Mogul.  The  descendantB  of  those  conquerors  reign  in  India,  Persia, 
and  China. 

6.  Thibet.  The  southern  part  of  Tartary,  called  Thibet,  exhibits 
the  phenomenon  of  a  kingdom  governed  o^  a  human  being  called 
the  Dalai  Lama,  or  Great  Lama,  whose  divinity  is  acknowledged 
not  only  by  his  own  subjects,  but  over  China  and  a  part  of  India. 
This  supposed  god  is  a  young  man,  whom  the  priests  educate  and 
train  to  nis  function,  and  in  whose  name  they  in  reality  govern  the 
kingdouL 

« 

SECTION  XLVL 
HISTORY  OF  INDIA. 

1.  The  earliest  accounts  of  this  great  tract  of  civilized  country 
are  those  of  Herodotus,  who  lived  about  a  century  before  Alexander 
^e  great ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  the  character  given  of  the  people 
by  that  early  writer,  corresponds  perfectly  with  that  of  the  modem 
Hmdoos.  He  had  probably  taken  his  accounts  from  Scytax  of  Can- 
andria.  whom  Darius  Hystaspes  had  sent  to  explore  the  country. 
But  till  the  age  of  Alexander,  the  Greeks  had  no  particular  knowU 
edge  of  that  extraordinary  people.  Alexander  penetrated  into  the 
P&njab,  where  his  troops  refusing  to  proceed,  he  embarked  on  thf 
Hydaspas,  which  runs  into  the  Indus,  and  thence  pursued  his  coone 
for  above  1,000  miles  to  the  ocean.  The  narrative  given  by  Ani^ 
of  this  expedition  was  taken  from  the  verbal  accounts  of  Alexandef*^ 
officers ;  and  its  particulars  agree  yet  more  remarkably  than  thoscof 
Herodotus  with  the  modern  manners  of  the  Hindoos. 

8.  India  was  visited  by  Seleucus.  to  whose  share  it  fell  h&  the  |U^ 
litioD  of  Alexander's  empire;  andf  Antiochus/'^ *  '^^ 


MODERN  mSlORY. 

afterward,  made  a  ^ort  expedition  thither.  It  is  probable  too  I 
some  small  intercourse  subsisted  between  the  Greek  empire  of  I 
triana  and  India ;  but,  till  the  dfteenth  century,  no  European  poi 
thought  of  forming  any  establishment  in  that  country.  From  the 
ol  Alexander  down  to  the  period  of  the  Portuguese  discoveries  th 
had  constantly  been  sonic  commercial  intercourse  between  Eur 
and  IndLi,  both  by  sea  and  across  the  desert. 

3w  The  Maliometuis,  as  early  as  A.  D.  1,000,  had  begun  to  es 
li^h  vjk  empire  in  Iniiia.  Mahmoud,  a  Tartar,  conquered  a  gi 
part  of  tlie  country,  and  established  his  Ciipit^d  at  Ghazna,  near 
ftt>urces  of  tlie  Indus,  extirpating,  wherever  he  came,  the  Hin 
reiigtooi  and  establishing  the  Maliomct:ui  in  its  stead.  Mohami 
Gorl,  in  1,191,  penetrated  to  Benares;  and  one  of  his  succes; 
tixed  the  seat  of  his  empire  at  Delhy,  which  has  continued  to  be 
cjpitiJ  of  the  Mogul  princes.  The  sovereignty  founded  by  W 
mouJ  was  overwhelmed  in  1,222  by  Gengiscan,  as  was  his  empir 
the  ftiilowiug  century  by  Tamerlane,  wliose  posterity  are  at  tliis 
OD  the  throne  of  the  Mogul  empire. 

4.  The  Mogul  empire  was,  even  in  the  beginning  of  the  18th  < 
tury,  the  most  powerful  and  tlourishing  of  all  the  Asiatic  monarcl 
The  emperor  Aurengzebe,  the  son  of  Schah-Gean  though  a  n 
ster  of  cruelty,  and  a  most  despotic  tyrant,  enjoyed  a  life  prolon 
to  a  hundred  years,  croivned  with  uninterrupted  prosperity  and  j 
r€s$4.  He  extended  his  empire  over  the  whole  peninsula  of  li 
withm  the  Ganges. 

h.  The  dominion  of  the  Mo^l  is  not  absolute  over  all  the  cc 
tries  which  compose  his  empire.  Tamerlane  allowed  the  p 
princes.  lajahs  or  nabobs,  to  retain  their  territories,  of  which  tl 
deflceodants  are  at  tliis  day  in  possession.  They  pay  a  tribute  to 
great  Mogul,-  as  an  acknowledgment  of  his  sovereignty,  and 
»>rTe  the  treaties  agreed  to  by  their  ancestors;  but  they  arc 
oUier  respects  independent  princes. 

6.  Bengal  became  a  part  of  the  MoguPs  empire  by  conquest  in 
end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  was  commonly  governed  by  a 
of  the  great  Mogul,  who  had  under  him  several  inferior  nabobs, 
tenner  princes  of  tbe  country.  Such  was  its  condition  when 
British  East  India  company,  between  1,751  and  1,760,  conquered 
ol>taiDcd  possession  of  that  kingdom,  together  with  fiahar 
psLTt  of  Onssa,  a  lar^e,  populous,  and  most  nourishing  country,  < 
taming  above  ten  millions  of  inlvibitants,  and  producing  an  imm< 
revenue;  and  these  territories  have  since  that  period  received  a  < 
4iderablc  addition.  The  East  India  company  nas  the  benefit  of 
vi'hole  commerce  of  the  Mogul  empire,  with  Arabia,  Persia, 
T'hihet,  as  well  as  with  the  kingdoms  of  Azem,  Aracan,  Pegu,  Si 
>lalacca^  China,  and  many  of  the  oriental  islands. 

The  lixed  estaldishments  of  the  British  in  the  country  of  Indo 
bare  afforded  opportunity  of  obtaining  much  instructive  knowlc 
relative  to  the  ancient  state  of  that  country,  of  which  we  shall  { 
^  dkort  sketch  in  the  following  section 

qs  24 


y  Google 


18G  MODERN  HSITOBT. 


SECTION  XLVn 


ANCIENT    STATE   OF   INDIA.      MANNERS,    LAWS,    ARTS, 
SCIENCES,  AND  RELIGION  OF  THE  HINDOOS. 

1.  The  remains  of  the  ancient  knowledge  of  the  Hindoos  have 
been  preserved  by  a  hereditary  priesthood^  in  the  Sanscrit  language, 
long  since  extinct,  and  only  known  to  a  few  of  the  Bramins.  Ilie 
zeal  of  some  learned  Europeans  has  lately  opened  that  source  of  In- 
formation, whence  we  derive  the  most  interesting  particulars  of  this 
extraordinary  people^  perhaps  the  first  cultivators  of  the  science*, 
and  the  instructers  of  all  the  nations  of  antiquity.  We  shall  briefly 
notice  their  singular  division  into  casts,  their  civil  policy,  laws,  prog- 
ress in  the  arts  and  sciences,  and  religion. 

2.  The  whole  body  of  the  people  was  divided  into  four  orders,  or 
casts.  The  highest  cast,  that  of  tne  Bramins,  was  devoted  to  religion 
and  the  cultivation  of  the  sciences ;  to  the  second  belonged  the  pres- 
ervation of  the  state ;  they  were  its  sovereigns  and  its  magistralcs 
in  peace,  and  its  soldiers  in  war;  the  third  were  the  husbandmen  and 
merchants;  and  the  fourth  the  artisans,  labourers,  and  servants. 
These  are  inseparable  distinctions,  and  descend  from  generation  to 

generation.  Moreover^  the  individuals  of  each  class  foUo^v  invariably 
le  professions  of  their  forefathers.  Every  man,  from  his  birth, 
knows  the  function  allotted  to  him,  and  fulfils  with  ease  and  satisfac- 
tion the  duty  which  he  cannot  avoid.  Hence  arises  that  permanence 
of  manners  and  institutions  which  so  singularly  characterizes  this 
ancient  nation. 

3.  This  classification  is  an  artificial  arrangement,  which  could  have 
originated  onlv  from  the  mind  of  a  legislator  among  a  polished  peo- 
ple, completeljr  obedient  to  government  It  is  therefore  a  proof  ot 
the  highly  civilized  state  of  the  Hindoo  nation  in  the  most  remote 
periods  of  antiquity. 

4.  The  civil  policy  of  the  Hindoos  is  anotherproof  of  their  ancient 
civilization.  At  the  time  of  Alexander  the  great,  India  was  divided 
into  large  and  powerful  kingdoms,  governed  oy  sovereigns  whose  do- 
minion was  not  absolute,  but  controlled  by  the  superior  authority  of 
the  Bramius.    A  system  of  feudalism  has  ever  prevailed  m  India. 

'The  rights  to  land  flow  from  the  sovereign,  to  whom  a  certain  doty 
IS  payable  by  the  class  of  the  husbandmen,  who  transmit  their  posses- 
sions to  their  children  under  the  same  tenure.  Strabo  and  Diodoras 
remarked  three  classes  of  officers  among  the  Indians:  one  class  whose 
department  was  the  regulation  of  agriculture,  tanks,  highways 
another  which  superintended  the  police  of  the  cities ;  a  thira  which 
regulated  the  military  department  The  same  policy  prevails  at  this 
day  under  the  Hindoo  princes. 

5.  The  jurisprudence  of  Hindostan  is  an  additional  proof  of  great 
antiquity  and  civilization.  The  Ayen-Akbery,  and  still  more  thf 
compilation  of  Hindoo  laws  from  the  ancient  banscrit  records,  made 
by  order  of  Air.  Hastings,  contain  the  jurisprudence  of  a  refined  as) 
commercial  people,  among  whom  law  had  been  a  study  and  profu- 
sion 

6.  Many  monuments  exist  in  India  of  the  advanced  state  of  the  W^ 
fill  and  elegant  arts  in  the  remotest  periods  of  antiquity.  The  iOK 
cient  pagodas,  of  vast  extent  and  magnificence,  whether  cut  in  th» 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  181 

r  J  rock,  as  in  Elephanta  and  Salsette,  or  in  the  open  air,  as  at 

f '.uimbramandSeringhain;  tlie  sumptuous  residences  of  the  Bra- 

n.  :a ;  and  the  ancient  hili  fortresses,  constructed  with  prodigious 

•'r>.c;th  and  solidity,  evince  a  great  advancement  in  the  arts.    The 

'  ^Tt  of  the  most  polished  nations  of  antiquity  to  India  for  cotton 

''A,  fine  linen,  and  works  in  metal  and  ivory,  proves  these  manu^ 

;.    ir»  to  have  been  superior  to  all  known  at  that  time  in  Europe. 

1  IIk  late  tnuisiations  from  the  Sanscrit  of  several  ingenious 

.•posilions  of  high,  antiquity,  as  the  dramatic  piece  Sacontalou  the 

i^.fodiML,  a  scries  of  moral  apologues  and  fi*btcs.  the  Mahabaral^ 

^  rpic  poem,  comp(»ed  above  :£,(X)U  years  before  the  Christian  ^ta^ 

/J  Ciiocur  in  proof  of  a  similar  advancement  in  literature.    We  have 

I.  xv«  to  believe  from  such  works  ns  ore  of  a  philosophical  nature, 

(-•ii  \hSTt  IS  scai'cely  a  tenet  of  the  Greek  philosophy  which  has  not 

.^  -fi  jolbcedentiy  the  subject  of  discussion  among  the  Braminsof 

..  The  numeral  ciphera  first  mtroduced  into  Europe  by  the  Ara- 
\^-i  were,  as  those  authors  confess,  borrowed  from  the  Indians. 
I  ^fe  a  century  ago,  the  French  mathematicians  evinced,  by  the 
* .  .Jt?0ce  of  a  biamese  manuscript,  containing  tables  for  calculating 
L.-  pbces  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  the  astonishing  advancement 
;.»U*  by  this  ancient  people  in  the  science  of  astronomy.  A  set  of 
r-  -jnomkal  tables  obtained  lately  from  the  Bramins  by  M.  Gentil 
^  -^  back  to  an  em  termed  Calyougham^  commencing  3,102  yeani 
>  !  're  the  birth  of  Ciirist.  These  tables  are  used  by  the  modem 
\ :  unins  who  are  quite  ignorant  of  tiie  principles  on  which  they 

.le  been  constructed.     M.  Bailiy  has  proved  that  they  are  the 

-  -x  as  these  employed  by  the  moderns,  with  which  the  Greeks  and 
<.:uklrans  were  utterly  unacquainted. 

i.  Lastlr,  from  the  religious  opinions  and  worship  of  the  Hindoos 
<««  waaA^  draw  the  same  conclusion  as  from  all  the  preceding^  facts. 

•  •  ^  onttbnD  system  of  supentition  pervades  every  religion  of  India, 

•  •.ch  B supported  by  the  most  sagacious  policy,  and  by  every  thing 
-.11  caa  excite  the  veneration  of  its  votaries.    The  Bramins,  elcvat- 

-  \  above  every  class  of  men^  and  exclusively  acquainted  with  th<> 
~«<cnes  of  that  religion,  which  it  is  held  impious  tor  any  other  class 
'  •  «nempt  to  penetrate ;  the  implicit  reliance  on  the  authority  of 
'  ja«^  Bramins;  the  ceremonies  of  their  worship,  adapted  to  im- 
i'  « the  imagination  and  to  afl'ect  the  passions ;  all  concurred  to  forti- 
'V  t:m  potent  superstition,  and  to  give  its  priests  a  supreme  ascen- 
oory  over  the  minds  of  the  people.  But  those  priests,  enlightened 
•f  they  were,  rejected  that  false  theology.    Their  writing;s  demon- 

•  roe  that  they  entertained  rational  and  elevated  conceptions  with 
^*<anl  to  the  Supreme  Bein^,  and  the  support  of  the  universe. 

lU.  On  the  whole,  there  is  a  high  probability  that  India  was  the 
C7«at  fchool  from  which  the  most  early  polished  nations  of  Europe 
i^  nved  tifteir  knowledge  of  arts,  sciences,  and  literature. 

i^eisoas  who  want  more  particular  information  respecting  India 
»e  referred  to  Biaorice^s  Indian  Antiquities,  and  Tennant's  Indian 
Itacrcaliooa. 


I  •      ^  Digitized  by  CjOOgk 


188  MODERN  HISTORY 


SECTION  XLVm. 


OF  CfflNA  AND  JAPAN. 

1.  Ab  we  proceed  eastward  in  the  survey  of  the  Asiatic  continent, 
the  great  empire  of  China  next  solicits  onr  attention.  In  the  end  of 
the  tenth  century,  China,  Persia,  and  the  greater  part  of  India  were 
ruled  by  the  Tartar  descendants  of  Gengiscan.  The  Tartar  family 
of  Yven,  who  conquered  China,  made  no  change  in  its  laws  and  sys- 
tem of  government,  which  had  been  permanent  from  time  immemo- 
rial. Of  this  family  there  reigned  nine  successive  monarchs,  without 
any  attempt  by  toe  Ciunese  to  throw  off  the  Tartar  yoke.  The 
odious  and  contemptible  character  of  the  last  of  these  sovereigns  at 
length  excited  a  rebellion,  which,  in  1,357,  drove  the  Tartars  from 
the  throne;  and  tiie  Chinese,  for  276  years,  obeyed  their  native 
princes.  The  Tartars,  takmg  advantage  of  an  insurrection  in  one  of 
the  provinces,  invadea  China  in  1,641,  and  made  an  easy  conquest 
The  emperor  shut  himself  up  in  his  palace,  and,  afler  putting  to 
death  all  his  family,  finished  the  scene  by  hanging  himself  The 
same  Tartars  occupy  the  throne  of  China  at  this  (£y,  and  obsen  e 
the  same  wise  policy  of  maintaining  inviolate  the  Chinese  lawe,  poli- 
cy, and  manners.  Of  these  we  shsul  give  a  brief  account  in  the  sub- 
sequent section. 

2.  The  empire  of  Japan  was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  about 
the  middle  ot  the  sixteenth  century.  The  open  and  unsuspicious 
character  of  this  industrious  and  polished  people  led  them  to  en- 
courage the  resort  of  foreigner  to  their  ports ;  and  the  Sjpaniards^ 
after  they  had  obtained  the  sovereignhr  of  Portugal,  earned  on  a 
most  beneficial  trade  to  the  coasts  of  Japan.  The  emperor  zeal- 
ously promoted  this  intercourse,  till  the  insatiable  ambition  of  the 
Spaniards  eave  him  alarmine  conviction  of  its  danger.  Under  tiie 
pretence  of  converting  the  Japanese  from  idolatry,  a  vast  nnmber 
of  priests  was  sent  into  the  country ;  and  one  halt  of  the  people 
were  speedily  set  at  mortal  variance  with  the  other.  It  now  m- 
came  necessary  to  prohibit  this  work  of  conversion  by  an  imperial 
edict  However  a  free  trade  was  allowed  till  1,637,  when  a  con- 
spiracy of  the  Spaniards  for  dethroning  the  emperor  and  seizing  the 
government  was  discovered.  An  edict  was  issued  for  the  expulsion 
of  all  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese,  who  resisted  till  they  were 
overpowered  by  force  of  arms.  Since  that  period  all  the  European 
nations  have  been  excluded  firom  the  ports  of  Japan.  The  Dutch 
only,  who  had  been  the  discoverers  of  the  conspiracy  of  the  Spar- 
iard&  are  allowed  the  privilege  of  landing  on  one  of  the  small  islan<t^. 
for  the  purposes  of  trade,  after  making  oath  that  they  are  not  cf  \U 
Portuguese  religion. 


yGoogk 


MODERN  HISTORY.  i  sB 


SECTION  XLIX 

OF  THE  ANTIQUITT  OF  THE  EMPIRE  OF  CHINA.  STATE 
OF  THE  ARTS  AND  SCIENCES,  MANNERS,  GOVERNMENT, 
LAWS. 

I.  The  aotiquity  of  this  yast  empire,  and  the  state  of  its  sovein- 
.Tteot,  laws,  maimen,  and  attainments  in  the  arts  and  sciences,  have 
(irnished  an  ample  field  of  controversy.  Voltaire,  Raynal,  and  other 
Triters  have  civen  to  the  Chinese  empire  an  immense  antiquity,  and 
I  chanuUer  of  soch  high  civilization  and  knowledge  of  the  sciences 
^nd  arts  at  a  very  remote  period,  as  to  be  utterly  irreconcilable  to  the 
•tate  and  progress  of  man  as  described  in  the  books  of  Moses.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  is  probable  that  the  desire  of  faivalidating  those 
opinions  has  induced  other  writers  of  ability  to  go  to  an  opposite  ex- 
irenae;  to  undervalue  this  singular  people,  and  to  give  too  little 
weight  to  any  accounts  which  we  have  received  either  of  the  dura- 
tion of  their  empire,  of  the  economy  of  their  government  and  police, 
i>r  of  their  attainments  in  the  arts  and  sciences.  Amidst  tliis  contra- 
r:trtT  of  sentiments  we  shall  endeavour  to  form  such  opmion  as  wp- 
tejirs  most  coosonant  to  the  truth. 

S.  The  panegyrists  of  the  Chinese  assert  that  their  empire  has 
*'iii9isted  above  4,000  years,  without  any  material  alteration  in  its 
Itn^  manners,  language,  or  even  fashion  of  dress;  hi  evidence  of 
n  fiicn  they  appeal  to  a  series  of  eclipses,  markine  contemporary 
<^\eota,  all  accurately  cakulated,  for  S,155  years  before  the  birth  of 
C  hrisL  As  it  is  easy  to  calculate  eclipses  backwards  from  the  pres- 
•"it  day  to  any  given  period  of  time,  it  is  thus  possible  to  give  to  a 
^.>!ory,  fictitious  from  beginning  to  end,  its  chronology  of  real 

•  riipses.  This  proof  therefore  amounts  to  nothing,  unless  it  were 
■ike wise  proved  that  all  those  eclipses  were  actuallv  recorded  at  the 
.zoe  when  they  happened;  but  this  neither  has  been  nor  can  be 
;ozie ;  Ibr  it  is  an  allowed  fact,  that  there  are  oo  ref^r  historical 
nLcords  beyond  the  third  century  before  the  christian  era.  The 
f  r«seDt  Chinese  are  utteriy  ignorant  of  the  motions  of  the  celestial 
-.Kidie^  and  cannot  calculate  eclipses.  The  seiies  mentioned  has 
therelore  in  all  probability  been  cakulated  by  some  of  the  Jesuit8| 
(o  incretiate  themselves  with  the  emperors,  and  flatter  the  national 
rsnttT.  The  Jesuits  have  presided  in  the  tribunal  of  mBthematics 
i  or  BMve  800  yean. 

5.  Bot  if  the  authentic  annals  of  this  empire  ^o  beck  even  to  the 

third  century  before  Christ*  and  record  at  that  time  a  high  state  of 

iTilizittoD,  we  must  allow  that  the  Chinese  are  an  ancient  and  early 

lobalied  people,  and  that  they  have  possessed  a  singular  constancy 

ti   llieir  government,  laws,  and  manners.    Sir  William  Jones,  no 

/•tooted  encomiast  of  this  people,  allows  thenr  great  antiquity  and 

» '^Lrfy  dvliization,  and,  with  much  apparent  prolmbility,  traces  their 

*  ngm  £rom  the  Ufaidoos.    He  appeals  to  the  ancient  Sanscript  recoras. 
•-  tMKh  mention  a  migration  or  certain  of  the  military  dass  termed 

^iSniiffr,  from  India  to  the  countries  east  firom  BengaL    The  stalioup- 
rr  oooditioo  of  the  arts  and  sciences  In  Chba  proves  that  they  have 

jt  origiikated  with  that  people :  and  many  pecuUarities  of  the  r 
•4^3.  ioiiituaons,  and  popular  religion  of  the  Cbbesei  have  ai 

^^jqr  to  thiise  of  the  Hhidooa. 


y  Google 


190  MODERN  HISTORY. 

4.  The  government  of  China  is  tbat  of  an  abfloliite  monarchj. 
The  patriarchal  system  pervades  the  whole,  and  binds  all  the  mem* 
bers  of  this  vast  empire  in  the  strictest  subordination.  Every  &ther 
is  absolute  in  his  family,  and  may  inflict  any  punishment  short  of 
death  upon  his  children.  The  mandarin  of  the  district  is  abflolute. 
with  the  power  of  life  and  death  over  all  its  members;  but  a  capital 
sentence  cannot  be  indicted  without  the  emperor^s  approbation. 
The  emperor^s  power  is  absolute  over  all  the  mandarins,  and  every 
Bubiect  of  the  empire.  To  reconcile  the  people  to  this  despotic 
ftuthority,  the  sovereign  alone  is  entitled  to  relieve  the  wants  of  tlie 
poor,  and  to  compensate  public  calamities,  as  well  as  the  misfortune^; 
of  individuals.  He  is  therefore  rcjgarded  as  the  father  of  his  people, 
and  even  adored  as  a  benevolent  divinity. 

5.  Another  circumstance  which  conciliates  the  people  to  their 
government  is,  that  all  honours  in  China  arc  conferred  accordhig  to 
merit,  and  that  chiefly  literary.  The  civil  mandarins,  who  are  the 
magistrates  and  judges,  are  appointed  to  office  according  to  their 
measure  of  knowledge  and  mental  endowments.  No  oflice  or  rank. 
Is  hereditarv,  but  m.iy  be  aspired  to  by  the  meanest  of  the  people. 
The  penal  laws  of  China  are  remarkably  severe ;  but  their  execu- 
tion may  be  remitted  by  the  emperor.  The  judicial  tribunals  are 
regulated  by  a  body  of  written  laws  of  great  antiquity,  and  ibuDded 
on  the  basis  of  universal  justice  and  equity.  The  emperor'^s  opmion 
rarely  differs  from  the  sentences  of  tHose  courts.  One  tribunal 
judges  of  the  qualifications  of  the  mandarins ;  another  regulates  the 
morals  of  the  people,  and  the  national  manners ;  a  third  is  the  tnbi>- 
nal  of  censors,  which  reviews  the  laws,  the  conduct  of  the  magi-v 
trates  and  judges,  and  even  that  of  the  emperor  himself.  These  tri- 
bunals are  filled  by  an  equal  number  of  Chinese  and  Tartars. 

6.  It  has  been  observed  that  the  sciences  have  been  stationary  in 
this  empire  for  many  ages.  They  are  at  this  day  extremely  foiv, 
though  far  beyond  the  attainments  of  ,a  barbarous  people.  The 
language  of  China  seems  to  oppose  the  prosecution  of  speculative 
researches.  It  has  no  regular  inflections,  and  can  with  diOiculty 
express  abstract  ideas.  We  have  remarked  the  ignorance  of  the 
Chmese  in  mathematics  and  astronomy.  Of  physics  they  have  no 
acquaintance  beyond  the  knowledge  of  apparent  facts.  They  never 
ascend  to  principles,  nor  form  theories.  Their  knowledge  m  medi* 
cine  is  extremely  limited,  and  is  blended  with  the  most  contemptible 
superstition.  Of  anatomy  they  know  next  to  nothing ;  and  in  sur- 
£ery  they  have  never  ventured  to  amputate  a  limb,  nor  to  reduce  a 
fracture. 

t  The  state  of  the  useful  and  elegant  arts  has  been  equally  sta- 
tionary as  that  of  the  sciences.  Manv  ages  ago  they  had  attaiued 
a  certain  point  of  adA'ancement,  which  they  have  never  exceeded. 
The  Chinese  are  ssiid  to  have  manufactured  glass  tor  2,000  years  ; 
yet  at  this  day  it  is  inferior  in  transparency  to  the  European,  and  i-* 
BOt  used  in  their  windows.  Thev  are  reported  to  have  known  gnT>- 
powder  from  time  immemorial ;  but  they  never  employed  it  in  artil- 
lery or  fire-arms  till  they  were  taught  by  the  Europeans.  They  ntt 
said  to  have  invented  printing  in  the  age  of  Julius  Casar,  yet  thor 
know,  not  the  use  of  moveable  types,  and  print, from  blocks  of  woq^. 
When  fiirst  shown  the  use  of  the  compass  in  sailing,  they  affimvti 
that  they  were  well  acquainted  with  it,  but  found  no  occasion  to  ein^ 
ploy  it  The  art  of  painting  in  China  is  mere  mechanical  imitatjDrx^ 
without  grace,  expression,  or  even  accuracy  of  proportions.    Of  Itk^ 

«  Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  101 

rales  of  fkeTspectfye  tbc;^  haTe  not  the  smallest  idea.  In  flcalptme, 
as  Jo  the  litres  of  their  idolsi  the  Cbioese  artists  seem  to  delight  in 
di5toitioa  smd  defonnity.  Their  music  is  not  regulated  bj  any  prin* 
ciples  of  science.  They  have  no  semitones,  and  their  lostruments 
are  imperfect  and  untunable.  The  Chinese  architecture  has  variety, 
lightness,  and  sometimes  elegance ;  but  has  no  grandeur,  nor  synn 
Dietrical  beauty. 

8.  Id  some  of  the  arts  the  Chinese  have  attained  great  excellence. 
In  China  agriculture  is  csuried  to  the  highest  pitch  of  improvement 
There  is  not  a  spot  of  waste  land  in  the  whole  empire,  nor  any  land 
%vhich  is  not  highly  cultivated.  The  emperor  himself  is  the  chief 
vt  the  husbandmen,  and  annually  holds  the  plough  with  his  own 
hands.  From  the  high  state  of  agriculture,  and  the  modes  ol 
ecoDomlziog  food  is  supported  the  astonishing  population  of  333 
miUioos,  or  260  Inhabitants  to  every  square  mile  of  the  empire. 
I'he  giurdening  of  the  Chinese,  and  their  admirable  embellishment 
of  rural  nature,  have  of  late  been  the  object  of  imitation  in  Europe^ 
btit  with  lar  inferior  success.  The  manufacture  of  porcelain  is  an 
nh^inal  invention  of  this  people;  and  the  Europeans,  though  ex- 
celling them  in  the  form  and  ornament  of  the  utensils,  have  never 
been  able  to  attain  the  excellence  of  the  material. 

9.  The  morals  of  the  Chinese  have  furnished  a  subject  both  of 
praise  and  censure.  The  books  of  Confucius  are  said  to  contain  an 
admirable  system  of  morality.  But  the  principles  of  morals  have 
their  ibondatioQ  in  human  nature,  and  must,  in  theory,  be  every 
«rhere  the  same.  The  moral  virtues  of  a  people  are  not  to  be  esti* 
mated  from  the  books  of  their  philosophers.  It  is  probable  that  the 
manners  of  the  superior  classes  are  in  China,  as  elsewhere,  much 
irit]uenced  by  education  and  example.  The  morals  of  the  lower 
c'.afsses,  are  sM  to  be  extremely  loose,  and  their  practices  most  dis- 
honest Thev  are  regulated  by  no  principle  but  sekish  interest, 
and  restrained  only  by  the  fear  of  punishment. 

10.  The  religion  of  the  Chinese  is  diflerent  in  the  different  ranks 
of  society.  There  is  no  religion  of  the  state.  The  emperor  and 
the  higher  mandarins  profess  the  belief  of  one  Supreme  Being, 
Chamghy  whom  they  worship  by  prayei  and  thanksgiving,  without 
any  mixtoie  of  idolatrous  practices.  They  respect  the  lama  of 
Thibet  as  the  high-priest  or  prophet  of  this  religion.    A  prevalent 


f^ct  is  that  of  Toi^-tfe,  who  believe  in  the  power  of  magic,  the  agency 
n{  spirits,  and  the  divination  of  future  events.  A  tliiiid  is  the  sect  of 
Fo^  derived  from  India,  whose  priests  are  the  Bonyes,  and  whose 
tnodameDtal  doctrine  is,  that  all  tnings  rose  out  of  nothing,  and  must 
riiially  return  to  nothiitf;  that  all  animals  are  first  to  undergo  a  series 
trt'  mnsmigratiocis ;  and  that  as  man^s  chief  happiness  is  to  approach 
as  near  as  possible  to  a  state  of  annihilation  in  this  life,  absolute  idle 
n€^4  is  more  laudable  than  occupation  of  any  kind.  A  variety  of 
hideooi  idols  is  worshipped  by  this  sect 

II.  The  Chinese  have  their  sacred  books  entitled  Ji^a^ ;  as  the 
Ykimgy  Chodtuig^  &c ;  which,  among  some  good  moral  precepts,  con* 
t/iin  much  mystery,  chiidi:)h  superstition,  and  absurdity.  These  are 
c  Mlefly  resorted  to  lor  the  divinmg  of  future  events,  wliich  seems  the 
u/tifmOmm  of  research  among  (he  Chinese  philosophers.  The  obser- 
.  .m  tioo  of  the  heavenly  bodies  Is  made  for  that  purpose  alone.  The 
b  voices  of  weather,  the  performance  or  omission  of  certain  cere* 
rronies,  the  occurrence  of  certain  events  in  particular  times  and 
are  all  believed  to  have  their  inaueoce  on  taiodtj,  and  are 


yGoogk 


MODERN  HISTOKY. 

refore  carefully  observed  and  recorded.  The  rules  by  which 
le  omens  are  interpreted  are  said  to  have  been  prescribed  bj  the 
at  Confacius,  the  lather  of  the  Chinese  philosophy,  600  years  be- 
)  the  christian  era. 

2.  We  conclude,  on  the  whole,  that  the  Chinese  are  a  veiy  re- 
kable  people;  that  their  government,  laws,  policy,  and  knowl- 
e  of  the  arts  and  sciences,  exhibit  unquestionable  proofs  of  great 
qulty  and  early  civilization ;  tliat  the  extraordinary  measure  of 
ation  assigned  to  their  empire  by  som^  modem  writers  rests  on 
solid  proofs;  that  their  government,  laws,  manners,  arts,  and 
ntific  attainments,  are  not  deserving  of  that  superlative  praise 
ch  has  been  bestowed  on  them. 


SECTION  L. 

BAILLY'S  THEORY   OF  THE  ORIGIN   OF  THE   SCIENCES 
AMONG  THE  NATIONS  OF  INDIA. 

.  The  striking  resemblance  in  many  points  of  character  between 
Chinese  and  the  ancient  Egyptians,  has  led  to  the  conjecture, 
ler  that  they  were  originally  the  same  people,  one  being  a  col- 
of  the  other,  or  have  had,  at  some  remote  period,  such  inter- 
rse,  either  by  conquest  or  by  commerce,  as  to  occasion  a  recipro- 
communication  of  manners  and  the  knowledge  of  arts  and  scieacea. 
Je  Mairan  has  remarked  the  following  points  of  similarity.  The 
rptians  and  the  Chinese  had  the  same  permanence  of  manners, 
abhorrence  of  innovations ;  they  were  alike  remarkable  for  the 
>ect  entertained  by  children  to  their  parents ;  they  were  equally 
rse  to  war;  they  had  the  same  general  superficial  knowledge  of 
arts  and  sciences,  without  the  ability  to  make  great  attainments ; 
y  both,  in  the  most  ancient  times,  used  hieroglyphics ;  the  Egyp- 
s  had  a  solemn  festival,  called  the  JeaH  qftht  lufhtt;  the  Chinese 
e  the^eos^  of  the  lanterns;  the  features  of  the  dninese  are  said  to 
!mble  the  ancient  Egyptian  statues ;  certain  characters  engniTen 
m  Elgyptian  bust  of  Tsis  were  found  to  belong  to  the  Chinese  Ian- 
ge. 

.  M.  Bailly  has  taken  a  wider  ran^  of  observation,  and  from  a 
lew  of  the  manners,  customs,  opinions,  and  attainments  of  the 
lans,  Persians,  Chinese,  Chaldeans,  and  Egyptians,  has  discovered 
ly  circumstances  of  similarity  between  sal  those  nations,  equally 
larkable  as  the  foregoing,  fie  has  thence  formed  the  singular 
(othesis,  that  the  knowledge  common  to  all  those  nations  has  been 
ived  from  the  same  original  source,  a  most  ancient  and  biEhly 
ivated  people  of  Asia,  of  which  every  trace  is  now  extinct  IT  we 
,  says  he,  in  the  scattered  huts  of  peasants^  fragments  interspersed 
culptured  columns,  we  conclude  lor  certain  that  they  are  not  the 
*k  of  the  rude  peasants  who  reared  those  huts,  but  that  thej  are 
remains  of  a  magnificent  building,  the  work  of  able  architect^ 
ugh  we  discover  no  other  traces  of  the  existence  of  that  buildinlY 
cannot  ascertain  Its  precise  situation. 

.  The  sciences  and  arts  of  the  Chinese  have  been  stationary  /br 
X)  years.  The  people  seem  never  to  have  availed  themsettes 
:he  lights  of  their  ancestors.  They  are  like  the  inhabttanti  f  a 
ntry  recently  discovered  by  a  polished  people,  who  have  taipit 


yGoogk 


r 


MODERN  HISTORY.  19S 

them  aoine  of  their  arts,  and  left  their  instraments  anNmi^  them. 
The  knowledge  which  they  possess,  seems  to  have  been  hnportedi 
and  not  of  original  growth,  for  it  has  oever  been  progressive. 

4.  The  Chaldeans  were  an  enlightened  people  at  the  commence- 
ment  of  the  Babylonish  empire,  2,000  years  beiore  the  Christian  era. 
They  were  astronomers,  and  understood  the  revolutions  of  the  ce- 
lestial bodies.  The  Chaldeans  were  probably  the  remains  of  this 
sncieot  people.  The  Bramins  of  India  believe  in  the  unity  of  God, 
and  the  immortality  of  the  soul ;  but  with  these  sublime  tenets  they 
intennix  childish  absurdities.  They  derived  the  former  from  wise 
mfitmcten ;  the  latter  were  the  fruit  of  their  own  ignorance.  The 
i^aIl8crit,  a  copious  and  elegant  language,  and  the  vehicle  of  all  the 
lixiian  niowledge  and  philosophy.  Tins  been  a  dead  tcngoe  A>r  thou- 
noda  of  yeara,  and  is  mtelligible  only  to  a  few  of  the  Bramins.  It 
was  prmbly  the  language  of  that  great  ancient  people. 

5.  The  coincidence  or  similarity  of  customs  concurs  to  establish 
the  belief  of  an  origlnnl  nation.  The  custom  of  liliation  was  com- 
moo  to  the  Tartars  and  Chinese,  and  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 
All  the  Asiatic  nations  had  festivals  of  the  nature  of  the  Roman  wtuf' 
waHtL  The  tradition  of  the  deluge  in  disused  among  all  those  nations. 
The  tradition  of  the  giants  attacking  heaven  is  equally  general. 
The  doctrine  of  the  metempsjchosis  was  common  to  the  Egyptians, 
Greeks,  Indians,  Persiansi,  1  artirian?,  and  Chinese.  The  religion  of 
:ill  those  nations  is  founded  on  the  profound  but  erroneous  doctrine 
*4'  the  two  principles,  a  universal  soul  pervading  all  nature,  and 
inert  matter  on  which  it  acts.  A  conformity  in  a  true  doctrine  is  no 
l^oof  of  mutual  communication  or  concert ;  but  it  is  ingeniously  re- 
oaarked,  that  a  conformity  in  a  false  doctrine  comes  verv  near  to  such 
n.  pmoC 

6.  The  Egyptians,  Chaldean.*^,  Indians,  Persians,  and  Chinese,  all 
placed  their  lenipK^sYrontin|j  the  east,  to  receive  the  first  niys  of  the 
->rA.  Hence  the  worship  ol  the  sun  has  been  the  religion  ot  the  an- 
cient people  trom  wl.uii  these  are  descended.    All  these  nations  had 

&  cycle,  or  i)Ori(  d  of  sixty  years,  for  regulating  their  chronology. 
TAiey  aul  divided  the  circle  into  3U0  degnn^s;  tliO  zodiac  into  twelve 
•-•tsnB;  and  tlie  week  into  seven  days.  The  Chinese,  In<iians,and 
I  i^^yptians  designed  the  seven  days  ol  the  work  by  the  names  of  tlie  ^ 
«^  Ven  planets  nm^ed  in  the  siimc  order.  The  long  measures  of  the 
j.i^<uen(  nations  liad  ail  one  common  origin. 

*7.  These  tinjiular  coinciJences,  sa>  s  M.  Bailly,  can  be  explained 
aly  apou  threi;  ruppoj-i liens:  1,  that  there  was  a  free  communica- 
'.«-pci  between  all  t!iO!^e  ancient  natiotts;  2,  that  those  circumstances 
*'  ooiocideiice  are  so  founcied  in  human  nature,  that  the  most  un- 
•anected  nations  c»uld  not  lluJ  to  hit  upon  them;  or^  3,  that  they 
I'*-*  been  all  derivt-d  from  a  common  source.    He  rejects  the  two 

•  nzier  suppositions,  as  contrary,  la  his  opinion,  to  fact,  smd  adopts 

*  S.  The  preci.se  sito?ttion  of  thw  great  ancient  people,  M.  Bailly  does 
.£.  pretend  to  (ix  with  cert;unty;  but  olfere  probable  reasons  for 
r  jj^ctoring  that  it  was  about  the  40lh  or  50th  degree  of  north  lat^ 
j^*^  &D  the  southern  regions  of  Siberia.    Many  of  the  European 

j   >Miatk:  nations  attribute  their  origin  to  that  mjarter,  which  thence 
m  to  have  been  extremely  populous,     r^itre,  a  production 
ammal  sulistance?,  is  more  abundant  there  than  in  any  other 
The  obdervalions  of  the  ri&lng  of  the  stars,  collected  by 

•  most  have  been  made  In  a  climate  where  the  longest  dvy 

•  K  tt 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


194  MODERN  HISTORY. 

was  sixteen  hoais,  which  corresponds  to  the  latitude  of  50  degrees. 
No  European  nation  in  that  latitude  understood  astronomy  ia  those 
early  periods.  The  veneration  of  the  Indians  and  Chinese  for  tiie 
I^ma  of  Thibet  is  a  proof  that  the  religion  of  those  nations  originat 
ed  in  that  quarter. 

9.  But  does  that  redon  exhibit  any  traces  of  having  been  ever 
inhabited  by  a  polished  people  ?  Here  the  theory  of  M.  BaiUy  seems 
to  be  least  supported  by  proof.  He  observes,  that  ancient  mines 
have  been  discovered  m  those  parts  of  Siberia,  which  have  been 
wrought  to  great  extent  in  a  period  beyond  all  record  or  tradition ; 
that  ancient  sepulchres  have  been  found,  in  which  there  were  orna- 
ments of  gold  of  skilful  workmanship ;  but  the  &cts  specified  are  so 
few  as  to  warrant  no  positive  inference. 

10.  This  theory  is  an  amusing  specimen  of  the  author's  ingenu- 
ity ;  but  it  has  not  the  force  to  draw  our  assent  to  his  conclusions. 
VV  e  have  noticed  it  as  specifying  many  curious  facts  relative  to  the 
manners  and  attainments  of  the  ancient  nations,  and  as  funishing 
strong  evidence  of  the  common  origin  of  mankind.  The  nations 
above  mentioned,  thoueh  many  of  them  remote  from  one  another, 
were  all  connected,  as  links  of  a  chain,  by  proximity;  whence  it  is 
easy  to  conceive  that  knowledge  should  diverge  from  a  centre  to 
a  very  distant  circumference,  m.  Bailljr  has  given  no  reasonable 
ground  for  fixing  that  centre  m  the  position  which  he  has  assigned 
to  it 

SECTION  LI. 

REIGiN  OF  PHILIP  11.  OF  SPAIN.  REVOLUTION  OF  THE 
NETHERLANDS  AND  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  REFUBUC 
OF  HOLLAND. 

1.  After  a  short  survey  of  the  Asiatic  kingdoms,  we  return  to  the 
history  of  Europe  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

In  the  time  or  Philip  II.,  the  successor  of  Charles  V.«  the  balanc*^ 
of  power  in  Europe  was  sustained  by  Spain,  France,  Kogland,  an  ^ 
Germany,  all  at  this  time  highly  flourishing  and  respectable,  either 
from  the  talents  of  their  sovereigns,  or  their  internal  strength.  ¥Aiz,^ 
abeth.  Henry  11.,  and  Philip  II.,  were  all  acute  and  able  politicians  i 
though  the  policy  of  Philip  partook  more  of  selfish  craU^  and  hn<j 
less  of  the  nianly  and  heroic,  than  that  of  either  of  his  nval  motYt 
archs.  Philip  was  at  this  time  sovereign  of  Spain,  the  Two  SidH*'si 
Milan,  and  the  Netherlands.  He  had  likewise^  for  a  few  years,  tt)  ^ 
power  of  England  at  his  command,  by  his  marriage  with  Mary,  th^ 
elder  sister  and  predecessor  of  Elizabeth.  I 

2.  Pope  Paul  IV.,  jealous  of  the  power  of  Philip,  formed  an  :v.\ 
ance  with  Henry  IL  of  France  to  deprive  the  S^niards  of  Mii  . 
and  the  Two  Sicilies.  Philip,  with  the  aid  of  the  English,  defent  • 
the  FVench  at  St  Quintin  in  Picardy,  and  hoped  from  this  signal  v« 
tory,  to  force  Uie  allies  into  a  peace  ;  but  the  duke  of  Guise  rec.~  > 
eied  the  spirits  of  the  French,  by  the  taking  of  Calais  from  the  &^  r 
lish,  which  they  had  now  possessed  for  two  hundred  years.  Atf>t : 
er  great  victory,  however,  obtained  by  Philip  near  Gnkxck^^^ 
brought  on  the  treaty  of  Catteau-^ambresis  in  1,&59,  by  whick  tl 
French  surrendered  to  Spain  no  less  than  eigbty-nine  fortified  Jow. 
Id  the  Low  Countries  and  in  Italy. 


y  Google 


MODERN  HISTORY.  19& 

Sw  Philip,  now  at  ease  from  foreign  disturbancef ,  began  to  be  dis- 
quieted on  the  score  of  religion.  iSi  intolerant  bigot  bj  nature^  he 
resolved  to  extirpate  every  species  of  heresy  from  his  domimons. 
The  Netherlands,  an  assemblage  of  separate  states,  were  all  suligect 
to  Philip,  nnder  varioos  titles ;  and  he  had  conferrea  the  government 
of  Holland,  Zealand,  Friesiand,  and  Utrecht,  on  William,  prince  of 
Orange,  a  count  of  the  German  empire.  The  Lutheran  and  Calvin- 
i^c  o]Noion8  had  made  ereat  progress  in  those  quarters;  and  PhUip, 
«(etermining  to  repress  them,  established  the  inquisition  with  plenary  *^ 
powers,  created  new  bishops,  and  prepared  to  abrogate  the  ancient 
laws,  and  give  the  provinces  a  new  political  institution.  These  inno- 
vations created  alarm  and  tumult;  and  the  duke  of  Alva  was  sent  into 
Flanders  to  enforce  implicit  submission. 

4.  The  inquisition  began  its  bloody  work,  and  many  of  the  prin- 
cipal nobility  of  the  provinces  were  its  victims.  The  minds  or  the 
people  were  completely  alienated,  and  a  chief  was  only  wanting  to 
give  anion  to  their  measures.  The  prince  of  Orange,  who  was 
ander  sentence  of  the  inquisition,  found  no  difficulty  to  raise  an  army; 
and  having  easily  reduced  some  of  the  most  important  garrisons, 
he  was  proclauned  stadtholder  of  Holland  and  Zealand  m  1,570. 
fligfateen  thousand  persons  perished  by  the  hands  of  the  executioner 
in  the  coane  of  the  duke  oi  Alva's  government,  which  was  of  &ve 
years'  duration.  His  place  was  supplied  by  Requesens,  a  man  of  hu- 
manity, but  bound  to  obey  his  inhuman  master^  who,  on  the  death  of 
Keqnesens,  sent  his  own  brother  don  John  of  Austria,  to  endeavour 
io  regain  the  revolted  states ;  but  the  attempt  was  fruitless.  The 
whole  seventeen  provinces  had  suffered  alike  from  the  tyranny  of 
(heir  sovereign ;  but  particular  jealousies  prevented  a  general  union, 
and  only  seven  of  them  asserted  their  independence,  by  a  solemn 
treaty  iomied  at  Utrecht,  on  the  ?3d  of  January,  1 ,579 ;  by  which  it 
was  aupneed  that  they  should  defend  their  liberties  as  one  united 
repobuc ;  that  they  should  jointly  determine  in  matters  of  peace  and 
war,  establish  a  general  legislative  authority,  and  maintain  a  liberty 
of  conscience  in  matters  of  religion.  Tlicse  seven  tmited  provinces 
are^  GueUeriand,  Holland,  Zealand,  Friesiand,  Utrecht,  OverysseL 
sod  Gronittgen.  William  prince  of  Orange  was  declared  their  chiei 
on^istrate,  general,  and  admiral,  by  the  title  of  Stadtholder, 

5.  Philip  vented  his  indignation  by  a  proscription  of  the  prince  of 
Oran^,  ooering  25.000  crowns  for  his  head ;  and  he  compiissed  his 
r^enge;  lor  this  illustrious  man  ivas  cut  off  by  an  assassin  in  l,5d4w 
His  90O  Blaarice  was  elected  stadtholder  in  his  room,  and  sustained 
hta  importaDt  office  with  great  couni(;o  and  ability.    With  a  slender 

luj  from  Elizabeth  of  Enghmd,  who  delii^htcd  to  traverse  the  plans  of 
i'iMlip^  this  infant  common weaitli  ncconi pushed  and  secured  its  inde- 
pendence, which  it  maintained  till  its  recent  subjugation 

6.  The  other  ten  provinces,  whose  discontents  were  expressed 
'wdr  by  mnnnurand  complaint,  were  soothed  by  a  new  charter  from 
i^*hilip  confirming  their  privileges;  while  at  the  same  time  he  took 
<-  very  ponibie  neasoie  to  prevent  any  attempt  on  their  part  to 
tiuDw  off  the  yoke. 


y  Google 


IM  MODERN  HISTORY. 


SECTION  LD. 

fIF  THE  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT  OP  TOE  UNITED 
PROVINCES. 

1.  The  treaty  of  confederation  of  the  Seven  United  Province^ 
framed  in  1,579,  and  solemnly  renewed  in  1,583,  is  declared  to  be, 
Dy  its  nature,  indissoluble.  Each  province  thereby  preserved  its 
own  laws,  magistrates,  sovereignty,  and  independence.  They  fonn, 
Iiowever,  one  body  politic,  having  renounced  the  rieht  of  making 
separate  alUances  or  treaties,  and  established  a  genenu  council,  with 
power  of  assembling  the  states,  and  regulating  the  common  afiain  of 
the  republic.  The  assembly  of  the  states-general  was  originally  held 
only  twice  a  year,  but  became  aAerwards  a  perpetual  council. 

2.  In  all  matters  which  regard  not  the  general  interest  of  the  na* 
tion,  each  of  the  states  or  provinces  is  in  itself  a  republic,  governed 
by  its  own  laws  and  magistrates,  and  possessing  a  supreme  legislative 
authority.  The  deputies  from  each  of  the  towns  form  the  council  of 
the  province,  in  which  is  vested  its  separate  government ;  and  these 
deputies  are  regulated  by  the  instructions  of  Uieir  constituents.  The 
votes  of  the  majority  of  deputies  decide  in  the  provincial  council  in 
all  matters  which  regard  not  the  general  interest  of  the  nation. 

3.  The  great  council  of  the  states-general  lUways  met  in  assembly 
at  the  Hague,  and  is  composed  of  the  deputies  from  the  seven  prov- 
inces, of  which  Holland  sends  three,  Zealand  and  Utrecht  two,  and 
the  others  one ;  each  deputy  being  regulated  by  tlie  council  of  his 
province.  A  majority  of  voices  is  here  decisive,  unless  in  the  great 
questions  of  peace,  war,  and  alliance,  in  which  unanimity  is  requisite. 
The  disadvantaee  of  this  constitution  is  the  delay  and  difficulty  in 
the  execution  of  public  measures.  All  the  towns  and  ail  the  nobles 
of  a  province  must  deliberate  and  instruct  their  deputy,  before  the 
states-general  can  take  the  matter  under  consideration.  This  great 
defect  is  pBolly  corrected  by  the  power  and  inHuence  of  the  atadt- 
holder. 

4.  The  stadtholder  is  commander  in  chief  of  the  sea  and  land 
forces,  and  disposes  oi  all  the  militarv  employments.  He  presides 
over  all  the  courts  of  justice,  and  has  tne  power  of  pardoning  cnmes. 
He  appoints  the  maeistrates  of  the  towns,  from  a  list  made  by  them* 
selves ;  receives  ana  names  ambassadors,  and  is  charged  with  the  ex* 
ecution  of  the  laws.  He  is  supreme  arbiter  in  all  difierences  between 
the  provinces,  cities,  or  other  members  of  the  state. 

5.  William,  the  tirst  stadtholder,  did  not  abuse  these  high  powers ; 
Dor  did  his  successors.  Maurice  and  Henry-Frederick.  Butmider 
William  IL  the  states  became  jealous  of  an  exoibitnnt  authority  in 
their  chief  magistrate,  and  on  his  death  the  office  ivas  for  some  time 
abolished.  In  that  inirrval  the  republic  was  almost  annihilated  dv 
the  arms  of  Lewis  XiV.;  and,  sensible  of  their  error,  they  restored 
the  office  of  stadtholder  in  the  person  of  William  HI.,  who  retrievid 
the  fortunes  and  honour  of  his  countr5r.  In  gratitude  for  his  services, 
the  dignity  was  made  heredibu^  in  his  famii^.  a  solecism  in  the  gfv- 
emment  of  a  republic  On  the  death  of  Willium  without  issoe^tfie 
office  was  once  more  abolished  for  twenty  years,  when  it  was  a^n 
restored,  declared  hereditary  in  the  family  of  Orange,  and  desctfidi- 
ble  even  to  the  issue  of  a  daughter.    The  only  resirictiona  are|that 

Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  197 

the  sacceeding.prince  shall  he  ^f  the  protestant  religion,  and  neither 
luo{  oor  elector  of  the  German  empire. 


SECTION  UII. 
REIGN  ON  PHILIP  11-  CONTINUED. 

1.  The  lo6S  of  the  Netherlands  was  in  some  drg:ree  compensated 
to  Philip  II.  by  the  acquisition  of  the  kingdom  of  Portugal.  Muley 
Mahomet,  king  of  Fez  and  Morocco,  dethroned  bv  his  undo  I^liiley 
Moliic,  solicited  the  aid  of  don  Sebastian  kin^of  Portugal  to  regain 
his  throne.  Sebastian  landed  with  an  army  in  Africa,  but  was  de- 
feated bjr  the  Moors  and  slain ;  and  the  contending  Moorish  princea 
perishea  in  tlie  same  engagement  Sebastian  was  succeeded  byhii 
grand-micle  don  Henry,  who  died  after  a  reign  of  two  years.  The 
competitors  for  the  crown  were  don  Antonio  prior  of  Crato,  and 
Phihp  11^  paternal  and  maternal  uncles  of  the  last  sovereign,  rhilip 
defeated  his  rival  in  a  decisive  engagement  at  sea,  and,  without  fur- 
tiier  opposition,  took  possession  ol  the  throne  of  Portugal,  1,580.' 

2.  Elizabeth  of  England  iiad  warmly  es|ioused  the  cause  of  the 
reToIted  Netlierlands,  and  her  admiral  sir  i  rancis  Drake  had  taken 
some  of  the  Spanish  settlements  in  America.  To  avenge  these  in- 
jiirie<s  the  invincible  armada,  of  150  ships  of  wan  27,000  men,  and 
rt^UUO  pieces  of  cannon,  was  equipped  by  Philip  for  the  invasion  of 
Ensland.  The  English  fleet,  of  108  ships,  attacked  them  in  the 
ntght,  and  burnt  and  destroyed  a  great  part  of  the  squadron.  A 
storm,  which  drove  them  on  the  rocks  and  sands  of  Zealand,  com- 
pletea  their  dbcomOture,  and  only  50  shattered  vessels,  with  6,000 
men  rptnmcd  to  Spain,  1,588. 

3.  The  restless  spirit  of  Philip  II.  was  engaged  at  the  same  time  in 
the  reduction  of  tne  Netherlands^  the  project  for  the  invasion  of 
>.ngland,  and  the  dismembering  of  the  kingdom  of  France.  The 
Li>t  scheme  was  ag  ineffectual  as  the  two  former.  It  was  defeated  at 
once  by  the  conversion  of  Henry  IV.  to  the  catholic  relicion.  The 
polic^r  of  Philip  had  nothing  in  it  great  or  generous,  llis  restless 
tf  mbitico  was  fitted  to  embroil  Europe ;  but  he  had  not  the  judgment 
to  turn  the  distresses  which  he  occasioned  to  his  own  advantage, 
in  h»  own  kingdoms,  as  in  his  domestic  life,  he  was  a  gloomy  and  in- 
haman  tyrant  Yet,  from  the  variety  and  magnitude  of  his  desipis, 
the  power  by  which  they  were  supported,  and  the  splendour  ofhM 
doffluucn,  the  character  of  Spain  was  high  and  respectable  in  the 
«caie  of  the  nations' of  Europe. 


SECTION  UV. 

fcTATE  OF  FRANCE  IN  THE  END  OF  THE  SIXTEENTH  CEN- 
TURY ;  UNDER  HENRY  11.,  FRANCIS  II.,  CHARLES  IX.,  HENRY 
m.,  AND  HENRY  IV- 

1.  Tub  reformed  religion  had  made  the  greater  progress  in 
Fraoce  from  the  impolitic  persecution  which  it  sustained  from 
Henry  11.^  the  son  and  saccessor  of  Francis  1.,  who,  though  he  aided 
the  iKotestanta  of  Germany  in  resisting  the  despotism  of  Charlea  V., 
ihowed  00  mercy  to  their  brethren  in  his  own  kingdom. 


yGoogk 


198  MODERN  HISTORY. 

5L  On  the  death  of  Heiiry  II.  the  conspiracy  of  Amboise  was  plan* 
Ded  by  the  prince  of  Conde,  for  the  destruction  of  the  duke  of  Guise, 
who  ruled  the  kingdom  under  Francis  II.,  and  to  whose  intolerance 
nod  cruelty  the  protestants  attributed  all  their  calamities.  Guise 
owed  his  ascendancy  chiefly  to  the  marriage  of  his  niece,  Mary 
queen  of  Scots  with  the  young  monarch ;  and  the  detection  of  i\\i3 
conspiracy,  the  massacre  of  its  principal  leaders,  and  the  barbarous 
pun^ment  of  all  who  partook  in  it,  while  they  confirmed  his  power, 
served  only  to  increase  the  rancour  of  the  contending  parties. 

3.  Francis  II.  died  after  a  reign  of  one  year,  1,560,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother  Charles  Ia.,  a  boy  of  ten  years  of  age.  The 
queen-mother,  Catharine  de  Medicis,  who  had  no  other  principle  but 
the  love  of  power,  was  equally  jealous  of  the  influence  of  the 
Condes  and  the  Guises.  An  ecclesiastical  assembly,  held  by  her  dc* 
sire  aVPoissy,  gave  toleration  to  the  protestants  to  exercise  their 
worship  through  all  France,  without  the  walls  of  the  towns.  The 
zeal  or  the  imprudence  of  the  duke  of  Guise  infringed  this  ordinance, 
and  both  parties  flew  to  arms.  The  admiral  Coligni  commanded  the 
troops  of  the  protestants,  who  were  aided  by  10,000  Germans  from 
the  ralatinate.  Philip  of  Spain,  to  increase  the  disorders,  sent  an 
army  to  the  aid  of  the  catholics. 

4.  The  horrors  of  civil  war  were  aggravated  by  murders  and 
assassinations.  The  duke  of  Guise  was  the  victim  of  the  frantic  zeal 
of  an  enthusiast  After  many  desperate  engagements,  with  various 
success^  a  treacherous  peace  was  agreed  to  by  the  catholics;  and 
Coligni,  with  the  chiefs  of  the  protestant  party,  were  invited  to 
court,  and  received  by  the  queen-mother  and  her  son  with  the  most 
extraordinary  marks  of  favour :  among  the  rest  Henry  of  Navarre, 
to  whom  the  youn^  monarch  had  given  his  sister  in  marriage.  Such 
were  the  preparatives  to  the  infernal  massacre  of  St  Barmolomew. 
On  the  night  of  the  23d  of  August,  1,572,  at  the  ringing  of  the  matin 
bell,  the  catholics  made  a  eenend  massacre  of  ail  the  protestants 
throughout  the  kingdom  of  France.  Charles  IX.,  a  monster  of 
crueltv  assisted  in  the  murder  of  his  own  subjects. 

5.  Amid  those  horrors  Henry  duke  of  Anjou,  brother  of  Charles 
TK^  was  elected  king  of  Poland :  but  had  scarcely  taken  posse^oii 
of  nis  throne,  when  he  was  called  to  that  of  France  by  the  death 
of  its  execrable  soverei^,  1,574.  The  weakness  of  the  new  mon 
arch,  Henry  III.,  was  unht  to  compose  the  disorders  of  the  kingdom 
Equally  bigoted  and  profligate,  he  became  the  scorn  of  his  su^ects, 
and  the  dupe  of  the  contending  factions. 

6.  The  protestant  party  was  now  supported  by  the  jprioce  of 
Conde  and  young  Henry  of  Navarre,  descended  fipom  Robert  of 
Bourbon,  a  younger  son  of  Lewis  IX.  The  duke  of  Alencoo,  the 
king's  brother,  had  likewise  joined  their  party.  The  catholics,  to 
accumulate  their  strength,  formed  a  bond  of  union,  termed  the  Uaguc, 
Dominally  for  defence  of  the  stite  and  its  religion,  but  in  reality  for 
usurping  all  the  powers  of  government,  and  suppressing  the  protes- 
tant faith.  Of  this  dangerous  association  Henry  til.,  with  the  weakesf 
policv,  declared  himself  the  head,  and  thus  the  avowed  enemy  d 
one  half  of  his  subjects.  He  saw  his  error  when  too  late,  ad, 
dreading  the  designs  of  the  duke  of  Guise,  and  his  brother  the  cardiiai 
of  Lorraine,  whose  authority  bad  superseded  his  own,  he  basely  od 
himself  of  his  fears  by  procuring  tlieir  assassination.  This  vicious 
and  contemptible  tyrant,  afler  a  reign  of  fifteen  years,  was  i 


y  Google 


MODERN  HISTORY.  199 

bf  Jaqoes  Gement,  a  jacobin  monk,  from  the  frenzy  of  fenaticism, 
1,589. 

7.  The  next  heu*  of  the  crown  was  Henry  of  NaVarre,  who  had 
been  educated  a  protestant  by  his  mother,  the  daughter  of  Henry 
d^Aibert  king  of  Navarre.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  had  been  declared 
bead  of  the  party  of  the  Huguenots;  his  uncle  the  prince  of  Conde 
and  the  admiral  Coligni  acting  as  his  lieutenants.  His  first  military 
enterprises  were  unsuccessful.  Invited  to  Paris,  at  the  peace  ot 
1^72,  to  marry  the  sister  of  Charles  IX.,  he  narrowly  escaped  from 
the  massacre  of  St  Bartholomew,  but  remained  three  years  a  prison- 
er. On  the  death  of  Charles  he  again  took  the  field  aeainst  the 
army  of  the  league,  which  he  defeated  in  the  battle  of  Coutras, 
1,587,  and  still  more  signally  in  that  of  Arques,  1,589.  AAer  the 
death  of  Henry  UI.,  he  won  the  celebrated  battle  of  Ivry ;  and, 
being  acknowledged  sovereign  of  France  by  all  but  the  party  of  the 
league,  then  in  possession  ol  Paris,  he  laid  siege  to  the  city,  which 
must  have  capitulated  if  Philip  II.  had  not  sent  succours.  Religion  waa 
the  sole  cause  of  the  disunion  of  France,  and  the  only  obstacle  to 
the  acknowledgment  of  Hcnry^s  title  by  the  greater  jpart  of  his  sub- 
jects^ By  the  earnest  persuasion  of  Rosni  (duke  of  Sully),  a  protes- 
lant,  Henry  was  prevailed  on  to  declare  himself  a  catholic.  He  ab- 
jured at  St  Denis,  and  was  crowned  king  at  Chartres,  1,594.  He 
»ooo  after  took  possession  of  Paris ;  but  it  took  him  several  years- 
both  of  war  and  negotiation,  before  he  gained  the  whole  of  his  king 
dom,  exhausted  as  it  was,  and  ruined  by  civil  discord. 

8.  The  suteequent  life  of  this  excellent  prince  was  devoted  to  the 
reparation  of  those  misfortunes.  After  forcing  Philip  II.  to  conclude 
the  advantageous  peace  of  Vervins,  1,598,  his  whole  attention  was 
bckowed  on  the  improvement  of  his  kingdom,  by  reforming  its  laws, 
regalaljng  its  finances^  encouraging  agriculture  and  manufactures, 
cnkrging  and  embellishing  the  cities^  and  finally  by  successfully 
recoQciling  the  partisans  of  the  contending  religions,  in  all  his  bene- 
ficbi  schemes,  he  found  an  able  assistant  in  his  minister  the  duke  of 
>uUy,  who  has  beautifully  depicted  the  life  and  character  of  his  mas- 
ter. In  his  memoirs  we  see  not  only  the  great  desipis,  but  the  pri- 
vale  virtoes,  the  engaging  and  amiable  manners  of  this  illustrious 
man,  who,  while  he  was  the  arbiter  of  the  contending  powers  oi 
Kurupe,  was  the  indulgent  Either  of  a  happy  people. 

9.  The  period  of  the  splendour  and  nappmess  of  France  was  ot 
short  duration.  Henry  IV.,  worthy  to  be  immortal,  was  assassinated 
at  the  age  of  fifly-seven.  May  4,  1,610,  by  Ravaillac,  an  insane  fanat- 
ic At  the  time  of  his  death,  he  meditated  the  great  project  of  a 
perpetual  peace  between  the  states  of  Europe,  a  design  hiehly  char- 
acteristic of  the  benevolent  mind  of  its  author.  But  the  wesinesses  of 
jnanldnd,  and  the  impossibility  of  reasoning  with  nations  as  with  wise 
Bufiyklaals.  must  certainly  have  rendered  Uiia  design  Impracticable  at 
that  period. 


SECTION  LV. 

aiSTORT  OF  ENGLAND  AND  OF  SCOTLAND  IN  THE  REIGNS 
OF  ELIZABETH  AND  MART  QUEEN  OF  SCOTS. 

1.  EuzABRn,  daughter  of  Henry  VIII.,  by  Anna  Bullen,  succeeded 
U>  the  throoe  on  the  death  of  her  sister  llary,  1,558  j  and  England 


yGoogk 


JOO  MODERN  HISTOKl. 

attained  a  high  degree  of  splendour,  under  the  rule  of  this  great  and 
politic  princess,  whose  talents  enabled  her  to  pursue  the  true  interests 
of  her  people,  while  her  vigorous  and  intrepid  mind  led  her  to  take 
an  important  part  in  maintaining  the  balance  of  power  in  Europe. 
While  she  encouraged  at  home  every  useful  art  and  manutacture, 
•he  colonized  a  great  part  of  North  America,  supported  the  hohnt 
republic  of  Holland  against  its  tyrannical  enemy,  humbled  tlie  pride 
of  Spain  in  the  defeat  of  its  inviiicible  armnda,  and  assisted  Henry  iV. 
in  the  recovery  of  his  kingdom.  It  was  her  fortune  to  have  the  aid 
of  most  able  ministers,  and  her  merit  to  place  her  confidence  in  their 
counsels. 

2.  If  Elizabeth  had  been  equally  endowed  with  the  virtues  of  the 
heart  as  with  the  powers  of  the  mind,  she  would  have  shone  (he 
most  iUustrious  character  in  the  annals  of  modem  Europe.  Her 
conduct  to  her  cousin  Mary  queen  of  Scots  has  fixed  an  indelible 
stain  on  her  character.  Mary,  the  daughter  of  James  V.,  and  great 
grand-daughter  of  Henry  Vli.,  educated  in  France,  and  married, 
when  very  young,  to  the  dauphin,  afterwards  Francis  II..  had  im- 
prudently assumeci  the  arms  and  title  of  queen  of  England,  by  the 
persuasion  of  her  maternal  uncles  the  Guises.  The  pretence  was 
the  illegitimacy  of  Elizabeth,  declared  by  Henry  VI II.,  on  his  divorce 
from  PSmsL  Bullen.  This  false  step  laid  the  foundation  of  ail  the 
miseries  of  the  queen  of  Scots. 

3.  The  reformation  was  at  this  time  going  forward  in  Scotland 
with  the  most  ardent  zeal.  The  earls  of  Argyle,  Morton,  Glencaim, 
and  others,  its  chief  promoters,  had,  by  their  own  authority,  suppress- 
ed the  worship  of  the  mass  over  a  great  part  of  the  kingdom. 
The  catholic  bishops,  by  an  ill-judged  persecution  of  the  reformers, 
greatly  increased  the  number  of  their  proselytes.  They  hepax  to 
muster  their  strength,  and,  headed  by  John  knox,  a  disciple  of  Calr 
vin,  a  virtuous  man,  out  of  the  most  furious  and  intemperate  zeal^ 
threw  down  the  altars  and  images,  expelled  the  priests,  and  demol- 
ished the  churches  and  monasteries.  The  protestants  wore  now 
acting  in  arms,  and  in  open  detiance  of  governTnent ;  and  the  queen- 
mother,  Mary  of  Guise,  attempted,  by  the  aid  of  French  troops,  to 
reduce  her  subjects  to  submission.  They  applied  for  aid  to  Elizabeth 
the  protestant  queen  of  England,  who  sent  an  army  and  a  fleet  to  their 
assistance.  The  death  of  3ie  queen-mother  was' followed  by  a  capit- 
ulation, by  which  it  was  agreed  that  the  French  should  evacuate 
Scotland,  and  that  Mary  should  renounce  all  pretension  to  the  crown  ol 
Ejigland.  The  protestant  religion,  under  presbyterian  forms,  was 
now  established  in  the  room  of  the  catholic. 

5.  In  this  situation  of  Scotland,  Mary,  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  on 
the  death  of  her  mother,  and  of  her  husband  Francis  11.,  returned 
to  her  hereditary  kingdom ;  having  fortunately  escaped  an  English 
fleet,  which  Elizabeth  had  despatched  to  take  her  prisoner  on  her 
I>assage.  Her  mistbrtunes  began  from  that  hour.  Her  protestant 
subjects  regarded  their  catholic  queen  with  albhorrence,  and  looked 
up  to  her  enemy  Elizabeth  as  their  support  and  defender.  That 
artful  princess  had  secured  to  her  interest  the  very  men  on  whom 
the  unsuspecting  Mary  placed  her  utmost  confidence,  her  Bastard 
brother  the  earl  of  Murray,  the  earl  of  Morton,  and  secretary  Leth-> 
ington.  The  views  of  Murray  aimed  at  nothing  less  than  his  sisteri 
crown,  and  the  obstacles  which  opposed  his  criminal  ambition  servei 
ealj  to  render  his  attempts  more  daring  and  flagitious. 

o.  The  marriage  of  ftlary  with  her  cousia  lord  Damlej,  &cio  of  tho 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  201 

eaii  of  Lennox,  who  stood  in  the  snroe  relation  to  Elizaoeth,  was  not 
agreeable  to  that  princess.  Encouraged  by  Elizabeth^s  ministers, 
lUndolph  and  Cecil,  Murray  formed  a  conspiracy  to  seize  and  impris- 
co  Mary,  to  put  lo  death  Iier  husband,  and  usurp  the  government ; 
and  on  the  detection  of  his  design*,  attempted  to  support  them  by 
open  rebiHion.  Defeated,  exiled,  pardoned,  and  loaded  with  benefits 
by  his  iniurod  sovereign,  he  persevered  in  the  same  atrocious  pur- 
poses,  till  he  at  lent^lh  accomnlished  them. 

6.  The  spouse  of  Mary  hari  incurred  her  resentment  by  his  vices 
and  follies.  Taking  advuntage  of  tlic  weakness  of  his  mind,  Mar- 
ray,  Morton,  and  Letlungton,  had  rendered  him  jealous  of  the  par- 
tiality of  Mary  for  her  foreign  secretary,  the  aged  Rizzio,  ana  en- 
g^ed  him  in  the  barbarous  act  of  murdering  this  ill-fated  wretch 
al  the  feet  of  the  queen,  to  whose  garments  he  clung  for  protection. 
The  purpc<se  of  this  shocking  outnige  was  to  procure  the  abortion 
of  Mary,  then  big  with  child,  and  possibly  her  death;  or,  if  she 
FhoukI  survive,  to  alienate  completely  her  affections  from  her  hus- 
b.ind|  and  thus  to  render  her  suspected  of  the  design  which  they 
had  projected  of  cutting  him  off  by  assassination.  In  the  latter  pur- 
pose they  j^ucceedod.  'i  he  house  which  Darnloy  inhabited  wasblo^vn 
Qp  by  gunpowder:  his  bodjr  was  found  strangled  near  the  place,  and 
a  report  immediately  prevailed,  that  Mary  had  been  accessory  to  his 
murder. 

7.  A  most  imprudent  step,  to  which  she  was  conducted  by  the 
same  baml  of  traitors,  gave  countenance  to  tins  suspicion.  At  the 
earnest  rrcomnu'ndiUion  of  Morton  and  some  of  her  chief  nobility, 
»he  married  the  earl  of  iSolhwell,  a  man  openly  stigmatized  as  one 
of  the  mnri'^rt'i-s  of  her  hu^^hand.  He  had,  it  is  true,  been  absolved 
on  trial  for  that  crime,  and  had  liy  force  made  himself  master  of  her 
person.  The  plans  of  Mnrniy  and  his  associates,  succossful  to  the 
utmost  of  their  wihos,  were  now  ripe  for  consummation.  On  the 
pretext  of  the  queen's  guilt  of  murder  and  adultery,  she  was  confined 
oy  Marray  in  ihe  ca-tle  of  Lochleven,  and  tiicre  compelled  to  resign 
hercrown  into  the  hands  of  her  unnatural  hrother,who  was  to  govera 
the  kingd<^'n  as  n':ic'nt  during  the  minority  of  her  infant  son,  now 
procbumed  kia^  by  the  title  of  J  antes  VI.,  I,6u7.  Bothwell  escaped 
beyond  sea.  an  J  died  in  Denmark. 

i  A  treat  part  of  the  nation  reprobated  those  infamous  proceed- 

inip.     Mary  c^sraped  from  her  con  line rncnt.  and  at  the  head  of  an 

army  gave  baltlo  to  tlie  rebels  at  Liin^^iile ;  but,  being  defeated,  she 

fled  for  shelter  lo  the  north  of  Englaml.    Eiizabelb,  who  had  secretly 

eocooraged  all  the  mtivhinitions  of  her  enemies,  had  now  gained  a 

mat  object  ot'  Urr  a  miction ;  she  hiid  in  her  hantls  a  hated  rival,  and. 

E^  ber  support  of  Murniy  and  his  party,  the  absolute  command  oi 

the    kingdom    of    bcctland.     Yet  policy  required  some  show  of 

Ineodship  and  biunanity  to  the  queen  of  Scots,  who  claimed,  as  a 

suppliant,  her  piotortion  and  aid.    She  profe2»sed  her  desire  to  do 

bi^JQBticet  but  fu^t  required  that  she  snould  clear  hen^lf  of  the 

crimes  alleged  a<^:un5t  h^T.    To  this  Mary  agreed,  ivith  the  intrepid- 

itj  of  conscious  innocence.     In  a  conference  held  for  that  purpose, 

J\anrm  openly  stood  forth  as  the  accuser  of  his  sister  ana  queen, 

Appeaunc  to  certain  letters  Siiid  to  have  been  written  by  her  to  fiotb- 

^prdl,  plainlj  intimating  her  goilt    Copies  of  these  letters  were  pro- 

&MKmi    Mary  denuindcd  the  originals,  boldly  deciariof  them  to  be 

tJbe  ibfff eriefl  of  her  enemies ;  bat  they  were  never  produced.    Shm 

cet«ted  OD  Hurray  and  Morton  the  charse  of  Damley's  monler, 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


tost  MODERN  HISTORY. 

and  the  conference  wad  broken  off  at  the  command  ol  the  queen  of 
England,  who  detained  Mary  m  close  imprisonment 

9.  The  ungenerous  policy  of  Elizabeth  was  condemned  by  her 
own  subjects.  The  duke  of  Norfolk,  the  first  of  her  nobility,  and, 
though  a  protestant,  favoured  by  the  catholic  l^rty  in  England, 
secretly  projected  to  marry  the  queen  of  Scots.  The  discovery  of 
his  views  having  given  alarm  to  Elizabeth,  brought  that  ill-fated 
nobleman  to  the  block,  and  hastened  the  doom  of  the  unfortunate 
Mary.  Worn  out  with  the  miseries  of  her  confinement,  she  private- 
ly solicited  the  aid  of  foreign  princes  for  her  deliverance.  Her 
cause  was  espoused  by  all  the  catholics  of  England ;  and  some  of  the 
most  intemperate  of  these  had  formed  a  plot  to  deliver  her  from 
captivity,  and  to  place  her  on  the  throne,  by  the  murder  of  Eliza- 
beth. This  dangerous  conspiracy  was  discovered,  and  its  authors 
deservedly  suffered  death.  The  schemes  of  Mary  for  her  own  de- 
liverance were  held  presumptive  of  her  acquiescence  in  the  whole  of 
the  plot  Though  an  independent  sovereign,  she  was  brought  to 
trial  oefore  a  foreign  tribunal  which  had  alreadv  decreed  her  fate; 
and,  being  condemned  to  suffer  death,  she  was  beheaded  at  Pother- 
iogay  castle,  1,587,  in  the  forty-fiflh  year  of  her  a^e,  and  the  nine- 
teenth of  her  captivity  in  England.  Pre viousl v  to  this  event,  Murray 
had  fallen  the  victim  of  the  i>rivate  revenge  of  a  gentleman  whom  he 
had  injured :  Lethington  poisoned  himself  in  prison,  to  escape  the 
sentence  of  his  enemies ;  and  Morton,  some  time  recent  of  the  king- 
dom, was  aflerwards  tried  and  suffered  death  for  his  concern  in  ^e 
murder  of  Damley. 

10.  We  have  mentioned  the  formidable  preparations  of  Philip  IL 
for  the  invasion  of  England,  and  their  disastrous  issue  in  the  total 
destruction  of  the  invincible  armada.  The  English,  in  their  turn, 
made  descents  on  the  Spanish  coasts ;  and  the  gloiV  of  the  nation 
was  noblv  sustained  by  those  great  admirals,  Raieigh,  Howard. 
Drake,  Cavendish,  and  Hawkins.  The  earl  of  Essex  distingubhed 
himself  in  those  expeditions,  and  won  the  favour  of  EUzabeUi,  both 
by  his  prowess  and  personal  accomplishments.  The  death  of  Lei- 
cester, her  former  favourite,  and  of  her  minister  Burleigh  left  Essex 
unrivctlled  in  her  affections,  and  o|*  chief  authority  in  the  direction  of 
her  councils.  Haughty,  and  impatient  of  control,  he  disgusted  the 
nobles ;  and  his  failure  in  quelling  a  rebellion  in  Ireland  gave  them 
ground  to  undermine  him  in  the  favour  of  his  sovereign,  m  the  mad- 
ness of  inordinate  ambition,  he  proposed  to  possess  himself  of  the 
person  of  the  queen,  and  compel  her  to  remove  his  enemies,  and 
acquiesce  in  all  his  measures,  ^his  treasonable  enterprise  brought 
him  to  the  scaffold,  1^00. 

^  1.  From  that  time  Elizabeth  fell  kito  profound  melancholy,  and  soon 
after  died  in  the  seventieth  year  of  her  age,  1,603,  having  named  for 
her  8ucce--sor  James  VI,  ofScotland.  Her  talents  were  great,  and 
the  firmness  of  her  mind  was  unequalled;  but  her  private  char- 
acter was  tarnished  by  cruelty,  hypocrisy,  and  an  insatiable  desire 
of  admiration.  Her  maxims  of  government  were  despotic,  and  she 
had  Utile  regard  for  the  liberties  of  her  people,  or  the  privileges  of 
her  parliaments,  to  whom  she  never  allowed  the  liberty  of  disputing 
her  comaiaods.  The  actual  government  of  England  in  those  dayi 
was  Utile  diilerent  from  an  absolute  monarchy^ 


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MODERN  HlSTtmY.  £03 


SECTION  LVI. 

mSTORT  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  IN  TliE  REIGNS  OF  JAMES  L 
AND  CHARLES  I. 

1.  James  VI.  of  Scotland  succeeded  bj  hereditarjT  ngbt  to  the 
throne  of  Eogland,  thus  uniting  the  two  crowDs;  a  prince  of  considh 
erahle  learning  and  talents,  but  of  little  vigour  of  mind  or  political 
energy.  He  became  unpopular  from  his  notions  of  an  uncontrollable 
prerogative,  to  which  unwisely  proclaiminjg  his  title,  he  provoked 
his  sufcjects  to  question  it  The  current  ofpublic  opinion  was  now 
strongly  turned  to  an  extension  of  the  rights  of  the  subject,  and  to  a 
letreDcament  of  the  powers  of  the  crown ;  and  during  this  reign  the 
seeds  were  sown  of  that  spirit  of  resistance  on  the  part  of  the  peo- 
ple, which  was  destined  in  the  next  to  overturn  the  constitution. 

2.  Domestic  events  were  such  as  chieflv  distinguished  the  reign 
of  James  I.  A  conspiracy  wus  discovered  in  1,603  for  subverting 
the  government,  and  placmg  the  king^s  cousin,  Arabella  Stuart,  on 
the  mroDe,  in  which  the  lords  Cobham  and  Grey,  and  Sir  Walter  Ka* 
leifh  were  principally  concerned.  The  two  former  were  pardoned, 
ani  Raleigh  was  condemned,  but  reprieved.  On  the  eround  of  his 
iniringement  of  the  peace  with  Spam,  by  unwarrantably  attitcking 
one  of  her  American  settlements,  he  was  beheaded  on  his  former 
aenteooe,  ailer  an  interval  of  tiileen  years. 

3.  Another  consph^cy  followed,  of  a  still  more  dangerous  nature, 
the  gunpowder  treason ;  a  plot  of  the  catholics  to  destroy  at  one 
blow  the  king  and  the  whole  body  of  the  parliament,  1,604.  It  was 
discovered  from  a  circumstance  of  private  friendship,  on  the  very 
eve  of  its  accomplishment;  and  the  principal  conspirators  suffered 
capital  punishment  The  public  indignation  now  raged  against  the 
catholks;  and  the  humanity  of  James,  which  sought  to  miligate  this 
fory,  was  as  ungenerously  as  absurdly  construed  into  a  favour  which 
be  entedained  for  their  religious  principles. 

4.  It  WES  a  peculiar  weakness  of  the  king  to  attach  himself  to 
Qodeflerving  £ivouritcs.  Such  w:t^  Carre  earl  of  Somerset,  who  had 
DO  other  recommendation  but  a  hand^some  person,  and  who,  af\er 
aercnil  years'  exercise  of  all  the  insolence  of  power,  fell  Into  dis- 
grace, on  conviction  of  his  concern  in  an  infamous  murder.  His 
place  was  supplied  by  ViliierSj  afterwards  duke  of  Buckingham,  a 
man  devoid  of^ every  talent  of  a  minister  and  odious  to  ail  ranks 
of  (he  state.  He  planned  a  journey  ci  Charles  prince  of  Wales  into 
Spain  to  court  the  infanta,  and  by  Lis  folly  and  insolence  frustrated 
toe  treaty  on  the  brink  of  its  conclut^ion. 

&  EIli»ibeth,  the  daughter  of  James,  waf*  married  to  the  protestant 
dactor  Pabtine.  who  was  disposse^v^ed  of  his  electorate  by  the  emj>e- 
tor  FenliDaDd  II.,  for  imprudently  accepting  the  crown  of  Bohemia, 
till  tfien  an  appanage  of  the  empire.  James  was  urged  by  parlia- 
aoeot  to  a  war  in  detence  of  bis  son-in-law,  which  touched  the  natk>n 
hoth  at  a  point  of  honour  and  as  the  catise  of  the  protestant  interest* 
He  sent  a  feeble  annament,  which  was  of  no  service,  the  only  roili- 
taar  enterprise  of  his  reign.  His  flivourite  project  jkius  a  complete 
anioa  of  tbe  kingdoms  of  &)gland  and  Scotland ;  a  measure  wnich^ 
koverer  beoeficial,  tbe  mutual  prejudices  of  the  two  nations  were  as 


yGoogk 


204  MODERN  HISTORY. 

yet  too  violent  to  bear.  As  a  preparatory  step,  tne  episcopal  hie- 
rarchy was  introduced  into  Scotland;  but  this  served  only  as  the  in- 
centive of  future  commotions.  James  I.  died  in  1625,  in  the  59th 
year  of  his  age,  and  the  22d  of  his  reign  over  England. 

6.  On  an  impartial  estimate  of  the  character  of  the  succeeding 
monarch,  Charles  I.,  it  may  be  allowed^  that  this  unfortunate  prince 
would  have  reigned  with  iiigh  popularity,  if  the  nation  in  his  reign 
had  entertained  the  same  opinions  of  the  regal  prerogative^  of  the 
powers  of  parliament,  and  of  the  liberty  of  the  subject,  which  had 
prevailed  for  the  two  preceding  centuries.  But  it  was  his  lot  to 
mount  the  throne  at  that  critical  period  when  the  public  opinion  had 
undergone  an  entire  revolution  on  those  topics;  and,  with  many  ex- 
cellent endowments  both  of  head  and  heart,  he  wanted  that  poutical 
prudence  which  should  have  taught  him  to  yield  to  the  necessity  of 
the  times. 

1.  Charles  was  offended  with  his  first  parliament,  on  their  refusal 
of  adequate  supplies  for  the  war  in  support  of  his  brother-in-law,  the 
elector  Palatine.  Engaged  to  his  allies,  the  king,  dissolving  the  par- 
liament, issued  warrants  for  borrowing  money  ol  the  subject.  A  new 
parliament  was  found  equally  uncomplying,  and  evinced  its  jealousy 
of  the  king  b^  the  impeachment  of  his  minister,  Buckingham.  Charles 
avenged  me  insult  by  imprisoning  two  members  of  the  house  of  com- 
mons. A  dissension  thus  begun  was  continually  aggravated  by  new 
causes  of  offence.  The  levying  of  money  from  the  subject  was  en- 
forced by  billeting  soldiers  on  those  who  refused  to  lend  to  the  crown ; 
and  some,  were  even  imprisoned  on  that  account  A  war  was  under- 
taken against  France,  by  Buckingham's  instigation,  a  suHicient  cause 
of  its  unpopularity;  and  it  ended  in  a  fruitless  attempt  on  Rocbelie. 
The  king  again  dissolved  his  parliament,  1.0^6. 

8.  A  new  parliament  exhibited  a  spirit  of  determined  reformation. 
A  Petition  of  Right  was  passed  by  both  houses,  which  declared  tlie 
illegality  ofraising  money  without  their  sanction,  or  of  enforcing  loan? 
from  the  subject,  annulled  all  taxes  imposed  without  the  consent  of 
parliament,  and  abolished  the  exercise  of  the  martial  law ;  and  Cliarles 
was  obliged,  with  much  reluctance,  to  give  his  assent  to  this  great 
retrenchment  of  prerogatives,  sanctioned  by  the  usage  of  the  most 
popular  of  his  predecessors. 

9.  The  taxes  of  tonnage  and  poundage  had  usually  been  continued 
from  one  reign  to  another.  On  this  ground  the  king  conceived  that 
he  was  warranted  to  levy  them  without  a  new  grant ;  and  a  member 
of  the  house  of  commons  was  imprisoned  on  refusal  to  pay  tiiem. 
This  arbitrary  measure  excited  an  outrageous  ferment  in  that  assem- 
bly, and  the  consequence  was  a  new  dissolution  of  the  parliament, 
1,629. 

10.  It  was  now  a  measure  of  necessity  to  make  peace  with  Prance 
and  Spain.  The  kine  persevered  in  levying  tlie  tonnage,  poundage, 
and  ship-money;  and  high  fines  were  imposed  for  various  offences, 
without  trial,  by  authority  of  the  sta^chamber.  The  legality  of  the 
tax  of  ship-money  was  disputed  by  John  Hampden,  who  was  con- 
demned by  the  court  of  exchequer,  contrary,  as  was  generally 
thought  to  justice  and  the  laws  of  tlie  realm. 

11.  Those  discontents  were  increased  by  religions  enthusiasm. 
Charles,  by  the  advice  of  Laud,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  had  relax* 
ed  the  penalties  against  catholics,  and  countenanced  some  inoova« 
tioDS  in  the  ceremonials  of  church  worship,  preludes,  as  they  wert 
ttrmedy  to  the  popish  idolatries.    He  had  likewisa  impruderay  a^ 

Digitized  by  CjOOQIC 


MODERN  HISTORY  fOb 

MipCed  to  introduce  the  liturgy  of  Ihc  church  of  England  among  the 
i>""tS-  Thesp  meiisures  exciteil  in  Scotland  very  general  discontent, 
izd  produced  the  most  violent  commotion.  A  bond,  termed  the  JSfa^ 
ti  •\ci  Cav^naiiU  coutahibg  an  oath  of  resistance  to  all  religious  iniy> 
vMixm^  wa?  sul)scrihed  in  ^^cotland  by  aii  ranks  jind  conditions;  and 
b  a  gvuenil  asc^fmbly  at  Gl;isgow  the  episcopal  hierarchy  was  sol- 
emnly abolL^hed^  1,G38.  To  maiotitin  this  violent  procedure  the 
>--'M  nrfornier^  took  up  arms,  and,  after  seizing  and  fortifying  the 
Ei.»4  iiDDoitiint  places  of  strength  in  tlic  kingdom,  boldly  marched 
uto  ihc  ne.jrt  of  Lngland. 

12.  It  wa^  now  absohitcly  necessary  to  assemble  a  parliaments  and 
the  king  at  Itngth  saw  that  the  torrent  was  irresistible,  and  resolved, 
u»»u»h  too  late,  to  yield  to  it.  A  bill  passed  for  abolishing  the  ton- 
mije  ini  poundni;e  without  consent  of  parliament,  and  received  the 
r'.yal  a^^nt  Monopolies  of  every  kind  were  abolished.  A  pariia- 
ni»  it  wa*  agreed  to  be  summoned  every  third  year.    Unsatisfied 

*  .b  the*e  concessions,  the  commons  impeached  the  earl  of  Strafford, 
t^»  kind's  hrvi  minister,  of  high  treason,  together  with  Laud,  arch- 
i  -fcop  of  Canto rburv,  who  were  charged,  as  the  chief  counsellors^f 
•'<  crown,  with  a  design  of  subverting  the  laws  and  constitution^ 
t!  e  rejini.  The  late  of  Strafloixl,  whose  trial  by  his  peers  would 
tme  t^rmiinated  in  hi-j  acquiiial,  was  secured  by  a  bill  of  attainder, 
*■">  which  the  king  was,  with  tbe  greatest  reluctance,  forced  to  give 
h.*  cf^nL  The  commons  seized  that  moment  of  anguish  to  ob- 
t:n  his  cori<«fnt  to  a  decisive  measure,  a  bill  which  rendered  the 
pirl'iaiiirat  perpetual  by  declaring  that  it  should  not  be  dissolved  nor 
a  *;'.iirD^  eitccpt  hy  its  own  decree,  1,641.  Strallbrd  and  Laud  were 
b  Ji  U /.*-r.»J  d. 

l:i.  Thi-s  ia«t  measure  of  the  commons  evinced  a  determined  pur- 
p--^  to  ov.Ttuni  the  ccnslitution.  Their  procecdingM  hitherto  nad 
•.-•?  «iK)w  of  justice,  and  most  of  them  mij^ht  be  vindicated  on  the 
P'-'viple^  ot  true  patriotism.  But  from  liiis  period  their  conduct 
»:*  treason  to  their  country  and  its  government.  The  last  bill  de- 
•:rt>T«d  the  equal  balance  of  the  conslituliun  of  Fnglnnd,  and  every 
i^ri^ei]oeot  measure  was  a  step  towards  its  annibiiation. 

14.  The  Jri'^h  catholics  took  advantage  of  those  disorders,  and, 
■-/.h  the  pnrpose  of  a^-juming  the  entire  crmmand  of  that  kingdom, 
«.  1  fihaking  off  its  dependence  on  llngland,  allt  rnpted.  in  one  day  to 
.T.t*«cre  all  the  prolestants  in  Ireland.  To  extinguish  this  horrible 
r  ^^liion  Charles  cousij^ned  to  the  parliament  the  charge  of  the  war, 
«Mcii  they  intrri»re led  into  a  translerence  to  them  of  the  whole  mil- 
.•  rj  poyKen  of  me  crown.    Under  thw  authority  a  great  force  was 

•  iteo.  and  supplied  with  arms  from  the  royal  magazines. 

13.  Tlie  b:*hoj«  having  complained  that  their  lives  were  in  danger 
:'•  a  tlie  populace,  and  having  j>roleste«l  agaiitfl  the  proceedings  of 

•  *;  lonb  ID  their  aUonce,  were  impeached  o!  treason  by  tbe  com* 
:■-  •cA.iDd  committed  to  the  Tower.    The  patiiMice  of  Charles  was 

*  UaoRted.  lie  caused  five  of  the  commons  tc  be  impeached,  and 
■-'flt  in  person  to  the  house  to  seize  tljem;  a  l»reaohof  the  privilege 
«'<  paribment,  for  which  he  found  it  neccs(»:iry  to  aioDe  by  a  humw- 
a  (AT  megsa^. 

1  jL  A  new  bm  of  the  commons  naming  the  cr  mmanders  of  all  the 

ijt^6itd  pisices,  who  shoujd  be  responsibhi  to  i  iriament  alone,  wav 

juienlood  to  be  a  declaration  of  war.    The  :.«  xt  .^tep  was  to  assume 

*.<?  whole  legislative  power,  by  declaring  it  h  t.i«  ach  of  privile|;e  te 

itfpele  the  law  of  the  land  promal^cd  oy  tlic  lonls  and  copimonti 

S 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  It 


S06  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Bat  the  lords  were  merely  a  name,  being  entirely  under  (he  control 
of  the  commons. 

17.  The  sword  was  now  to  decide  the  contest.  The  royal  cause 
was  supported  by  a  great  proportion  of  the  landed  interest,  all  the 
friends  of  the  established  church,  and  all  the  catholics  in  the  king- 
dom. On  the  side  of  the  parliament  were  the  city  of  London  and 
most  of  the  greater  towns,  with  all  the  dissentei^  and  sectaries.  The 
first  campaicn  was  favourable  to  the  royalists,  who  defeated  the  par- 
liamentary forces  at  Worcester  and  Edgehill,  but  lost  the  battle  of 
Newbury. 

18.  The  pariiament  now  entered  into  a  strict  confederacy  with 
the  Scots,  both  in  the  articles  of  politics  and  religion;  and  the  ob/fmn 
League  and  Ccmenant^  a  new  bond  more  specific  in  its  objects  than 
the  Ibrmer,  and  more  treasonable  in  its  purpose,  was  framed  at  Ekiin- 
burgh,  for  the  purification  of  both  churches,  the  reformation  of  both 
Idngdoms,  the  maintenance  of  the  privileges  of  king  and  parlia- 
ment, and  bringing  to  justice  all  malignants.  In  consequence  of  this 
confederacy,  20,0(X)  Scots  took  the  f&ld  toco-operate  with  the  forces 
of  the  parliament 

•9.  At  this  time  Oliver  Cromwell  commanded  a  regiment  of 
horse  under  Fairfax,  general  of  the  parliament ;  but  in  reality  direct- 
ed all  the  measures  of  the  army,  in  Scotland  the  royal  cause  wns 
gallantly  sustained  by  the  marquis  of  Montrose;  but  all  was  lost  in 
England  by  the  defeat  at  Naseby,  in  1,645.  The  troops  of  the  roy- 
alists being  entirely  dispersed,  the  king  threw  himself  into  the  hand* 
of  the  Scots,  who  basely  delivered  him  up  to  the  commissioners  of 

Sarliament.  from  whom  he  was  taken  by  Cromwell's  orders,  and  con- 
ucted  to  the  army,  which  was  now  master  of  the  kingdom.  Crom- 
well entering  London  assumed  an  absolute  control  over  the  parlia- 
ment, and  imprisoned  ail  who  disputed  his  authority.  Charles,  escap- 
ing from  his  confinement,  fled  to  the  isle  of  Wight ;  but  was  there  de- 
tained a  prisoner  in  Carisbrook  castle. 

20.  The  parliament,  suffering  under  this  military  usurpation,  were 
DOW  sincerely  desirous  of  terminating  a  miserable  anarchy  by  a 
treaty  with  the  king,  and,  after  a  long  negotiation,  all  terms  were 
finally  adjusted.  Charles  agreed  to  resign  to  parliament  the  military 
power,  the  disposal  of  all  the  oflices  of  state,  and  the  right  of  creat- 
mg  peers  without  the  consent  of  parliament:  he  agreed  to  abolish 
the  episcopal  hierarchy,  and  to  establish  the  presbyterLm  di^iplinc. 
These  concessions  the  parliament  accepted  by  a  majority  of  suffra- 
ges, and  declared  tliem  to  be  a  sufficient  basis  for  the  settlement  of 
the  kingdom.  Cromwell  instantly  surrounded  the  house  of  commons, 
and,  excluding  all  but  his  own  partisans  (about  sixty  in  number),  a 
second  vote  was  passed,  rescinding  the  former,  and  declaring  it 
treason  in  a  king  to  levy  war  against  his  pariiament  A  court  of 
TOtice  was  then  appointed  to  try  the  king  for  this  act  of  treason. 
The  house  of  lords,  having  unammously  rejected  this  decree,  were 
immediately  voted,  by  this  junto  of  independents,  to  be  a  uselesa 
branch  of  the  constitution. 

21.  Charles  was  brought  to  trial,  and,  refusing  to  acknowledge  the 
authority  of  his  judges,  was  condemned  to  suffer  death.  He  wai 
beheaded  on  the  30th  of  January,  1,649,  The  arbitrary  proceediM 
of  this  monarch  in  the  beginning  of  his  reign  were  certainly  su$ 
dent  to  justify  that  resistance  on  the  part  of  the  people  whk:h  it 
length  produced  its  effect,  in  confining  the  regal  authority  within  to 
{list  boundsi  and  securing  the  rational  liberties  of  the  subjects    M 

Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


MODERN  HiSlX)KY.  «n 

fron  the  penod  wheD  this  end  was  attained,  resistance  ceaied  to  be 
bwfuL  lla  further  operations  were  criminal  in  the  extreme.  The 
iobaeqaent  osorpations  of  the  commons  can  no  more  be  justified  o& 
any  constitutional  principle,  than  the  murder  of  the  king  can  be  de» 
fended  oo  the  score  of  legabty,  justice,  or  humanity. 


SECTION  LVn. 
THE  COMMONWEALTH  OP  ENGLAND. 

1.  Tbe  iKiriiament  of  Scotland  had  taken  no  part  in  these  lattet 
scenes,  and  had  formally  protested  against  the  trial  of  the  king.  On 
his  death  they  proclaimed  Charles  11.  their  sovereign,  but  on  flie  ex- 
press condition  of  his  signing  the  covenant,  and  ratiiying  their  con- 
fessioo  of  iaith.  Ireland  recognised  him  without  any  conditions. 
The  heroic  marquis  of  Montrose  landed  in  the  north  of  Scotland  with 
a  few  foieigp  troops,  and  attempted  to  reduce  the  party  of  the  cove- 
nanters, and  to  establish  the  legal  authority  of  the  king,  independent 
of  the  servile  restrictions  with  which  they  had  fettered  it  Being 
attacked  by  a  much  superior  force,  he  wns  defeated,  and  betrayed 
into  the  power  of  his  enemies,  who  put  him  to  death  by  the  hands 
of  the  executioner,  1,650 ;  displaying  in  the  circumstances  of  his 
puoishment  all  the  insolence  oi  cruelty  wliich  distinguishes  revenge 
m  the  meanest  of  souls.  Charles  retired  to  Scotland,  and  was  obliged. 
however  reluctantly,  to  acquiesce  in  all  the  terms  that  were  imposed 
on  hnn. 

2.  Cromwell,  with  16,000  men,  marched  into  Scotland  against  the 
royalist  covenanters,  whom  he  deleated  in  the  battle  of  Dunbar.  He 
then  followed  the  royal  army,  which  retreated  into  England,  and 
destroyed  it  in  the  decisive  battle  of  Worcester,  September  3,  1,651, 
Cbftiies  fled  in  disguise  through  the  western  and  soutliem  counties. 
till  he  found  an  opportunity  of  escaping  to  France ;  and  Cromwell 
retimed  in  triumph  to  London. 

3.  The  republican  parliament  formed  and  executed  great  de^^igns. 
A  war  wi^  Holland  was  most  ably  maintained  on  both  sides  by  tiiree 
great  naval  commanders,  Biakc^  the  British  admiral,  and  Van  Tromp 
and  de  Ruyter,  the  Dutch  admu^b ;  but  the  advantage  was  greatly 
io  &iroor  of  the  English,  who  took  above  1,600  Dutch  ships.  The 
parliament,  elated  by  these  successes,  justly  conceived  that,  while 
ihe  nation  was  thus  poweriul  at  sea,  the  army  was  an  unnecessary  bur^ 
den.  and  determined  to  reduce  it.  To  prevent  this  measure,  Crom- 
well finuncd  a  remonstrance  of  the  army,  demanding  the  election  of 
a  new  parliament.  This  remonstnmce  being  (ii-:regarded,  he  entered 
tiic  house  of  commons,  which  he  had  surrounded  with  his  troops,  and 
df-claxing  the  parliament  dissolved  by  his  authority,  forcibly  turned 
Uie  iDembera  out  of  doors.  The  republic  of  England,  wHich  had 
nifasisted  four  years  and  three  months,  was  thus  annihilated  in  one* 
noment,  April  20, 1,653. 

4.  It  was  necessaiT^  however,  that  there  should  be  the  appearance 
of  a  parliament  A  few  mean  persons,  of  fanatical  character,  were 
cho&en  br  CromwelPs  partisans,  from  the  ditTerent  ^counties  of  Eng^ 
land,  nm  five  from  Scotland,  and  six  from  Irekmd.  to  hold  their  fbi£* 
Cioo  Sat  fifleeen  months.  This  assembly,  termed  Bardxme^s  paHk^ 
wAOrty  from  its  leading  member,  a  leather-seller,  became  the  scorn  ot 
tbe  pablk,  and  was  dissolved,  by  its  own  vote,  aAer  five  monthi. 


yGoogk 


t08  MODERN  HISTORl 

5.  The  goyeroment  was  now  vested  in  the  council  of  officers* 
who  nominated  Oliver  Cromwell  lord  protector  of  the  three  king- 
doms, invested  him  with  the  power  of  making  peace,  war,  and  alU- 
ance,  and  authorized  a  standing  army  of  30,000  men  to  be  kept  up 
for  tne  support  of  government  His  administration  was  despotic, 
vigorous,  and  spirited.  He  maintained  the  honour  of  the  nation  in 
the  war  with  the  Dutch,  compelling  them  to  yield  the  honour  of  the 
flag,  and  to  compensate  to  the  India  company  all  its  losses.  He  was 
successful  likewise  in  his  negotiations  with  France  and  Spain.  But 
in  his  domestic  government  he  was  traversed  by  his  parliaments 
whom  it  cost  him  a  continual  struggle,  and  even  violence,  to  keep  in 
order.  One  parliament,  properly  prepared,  voted  him  the  regal 
title,  which,  by  the  council  of  his  best  friends,  he  was  forced,  nios: 
unwillingly,  to  refuse.  In  recompense  of  this  self-<lcnial,  the  parlia- 
ment contirmed  his  title  of  protector,  with  a  fixed  revenue,  and  de- 
creed his  right  of  appointing  a  successor.  He  was  king  in  all  but 
the  name.  i 

6.  By  consent  of  parlLiment  Cromwell  appointed  a  house  of  lords; 
but  all  the  ancient  peers  declined  the  protfered  honour.  He  was 
forced  to  choose  peers  from  the  commons ;  and  thus  he  lost  the  ma- 
jority in  the  lower  house.  His  temper  soured  with  disappointment, 
a  prey  to  chagrin,  and  in  continual  fear  of  assassination,  ne  fell  at 
lengtn  into  a  mortal  disease,  and  died  m  the  hfly-nlnth  year  of  his  age, 
Septembers,  1,658. 

7.  Richard  Cromwell,  son  of  Oliver,  succeeded  to  the  protectonite 
by  his  father's  appointment.  Pie  was  a  man  of  weak  unilerstandinjr 
and  fiicile  temper,  utterly  unfit  for  his  hazardous  sitnation,  which 
accordingly  he  maintain c*d  only  for  a  few  months,  resigning  his  otfice 
on  the  22d  of  April,  1,659.  His  brother  Henry,  viceroy  of  Irelmd, 
nnmediately  followed  his  example.  The  family  of  the  Cromwclls, 
which  the  talents  of  one  man  hud  elevated  above  the  sovereigns  of 
then*  country,  returned  to  its  original  obscurity. 

8.  The  remains  of  that  nominal  parliament  which  had  put  the  king 
to  death,  termed,  in  derision,  the  mmp^  was  now  dissolved  by  the 
council  of  officers.  Of  these  every  aspiring  individual  had  his  own 
separate  views  of  ambition.  Intrigue,  cabal,  and  anarchy,  were  univer- 
sal; and  the  nation,  looking  forward  with  horror  to  a  series  of  cjilam- 
ities,  began  camcatly  to  desire  the  restitution  of  its  ancient  govern- 
ment. George  Monk,  comnwnJer  of  the  army  in  Scotland,  judged 
those  symiitoms  favourable  for  restoring  the  exiled  monarch  to  the 
throne  of  his  ancestors.  Marching  his  army  into  England,  he  declar- 
ed his  resolution  to  bring  about  the  election  of  a  free  parliament, 
which  all  men  knew  to  be  synonymous  with  the  restoration  of  tho 
king.  It  was  of  course  violently  opposed  by  the  republican  partv^ 
who  even  attempted  to  excite  a  new  civil  war;  but  they  were  forced 
at  length  to  acquiesce  in  the  measure.  A  free  parliament  was  asse no- 
bled,  and  a  message  was  presented  from  Charles,  offering  a  full  in- 
denmity,  complete  liberty  of  conscience,  and  payment  of  all  arrears 
to  the  army.  The  message  was  received  with  transports  of  joy,  and 
Charles  U.  was  proclaimed  king  on  the  29th  day  q£  May,  l,Ci6a 


yGoogk 


MOD£RN  HISTORY.  909 

SECTION  LVIIL 
7H£  REIGNS  OF  CHARLES  II.  AND  JAMES  II. 

1.  The  nation,  without  imposing  any  tenns  on  their  new  sove* 
reicn,  tru^ed  implicitly  to  his  ^ood  dispo^^itionj^.  Charles  was  humane 
axid  complacent,  but  indolent^  luxurious,  and  prodigal;  and  therefore 
wa^  noitlicr  able  to  support  the  nntiooal  honour  abroad,  nor  to  com* 
mand  obc<lience  and  respect  to  bii>  domestic  government.  The  sale 
ct  Dankirk  was  a  measure  oiibnsive  to  the  pride  of  the  nation.  A 
nar  with  Holland,  supported  at  a  vast  expense,  and  maintained  in 
Miny  ilcspcrate  but  indociMve  engagements,  was  attended  finally 
iMtli'no  material  benefit.  l»y  the  treaty  of  Breda,  concluded  in  1,667 
>*  -v  York  was  secured  to  the  English,  the  isle  of  Poicrone  to  th# 
iJr.f'S.  and  Acadia  in  IS'orth  America  to  the  French. 

J.  'i'lie  sale  of  Dunkirk,  and  the  unsuccessful  issue  of  the  wart 

i:nbuted  to  the  counsel  of  the  earl  of  Clarendon,  procured  the  dij- 

ri  «  e  and  bani'«hmeot  of  that  illustrious  man,  1,667.    The  peace  wa;^ 

•  .n  cly  concluded  with  iloiland,  when  England  joined  with  her  ami 
."  ;!  Jen  in  a  triple  alliance,  to  oppose  the  progress  of  the  arms  of 
L  \-.  >  \1V'-  in  the  Low  Countries;  and  that  object  being  attained  by 
I.'.  irc;ity  of  Aix-la-Chapello,  in  1,668,  the  French  monarch  gained 
L.-*  lln^li-^h  over  to  his  interest  in  a  new  war  against  the  Dutch, 
ul  ich  brought  tbeir  republic  to  ihe  brink  of  destruction. 

:v  The  domestic  administration  of  Charles  was  embroiled  from 

•  »rio'i«  ca'LSf'S,  ori«];iiiating  in  the  pei"sonal  chanicter  and  dispositions 

•  f  tJic  j=o\«*n.i^n.  lie  trusted  toprolligate  and  worthless  counsolloi^. 
l!ii  ariilrary  notions  of  government,  and  the  partiality  which  ho 
•jowo.I  to  the  catholics,  gave  perpetual  alarm  and  uneasiness  to  a 
^'^m  proportion  of  his  subjects.  Complaints  resounded  from  every 
■jjirlor;  and  the  parliament  rcquirecf  a  test-oath,  abjuring  p<^p'Ty 

t  ^'in  all  persons  in  public  employment.  On  reinsal  to  t;ike  this  vidU 
MO  king  s  brother,  James  duke  of  York,  was  deprived  of  his  otiice 
/ 1  high  admiral. 

I.  nt»M  Oates,  a  worthless  impostor,  pretended  to  have  di?rov- 
«.  rod  a  plot  of  the  catholics  for  assassinating  the  king,  burniiig  Lou- 
.'  «L,  massacring  the  protest;mts,  and  placing  the  duke  of  York  on 
i.!c  throne.  Another  villain,  named  Bedloe,  joined  his  evidence* 
ti  that  of  Gates;  and  on  their  perjured  testimony,  afterward  fuliy 
r\}*o^d,  a  few  miserable  priests  sullercd  death.  A  new  test  was 
.'i^Ktfcd,  which  excluded  all  papists  from  both  houses  of  parliament. 
'1  lie  treasurer  Danby  was  impeached  for  atl vising  the  last  peace  with 
\  r.ince,  though  it  was  proved  that  he  had  acted  by  his  sovereign's 
oniars :  and  a  bill  passed  the  house  of  commons,  excluding  the  duke 
*./'  York  from  the  succession  to  the  crown.  A  mere  important  bill 
!•  r  the  general  liberty,  the  act  of  habeas  corjniM  was  the  work  of  the 
•uxne  session  of  parliament    (Sect.  LIX.,  §  1 4.) 

5.  The  distinguishing  epithets  of  whig  and  tory  were  now  firet 
kr^ovro;  the  former,  the  oppose rs  of  t lie  crown,  against  the  latter, 
,'^  partisans;  and  each  party,  as  in  all  factions,  carried  its  principles 
*7  an  extreme.  The  whigs,  predominant  in  the  next  parliament, 
r  itr^  with  fury  ag-ainstthe  aitholic.«,nncl  insi'ited  on  the  kmg^s  assent 

•  1  he  bill  for  the  exclusion  of  his  brother.    His  only  expedient  waa^ 

*  J  d  i:Msioive  the  parliament,  but  he  found  their  successors  equally  vio 

S?  27 

Digitized  by  CjOOQIC 


810  MODERN  HISTORY. 

lent  After  various  fruitless  attempts  to  coDciliate  their  fitrour  to  hn 
measures,  a  dissolution  of  tliis  parliament  ensued,  the  last  which 
Charles  assembled. 

6.  But  the  creat  cause  of  dissatisfaction  remained.  The  duke  of 
York  was  at  the  bottom  of  all  the  measures  of  eovemment  A  con- 
spiracy was  formed  by  Shaftesbury,  Russel,  Sycmey,  and  the  duke  of 
Monmouth,  natural  son  of  the  king,  on  the  pretence  of  vindicating 
the  national  liberties.  It  was  discovered  by  one  of  die  associates, 
and  Kussel  and  Sydney  suffered  capital  punishment  The  detection 
of  this  conspiracy  strengthened  the  authoritjr  of  the  sovereign.  The 
duke  of  York  was  restored  to  his  office  of  high  admiral,  and  tacitly 
acknowledeed  as  the  successor  to  the  crown.  Charles  11.  died  6a 
the  6th  of  February,  1,G85,  in  the  55th  year  of  his  age,  and  the  25tb 
of  his  reign. 

7.  The  duke  of  York  succeeded  to  the  throne  by  the  title  of 
James  II.  His  reign  was  short  and  inglorious.  He  was  the  instru- 
ment of  his  own  misfortunes,  and  ran  headlong  to  destruction.  The 
catholics  at  this  time  were  not  the  hundredth  part  of  the  nation, 
yet  James  was  weak  enough  to  make  the  desperate  attempt  of  sub- 
stituting the  popish  faith  in  room  of  the  protestant  Discarding  the 
nobility  from  his  councils,  he  was  directed  solely  by  Romish  pnests. 
In  the  very  outset  of  his  reign  he  expressed  his  contempt  of  the  au- 
thority of  parliament,  and  a  tirm  purpose  to  exercise  an  unlimited 
despotism. 

8.  The  duke  of  Monmouth,  having  excited  a  new  rebellion,  was 
defeated,  made  prisoner,  and  beheauied;  and  the  most  inhuman 
rigour  was  exercised  in  the  punishment  of  all  his  partisans.  The 
parliament  was  in  general  submissive  to  the  king^s  will,  which  for  a 
while  met  with  no  opposition  nor  control.  A  declaration  was  pub- 
lished, establishing  full  liberty  of  conscience  in  matters  of  religion ; 
and  several  bishops,  who  refused  to  publish  it  in  their  diocesses, 
were  committed  to  prison.  A  catholic  president  was  appointed  to 
one  of  the  colleges  at  Oxford.  An  ambassador  was  sent  to  the  pope, 
and  a  papal  nuncio  received  in  London.  The  catholics  openly  boast- 
ed that  theii-3  would  soon  be  the  religion  of  the  state. 

6.  James  had  three  children ;  Mary,  the  wife  of  the  stadtfaolder 
William  prince  of  Orange ;  Anne,  married  to  prince  George  of  Den* 
mark ;  and  James,  an  infant  The  stidtholder  had  considered  hij 
ri^ht  to  the  crown  of  England  as  certain  before  the  birth  of  this 
intant,  and,  after  that  events  projected  still  to  gain  it  by  arms  or  in- 
trigue ;  the  infatuation  of  the  kmg  and  the  general  discontent  of  the 
people  giving  him  tiic  most  llattcring  invitation.  James  was  inform- 
ed of  those  views  of  his  son-in-law,  but  would  give  them  no  credit, 
till  actually  apprized  of  his  landing  with  an  army,  November  ISth^ 
1,688. 

10.  The  principal  nobility  and  officers  immediately  joined  the 
standard  of  the  i>rince  of  Orange;  and  James  was  at  once  abandoned 
by  his  people,  ministers,  favourites,  and  his  own  children.  Leaving 
liondon  in  disguise,  he  was  discovered  and  brought  back  by  the  pop- 
ulace ,  but  the  prince  of  Orange  wisely  favoured  his  escape,  and  be 
found  means  a  few  days  after,  to  convey  himself  to  France. 

11.  The  throne  being  declared  vacant,  it  was  proposed  in  acoi^ 
vention-parliament,  that, the  crown  should  be  settled  on  the  princea 
Bfary  and  her  issue,  her  husband  governing  as  recent,  whom  fiuUif , 
on  the  ]frincess  Anne.  The  stadthotder  declining  Uie  office  of  regeft^ 
it  was  Imally  resolved  to  confer  the  crown  on  tne  prince  and  piii^ 

_  Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


MODERN  UISTORy.  211 

ces  d  Onnge,  ttke  fonner  to  have  the  sole  administration  of  the 
covemment 

12.  To  this  settlement  was  added  a  declamtion  fixing  the  rights  of 
the  subject  and  the  royal  prerogative*  Of  this  the  most  important 
articles  are  the  foiiowing.  The  iiing  cannot  suspend  the  laws,  nor 
their  execution ;  he  cannot  levy  money  without  consent  of  parlia* 
ment;  the  subjects  have  right  to^  petition  the  crown;  a  standing 
anny  cannot  be  kept  up  in  time  of  peace  but  by  consent  of  parlia- 
ment; elections  and  parliamentarv  dci)ate  must  be  free,  and  parlia- 
ments must  be  frequently  ussembied,  kc.  Such  was  the  final  settle* 
ment  of  the  firitisn  government  at  the  great  era  of  the  revolution. 
At  this  neriod,  when  the  constitution  became  fixed  and  determined, 
we  finish  the  sketch  of  the  history  of  our  own  country. 


SECTION  LIX. 
ON  THE  BRITISH  CONSTITUTION. 

I.  Tbe  rudiments  of  the  constitution  of  England  may  be  traced  as 
iar  back  as  the  Norman  conquest.  VVililam  distributed  a  ^reat  pro- 
portion of  tbe  lands  among  his  Norman  followers,  subjectmg  these, 
as  well  as  the  Anglo-Saxons  who  retained  their  property  to  the  feu- 
dal tenures,  and  thus  extinguishing  at  once  the  ancient  Uberties  of  the 
people.  England  was  divided  into  60,215  military  fiefs,  all  held 
of  tlie  crown,  under  the  obligation  of  the  vassal^s  taking  arms  for 
hU  sovereign  whenever  reciuired.  In  the  continental  kingdoms  of 
Karope,  as  in  France,  the  loudal  system  arose  by  slow  degrees,  nor 
was  there  of  consequence  the  same  union  of  the  fabric  as  in 
Eoghmd.  The  feudal  lords  were  independent  of  one  another,  ever 
at  vaiiance  from  their  mutual  pretensions,  and  oHen  owning  but  a 
very  slender  allegiance  to  the  crown.  Their  vassals  snfiercd  from 
oppression,  and  often  stniggled  for  their  freedom  ;  but  those  efforts 
l«eing  partial  produced  no  consequence  favourable  to  the  Uberty  of 
the  natioQ.  In  England  all  were  oppressed  by  the  enormous  weight 
of  the  crown;  it  was  a  common  grievance,  and  produced  at  times  a 
violent  effort  for  the  general  liberties  of  the  people. 

i  The  forest-laws  imposed  bv  the  conqueror  (Sect  XV.,  §  2, 1 1.) 
were  a  grievance  felt  by  the  whole  nation,  as  rendering  every  man^t 
property  precarious,  and  subject  to  the  arbitrary  encroachments  of 
the  crown.  It  was  no  wonder  that  the  barons  and  their  vassals  should 
rordtally  unite  to  rid  tliemselves  of  so  intolerable  a  hardship.  Heniy 
L  found  it  necessary  to  conciliate  his  subjects,  by  mitigating  the  most 
rigorous  of  the  feudal  laws.  A  greater  advance  was  made  under 
H«nry  II.,  by  the  institution  of  the  trial  by  jury.  But  John  impru- 
dently resistme  this  natural  progress  toward  a  rational  freedom,  was 
%non  compelleu  into  those  imporUmt  concessions,  the  Charta  de  Forata 
and  Magna  Charia.  From  that  time  the  constitution  of  England  was 
chat  of  a  limited  monarchy,  whatever  we  may  judge  of  llie  actual 
govemment,  which  was  often  most  arbitrary  mw  despotical. 

A  The  next  memorable  era  in  the  progress  of  the  English  consli- 
futioD  was  the  reign  of  that  wesdc  prince  Henry  HI.,  when  the  par- 
Jiamcnt  received  a  new  form,  by  the  admission  of  the  representative* 
of  the  people,  the  deputies  of  the  counties  and  boroughs.  (Sect. 
\  XIL,  6  2.)  His  successor  Edward  1.  acknowledged  their  authority 
o  obtaining  all  his  subsidies,  and  ratified  a  new  law,  which  declared. 


yGoogk 


tlS  MODERN  HISTORY. 

^at  no  tax  should  be  levied  without  the  consent  of  lords  and  con^ 
moDs.  The  Magna  Charta  was  confirmed  no  less  than  eleven  thnes 
in  the  course  of  \his  reign. 

4.  Thus  the  constitution  continued  advancing  till  its  progress  was 
suspended  by  the  civil  wars  of  York  and  Lancaster.  The  rights  of 
both  prince  and  people  seemed  then  to  be  entirely  forgotten;  and 
the  race  of  Tudor  found  no  resistance  from  parliament  to  their  vigor- 
ous and  despotic  sway.  The  talents  of  Elizabeth^  and  the  high 
character  which  her  government  sustained  with  foreign  powers,  ex- 
tinguished all  domestic  disquiets,  while  the  predominant  feeling  was 
the  maintenance  of  the  power  and  dignity  ot  the  crown. 

6.  But  under  the  succeeding  prince,  when  his  power  and  dimity 
were  abased  by  his  own  weakness,  the  nation  began  to  awake  from 
its  letharey ;  and  that  spirit  of  opposition,  which  in  this  rei^n  con- 
fined itself  to  complaints,  in  the  next  broke  forth  with  alarming  vio- 
lence. Charles  I.,  endowed  with  superior  energy  of  character,  acted, 
as  he  conceived,  on  a  principle  of  duty,  which  obliged  him  to  main- 
tain the  prerogative  ofhis  predecessors,  and  to  transmit  it  unimpaired 
to  his  posterity ;  but  he  was  imprudent  in  exerting  with  rigour  an 
authority  which  he  wanted  ultimate  resources  to  support,  lie  was 
compelled  to  sign  the  Petition  of  Rights^  ^  grant  more  favourable  to 
liberty  than  Magna  Charia,  The  true  patriots  were  satisfied  with 
this  concession,  which  conferred  the  most  ample  constitutional  free- 
dom. But  the  popular  leaders  made  patriotism  the  cloak  of  insatia- 
ble ambition;  and  advanced  in  their  demands  with  every  new  con)- 
pliance.  The  last  appeal  was  made  to  the  sword,  and  ^e  contest 
ended  in  the  destruction  of  the  constitution. 

6.  The  despotism  which  succeeded,  and  the  fluctuation  of  power 
from  the  long  parliament  to  the  protector,  and  finally  to  the  leaders 
of  a  standing  army,  afforded  demonstrative  evidence  how  vain  was 
the  project  of  a  republic,  under  which  the  demagogues  had  masked 
their  designs.  Weary  of  anarchy,  the  nation  returned  with  high 
satisfaction  to  its  former  constitution,  a  limited  monarchy. 

7.  New  encroachments  under  Charles  II.  produced  new  limita- 
tions ;  and  the  act  of  Habeas  Corpus  gave  the  utmost  possible  security 
to  personal  liberty.  The  violent  and  frantic  invasion  of  the  con*?U- 
tution  by  James  II..  banished  himself  and  his  posterity  from  the 
throne,  and  produced  a  new  and  solenm  contract  between  the  kins: 
and  the  people.  Regarding,  therefore,  the  revolution  as  the  tin.ii 
settlement  or  the  English  constitution,  we  shall  endeavour  briefly  to 
delineate  the  chief  features  of  that  ereat  political  structure. 

8.  The  constitution  of  Great  Bntain  maybe  viewed  under  two 
distinct  heads,  the  legislative  power,  and  the  executive  power;  t)i** 
last  comprehending  the  prerogative  of  the  crown. 

The  power  of  legislation  belongs  to  parliament,  whose  constituent 
parts  are,  the  king,  lords,  and  commons.  The  house  of  lords  con- 
sists of  the  temporal  peers  of  England,  and  of  the  spiritual,  or  tho 
two  archbishops  and  twenty-four  bishojps.  To  these,  since  the 
imions  with  Scotland  and  Ireland,  are  added  sixteen  delegates  from 
the  peerage  of  the  former  kingdom,  and  thirty-two  from  the  latter. 
The  house  of  commons  consists  of  tne  deputies  or  representatives 
of  the  counties  and  principal  towns  and  boroughs  of  England,  and 
the  two  universities,  amounting  in  all  to  513  members;  to  whon^ 
since  the  unions,  are  added  45  irom  Scotland  and  100  from  Ireland 
These  deputies  are  chosen  by  the  freeholders  who  possess  a  proy> 
•rty  yiekling  a  certain  yearly  rent.    The  chancellor  generally  pc(- 

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MODERN  HISTORY  tlS 

ides  in  the  house  of  lords;  the  speaker  is  president  in  the  hoose  of 

COfDmOOSL 

9.  The  king  is  the  most  essential  component  pait  of  parliament, 
because  he  alone  has  the  power  to  convoke,  prorogue,  and  dissolve 
it  He  has  likewise  a  negative  on  ail  its  acts,  wnich  are  invalid 
without  his  approbation ;  and  each  house  has  a  negative  on  the  de- 
crees of  the  other.  It  is  likewise  competent  to  the  Jung  to  propose 
anj  noeasare  to  be  laid  before  the  parhament 

10.  All  questions  regarding  public  affairs  and  national  measures 
nav  originate  in  either  house  oi  parliament,  except  grants  of  money, 
which  must  always  tike  their  nse  in  the  bouse  ol  commons,  and 
cannot  be  altci^d,  though  they  may  be  rejected,  b^  the  lords.  Any 
matter  must  be  primnriiy  discussed  in  that  house  m  which  it  origi- 
nates, and,  until  it  is  there  decided,  cannot  be  received  by  the  other 
hou«e,  unless  a  conlbrence  should  be  demanded.  A  bill  refused  by 
cither  hou5«c  is  utterly  void;  and  a  bill  passed  by  both  houses  is  void^ 
if  refused  by  the  king. 

11.  The  eiecutive  power  of  government  is  vested  in  the  king. 
(h)  The  first  branch  of  his  office  is  the  administration  of  justice. 
Tlie  judges  of  nil  courts  of  judicature  are  the  king's  substitutes. 
He  is  tlie  prosecutor  of  all  crimes,  and  has  the  power  of  pardoning 
and  suspending  the  execution  of  all  sentences.  (2.)  He  is  the  foun- 
tain of  all  honour,  the  giver  of  all  titles  and  dignities,  and  the  dis- 
poser of  all  the  ollices  of  state.  (3.)  He  is  the  superintendant  of 
commerce^  and  has  the  power  of  regulating  weights  and  measures. 
and  of  coining  money.  (4.)  He  is  the  head  of  the  church,  and 
nnmes  the  archbishops  and  bishops.  (5.)  He  is  commander  in 
cliicf  of  ail  the  sea  and  land  forces,  and  can  alone  equip  fleets,  levy 
Amiies,  and  uppoirit  alt  their  officers.  (6.)  He  has  the  power  of  mak- 
ing war,  peace,  and  alliance,  and  of  sending  and  receiving  ambassa- 
dors. (7.)  He  is  above  the  reach  of  all  courts  of  justice,  and  is  not 
responsible  to  any  jadicature  for  his  conduct  in  the  administration  of 
guvenunent 

12.  These  high  powers  of  the  sovereign,  which,  at  first  sight, 
would  seem  to  render  him  an  absolute  monarch,  are  thus  admirably 
controlled.  The  king  is  dependent  on  parhament  for  all  subsidies, 
without  which  he  can  neither  maintain  his  fleets  and  annics,  nor  pay 
ibe  salaries  of  officers.  The  parliament  indeed  settles  a  revenue  on 
the  king  for  life,  but  this  is  merely  sufficient  for  tlie  maintenance  ol 
his  househoM,  and  for  supporting  a  proper  dignity  of  estubUshment 
A^  ibe  king^s  revt  nor  must  be  renewed  by  prliament  at  the  begin- 
ning of  every  rei^u,  it  is  in  their  power  to  withhold  it  till  all  abuses 
*li:Si  be  rerocdiv  J.  At  those  periods  therefore  the  constitution  may 
i»e  brought  back  to  its  lii^t  principles,  and  all  encroachments  of  the 
I-rerogative  may  be  restrained. 

1 3w  ^lie  king  can  never  reign  without  a  parliament    It  must  by 

UfT  be  a«seml3cd  once  in  three  years,  on  a  notice  of  forty  days 

t^fbre  its  meeting.    Though  the  king  is  the  head  of  the  church,  yet 

be  caoQot  altor  tlie  esiabushed  religion,  nor  frame  ecclesiastical 

rvgtdatioDS.  The^emustbemadebytheassembly  of  thecler^.  The 

kiT*^  cannot  interfere  in  the  ordinary  administration  of  justice,  nor 

j-cfise  his  consent  to  the  prosecution  of  crimes.    He  may  pardon 

c»iieiices,bnt  cannot  exempt  the  ofiender  fi-om  pecunlaiT  compensar 

:i  oo  to  the  psirty  injured.    He  cannot  alter  the  standara  of  mooeyi| 

^i  :bcr  io  weight  or  alloy.    He  cannot  raise  an  army  without  the  cou^ 

•ent  of  parliament;  aod  though  amoderate  standing  force  is  kept  up 

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tl4  MODERN  HISTORY. 

with  their  consent,  yet  the  funds  for  its  payment  require  an  annnai 
renewal  by  parliament  Though  the  sovereign  is  not  amenable  to 
any  judicature,  yet  his  ministers  are  responsible  for  all  the  measure* 
of  government,  and  are  impeachable  by  the  commons  at  the  bar  ot 
(he  house  of  lords,  for  every  species  of  misconduct  or  misdemeaaour. 
The  freedom  of  parliamentary  discussion  is  secured,  because  no 
member  can  be  questioned  for  any  opinions  or  wonis,  except  in  that 
house  of  parliament  in  which  they  were  uttered. 

14.  The  personal  security  and  the  rights  of  the  subject  are  far- 
ther guarded  by  these  three  peculiarities  of  the  British  constitation, 
the  mbeas  corpia^  trial  by  juries,  and  the  liberty  of  the  press.  By 
the  act  of  habeas  corpus^  every  prisoner  must  be  broufht  before  a 
judge,  the  cause  of  his  detainer  certified,  and  the  judge  is  authorized 
and  bound  to  discharge  him,  if  the  cause  of  his  imprisonment  be  in- 
sufficient or  illegal  The  violation  of  this  statute  is  punishable  by  the 
highest  penalties.  The  habeas  corpus  may  be  suspended  in  times  of 
danger  to  the  state,  as  during  the  existence  of  a  conspiracy  or  rebel- 
Hon.  Though  this  act  does  not  extend  to  Scotland,  yet  the  subjects  of 
that  part  of  the  united  kingdoms  are  equally  secured  by  their  own 
laws.    (Statute  1,701,  c.  6.) 

15.  All  crimes  must  be  tried  bv  a  jury  of  twelve  men  in  England 
and  Ireland,  and  fifteen  in  Scotland.  The  prisoner  has  a  right  of 
challenging  or  objecting  to  the  jurors ;  and  (except  in  Scotland),  with- 
out showing  any  cause,  he  may  challenge  twenty  successively  in  or- 
dinary cases,  and  thirt  v-five  in  cases  of  treason.  The  jury  are  judget 
both  of  the  law  and  the  fact;  nor  has  the  opinion  of  the  court  any 
weight  in  their  decision,  but  such  as  they  choose  to  give  it. 

16.  The  liberty  of  the  press  is  a  guardian  of  the  constitution,  be- 
cause it  is  competent  for  any  individual  to  convey  to  the  public  hii 
opinion  of  the  whole  conduct  of  government,  and  the  merits  of  its  con- 
ductors; to  canvass  every  counsel  of  state,  and  to  examine  every  pub- 
lic measure ;  thus  forcibly  restraining  ail  ministers  and  magistrates 
within  the  limits  of  their  duty.  It  is  further  the  guardian  ofinjured 
innocence,  and  the  redresser  of  all  wrongs  that  evade  the  cognizance 
of  law.  Yet  this  most  valuable  ri^ht,  if  unrestrained,  would  be  the 
source  of  the  greatest  mischief.  It  it  were  allowable  with  impunity 
to  assail  the  established  government,  to  convulse  society,  to  dissent 
inate  atheisni,  to  injure  the  reputation,  or  to  endanger  uie  life  and 
property,  of  individuals,  by  false  accusations,  there  would  be  an  end 
of  cQl  liberty  and  civil  happiness.  The  liberty  of  the  press  coosista 
Sn  this,  that  there  is  no  examination  of  writings  previous  to  the  print- 
ing and  publishing  of  them;  but,  after  publication,  such  writings  as 
ofiond  in  any  of  tlie  above  particulars  are  punishable  by  law,  on  trial 
of  the  offence  by  jury.  Thus  the  public  is  properly  constituted  the 
judge  and  censor  of  all  writings  addressed  to  itself. 

17.  Such  are  briefly  the  outlines  of  the  admirable  fabric  of  the 
British  constitution.    Estoperpetm  I  {may  U  exist  fm'  eoeri) 

SECTION  LX. 
OP  THE  PUBLIC  REVENUE  OT  GREAT  BRITAIN. 

1.  The  property  belonging  to  the  crown  of  Great  Britain,  whidi 
was  anciently  very  great,  and  fully  adequate  to  the  maintenance  st 
gOTemment,  consisted  of  domain-lands,  the  first  fruits  and  tenths  of 

^^^^  Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  215 

charcb-beneSces,  the  rents  of  vacant  bishoprics  and  abbeys,  the  pro^ 
its  of  miUtary  tenures,  fines  imposed  in  courts  of  justice,  forfeitures* 
lee  From  alienations  made  by  the  sovereigns,  and  retrenchments  of 
their  prerogative,  the  {iroperty  of  the  crown  is  now  become  so  io- 
coQsiderable,  that  the  lung  may  be  regarded  as  entirely  dependent 
00  the  people  for  the  support  of  his  dignity,  and  the  means  of  carrf- 
log  oo  the  DQsiness  of  the  state.  The  public  revenue,  destined  lor 
these  twopurposes,  arises  now  from  the  subsidies  granted  by  the 
people.  The  supplies  are  voted  by  the  commons  and  the  means 
of  nimishing  them,  by  taxes  proposed  by  the  chancellor  of  the 
excheaoer,  must  receive  their  sanction. 

2.  Of  these  taxes  some  are  annual,  as  the  land  tax  and  malt  tax ; 
oLhen  are  perpetual,  as  the  customs,  excise,  salt  duty,  post-office 
duty,  stamps,  house  and  window  tax,  duties  on  servants,  hackney 
coacoes,  pensions,  ^.  The  customs  are  a  tax  paid  by  the  merchant 
on  all  imported  and  exported  commodities ;  the  excise  is  an  inland 
imposition,  laid  sometimes  on  the  consumer,  and  sometimes  on  the 
retail  seller. 

2.  The  produce  of  these  taxes  is,  in  the  first  place,  destined  to 
the  payment  of  the  interest  of  the  national  debt,  and  al'terwaid  to 
the  ordinary  support  of  government. 

1^  national  debt  arose  soon  ailer  the  revolution,  when  it  was 
thought  hazardous  to  impose  annual  taxes  eaual  to  the  annual  ex- 
pense of  government,  and  more  expedient  to  borrow  lai^ge  sums  for 
the  immediate  service  of  the  state,  raising  annually  no  more  than 
to  pay  the  rotercst  of  that  debt  Tne  same  system  has  been  since 
persevered  in;  so  tliat  the  national  debt,  which  a  century  ago  was 
16  milloDS,  is  now  above  300  millions.  To  pay  the  interest  of  this 
«iiormous  sum  the  produce  of  the  taxes  (excepting  the  malt  and 
land  tax)  arc  primarily  destined ;  and  as  somewhat  more  is  annually 
ratfed  than  the  interest  of  the  debt  and  the  maintcremcc  of  govern- 
ment demand,  the  surplus  constitutes  a  sinkiiig  fund  for  paying  off 
the  principal  of  the  dent. 

4.  The  produce  of  the  taxes,  origmally  serrate  ftrads,  is  now 
thrown  into  two  or  three  capital  funds ;  one  ot  which  is  mortgaged 
bv  puiuoBient  for  the  maintenance  of  the  king^s  household  ami  the 
civu  list,  namely,  the  salaries  of  officers  of  state,  judges,  and  ambas- 
aadon.  private  expenses,  pensions,  kc 

6.  JNotwithstanding  the  little  prospect  of  an  extinction  of  the 
national  debt,  government  maintains  its  credit,  and  will  always  find 
lenden,  because  the  terms  granted  are  beneficial,  and  the  security  is 
Cxwfenible ;  so  that  a  lender  can  thus  always  obtain  payment  of  his 
pffiocipttl  som,  and  frequently  make  gain  by  the  transference.  The 
v-ahie  of  stock  rises  and  falls  from  various  occasional  causes,  as  na- 
tioofli  prosperity,  or  the  reverse,  plenty  or  scarcity  of  money,  quan- 
tity ot  public  debt  On  thb  variation  is  founded  the  practice  of 
«lock-jobbtng,  that  is,  either  buyhig  and  selling  actual  property  in  the 
paWc  funds,  whk:h  is  a  lawful  speculation,  or  gaming  and  wagering 
oo  tbe  price  of  stock,  which  is  an  illicit  but  common  practice.  The 
pnctice  of  stock-jobbing^  even  by  the  transference  oi  actual  proper- 
tj,  and  &r  more  by  gaming  on  that  which  is  fictitious,  is  prejudicial 
Co  eoauDerce  and  manu&ctures,  by  engrossing  a  great  part  of  the 
....  .      '  ud,  and    '^ 


I  wealth,  repressing  Indusby,  encooragbg  fraud,  and  often 

temfting  to  the  most  treacherous  and  dangerous  devkes  for  nisiDf 
mndmkoDgibef^WfdM, 


y  Google 


tl6  MODERN  history: 

SECTION  LXI. 
HISTORY  OF  FRANCE  UNDER  LEWIS  XIII. 

1  France,  which  under  Henry  IV.  had  risen  from  a  state  of  miser- 
able anarchy  to  high  prosperity  and  splendour^  sunk^  upon  his  death, 
into  wedcness,  faction,  and  disorder.  Mary  of  Medici,  regent  in  the 
inia)rity  of  her  son  Lewis  Xlil.,  a  weali  woman*  and  of  restless  am- 
oition,  disgusted  the  nobility  by  her  partiality  for  ner  Italian  courtiers. 
Concini,  her  first  minister,  created  marshal  d'Ancre,  became  so  uni- 
Tersalhr  odious,  that  he  was  openly  murdered  in  the  Louvre,  and 
his  body  torn  to  pieces.  Tlie  queen  was  removed  from  Paris,  and 
kept  for  two  yeara  a  prisoner  at  BI»)is,  till  relieved  by  the  duke 
d^Epemon,  to  serve  his  own  purposes  of  ambition.  The  queen's  party 
was  at  war  with  that  of  her  son,  and  the  whole  kingdom  in  a  state  of 
anarchv- 

2.  The  genius  of  cardinal  Richelieu,  who  was  now  brought  into 
power  by  Mary  of  Medici,  soon  effected  a  wonderful  change.  He 
reconciled  the  mother  and  ner  son,  soothed  the  contending  tactions, 
and,  on  the  king's  assuming  the  government,  directed  every  public 
measure  to  the  complete  re-establishment  of  the  power  and  dignity 
of  the  monarchy.  The  party  of  the  Calvinists,  afienated  by  perse- 
cution, attempt^^d  to  throw  on  their  allegiance,  and  to  estalilish  an  in- 
dependent state,  of  which  Kochelle  was  to  be  the  capital  Richelieu 
bargained  with  tlie  Dutch  to  furnish  a  fleet  for  subduing  tlieir  prot- 
estant  bretliren,  and  the  Dutch  now  fought  as  keenly  for  the  catho- 
lic religion  as  they  had  lately  fought  for  the  protestant  The  Eng- 
lish sent  a  fleet  to  the  aid  of  the  people  of  Rochelle,  who  for  a  year 
maintained  a  most  obstinate  siege  a^amst  the  French  troops,  conv* 
manded  by  the  cardinal  in  person.  They  were  at  length  iorced  to 
surrender.  Rochelle  and  all  the  other  protestant  cities  of  France 
were  stripped  of  their  privileges,  and  their  fortifications  were  de- 
stroyed.   Thus  Calvinism  was  for  ever  crushed  in  France. 

3.  Lewis  XIII.,  though  a  weak  prince,  saw  his  advantage  ia  en- 
terine  into  all  the  great  designs  of  hn  minister.  Richelieu  intlu- 
enced  the  politics  of  ail  Europe ;  and  the  power  of  Austria  was 
attacked  in  Germany,  Flanders,  Spain,  and  Italy.  His  talents  were 
equally  displayed  in  active  ivar,  in  foreign  negotiation,  and  in  his 
domestic  arrangements.  Yet  at  this  very  time  a  formidable  cabal 
was  undermining  him.  Mary  of  Medici  was  jealous  of  the  man 
whom  she  had  raised :  and  the  duke  of  Orleans^  the  king's  brotlier, 
Bought  to  supplant  him  in  power.  Richelieu,  with  nstoni<!}hing  intre- 
pidity of  mind,  repressed  tliis  conspiracy.  Fortitied  by  the  king'.-t 
authority  he  seized  the  marshal  de  Marilfac,  one  of  his  most  dangep- 
<ms  enemies,  at  the  head  of  his  army ;  and  tried  and  put  him  to 
death  bv  a  lawless  stretch  of  power.  Orleans,  apprehensive  of  a 
aimiiar  rate,  fled  from  the  kingdom ;  and  Mary  of  Medici,  arrested 
and  removed  from  court,  ended  her  career  of  ambition  in  volaatnrT 
exUe  at  Brussels.  Orleans,  supported  by  the  duke  de  Montmorenci, 
attempted  a  reb^fiioD ;  but  their  army  was  defeated,  and  Montmo- 
veDci  executed  for  treason.  The  queen  had  taken  part  with  the 
enemies  of  the  cardinal,  who  imprisoned  her  confessor,  and  seissei 
and  examined  her  papers.  Anne  of  Austria  was  very  near  abani4 
Ifaa  tate  of  Mary  of  Medici 

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MODERN  HISTC»iy.  «17 

4  AiBidst«UthistiirbaleiK:eofforejga  war  and  state  cabaLRicfae- 
kea  caltiTated  literature,  encouraged  the  sciences,  instituted  tXie 
French  academv,  and  composed  pieces  for  the  theatre.  The  admin- 
btratlon  of  Richelieu,  though  turbulent  from  Action  and  ciyil  war, 
was,  CD  the  whole,  extremely  glorious  ftw  France  ;  and  sowed  the 
Peed*  of  its  splendour  in  the  succeeding  reign  of  Lewis  XIV.  The 
death  of  this  great  minister^  in  1^42,  was  soon  aAer  followed  by  the 
death  of  his  sovereign  Lewis  XIIL,  in  1 ,643. 


SECTION  LXIl. 

SPAIlf  UND£R  PHILIP  III.  AND  PHILIP  IV.    CONSTITUTION  OF 
PORTUGAL  AND  OF  SPAIN. 

I.  FVkOH  the  death  of  Philip  II.  Spain  decUned  in  power,  and,  noW 
witfaitaDding  its  great  sources  of  wealth,  the  national  finances  were 
in  the  utmost  disorder.  Philip  III.  was  forced  to  conclude  a  peace 
with  the  Dutch,  and  to  restore  to  the  house  of  Nassau  its  confiscated 
<*states^  With  a  weak  and  despicable  policy  he  expelled  from  his 
kingdom  all  the  Moors,  who  were  the  most  industrious  of  its  inhabi- 
lanti,  1^10.  This  depopulation,  with  that  ah-eady  produced  by  its 
American  colonies,  rendered  Spain  a  lifeless  and  enervated  mass. 
Philip  was  enttfely  under  the  miluence  of  his  minister  the  duke  of 


2.  The  national  weakness  and  disorders  increased  under  Philip  IV., 
who,  equally  spiritless  as  his  lather,  was  unplicitly  ruled  by  his  min- 
ister Ohrarez.  His  reign  was  a  continued  series  of  miscarriages  and 
deteata.  The  Dutch  seized  Brazil;  the  French  invaded  Artois: 
Cataiociia  revolted  to  France ;  and  Portugal  shook  off  its  yoke,  and 
becane  an  independent  kingdom. 

3.  No  revolution  was  ever  effected  with  such  ease  and  celerity 
that  of  Portugal.    The  people  were  disgusted  with  the  rigorous 

"tic  administration  ot  Olivarez.    The  duke  of  Braganza, 


and  Impolitic  administration  of  Olivarez.  The  duke  of  Braganza, 
deacended  from  the  ancient  kings  of  Portugal,  had  the  command  of 
tbe  BTaxj,  Instigated  by  the  ambition  of  the  duchess,  and  seeing  the 
cpirtt  or  the  nation  favourable  to  his  views,  he  caused  himself  to  be 
procLumed  king  at  Lisbon.  The  Spanish  guards  were  attacked  and 
ruoled,  and  the  chief  partisans  of  the  government  put  to  death  by 
the  populace.  All  the  principal  towns  loltowed  the  example  of  the 
capmd,  and  soon  aAer  all  the  foreign  settlements.  From  that  era, 
l^t>40,  Portugal  became  an  independent  sovereignty,  alter  having 
been  sixty  yean  an  appanaee  of  the  kingdom  of  Spain. 

4.  Thejgovemment  of  Portugal  approaches  to  an  absolute  moo- 
arcbf.  The  consent  of  the  states  or  oortes^  consisting  of  clergy. 
uobioty,  and  commons,  was  formerly  necessary  to  the  unposrtion  ot 
(.ixes,  aad  the  settlement  of  the  succession  to  the  crown.  But  tins 
■HBcinhiy,  convoked  only  by  the  royal  mandate,  iias  for  a  long  time 
€^mtd  to  meet  The  ordinaiy  busmess  of  government  is  tmnsacted 
l/T  the  king  and  his  council  ol  state,  which  is  appointed  by  liimselC 
"/be  revenue  of  the  crown  arises  from  its  domains,  including  the 
Cmatkf  estates  of  Brayganza ;  from  the  duties  on  exports  and  imports, 
freii  tlie  taxes,  and  worn  a  stated  proportion  of  the  goki  broueki  firqm 
iirwBL  The  state  of  the  commerce  and  maeufactures  of  Portufal 
extremely  k>w.  Though  the  soil  and  climate  are  .iavourable  lo 
^  yet  the  agricttUim  of  the  kingdom  is  much  eeglectedl 
T  S8 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


tl^  MODERN  HISTORY. 

5.  The  reigns  of  Philip  IIL  and  IV.  of  Spain,  though  an  era  of 
national  humiliation,  derived  some  tame  from  the  state  of  literature. 
Dramatic  composition,  poetry,  romance,  and  even  history,  were 
cultivated  with  great  success.  But  these  pursuits  are  in  some  sort 
the  amusements  of  indolence,  which  was  the  predominant  character 
of  the  people.  This  character  may  have  arisen  from  two  sources. 
The  torrent  of  wealth  poured  in  from  America  retarded^  in  the  lower 
classes,  domestic  indiistrv  and  manufactures,  while  it  increased  the 

Sride  of  the  gentry,  ana  made  them  disdain  all  occupation ;  and  the 
e^potism  of  tlie  government  strongly  repressed  all  enterprise  and 
activity  in  the  people. 

6.  The  constitution  of  Spain,  of  which  the  sovereignty  was  in  an- 
cient times  elective,  is  now  thnt  of  an  absolute  monarchy.  The 
crown  is  hereditary;  though  at  dififcient  times,  as  in  1,6 19  and  1,7 13, 
there  has  been  a  new  limitation  of  the  succession  made  by  the  mon- 
arch. The  Cortes^  or  states  of  tiic  kingdom,  limited  in  former  timet 
the  power  of  the  sovereign ;  but  Charles  V.  annihilated  their  author^ 
ity,  by  depriving  the  nobility  and  clergy  of  their  sent  in  tliose  a»> 
•emblics.  The  remaining  members,  the  deputies  of  the  towns,  are 
entirely  under  the  control  of  the  monarch.  The  king^s  council,  or 
Conscjo  Real,  is  the  organ  of  government :  but  no  department  of  the 
•tate  has  any  constitutional  power  to  regulate  the  will  of  the  prince. 


SECTION  LXIll. 

ArrAIRS  OF  OERMAN7  FROM  THE  ABDICATION  OF  CHAJUJ3 
V.  TO  THE  PEACE  OF  WESTPHALIA. 

1.  To  preserve  the  connexion  of  the  aflairs  of  Germany  with 
those  of  the  other  kingdoms  of  ICurope,  we  must  return  to  the  period 
of  the  abdication  of  Charles  V.,  when  the  empire  was  distracted 
by  ti^e  political  factions  and  quarrels  of  its  independent  princes,  ai*d 
by  the  contending  sects  of  tiie  catholics,  Lutherans,  and  Calrtnists. 
fevdinand  vainly  attempted  to  reconcile  those  factions,  and  to  unite 
the  three  religions.  Maximilian  11.  had  still  less  power  to  effect  thu 
object  than  his  predecessor;  nor  wtis  the  state  of  affairs  changed 
during  the  succeeding  reigns  of  Kodolphus  iL  and  Matthias.  A  av  :i 
war  of  thirty  years^  duration  reduced  the  empire  to  extremitr. 
Under  Ferdinand  IL,  a  zealous  catholic,  the  protectant  states  of  IV> 
hernia,  which  had  suffered  under  the  government  of  Matthias^  cih> 
ferred  their  crown  on  the  elector  Palatine.  Ferdinand,  in  revenge, 
deprived  him  both  of  his  crown  and  electorate. 

2.  The  protestant  cause  was  declining  fast  in  Germany,  and  even 
thing  seemed  to  indicate  success  to  the  schemes  of  Ferdinand  for  im 
entire  annihilation,  when  it  received  new  vigour  from  the  intenm^ 
^on  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  king  of  Sweden.    This  great  prince  de- 
feated the  imperial  generals,  and  carried  the  protestant  banners  triune 
phantly  through  Germany.    The  emperor  was  completely  humhlev 
and  the  elector  Palatine  was  on  the  eve  of  restoration  to  his  domt^ 
tons,  when  the  heroic  Gustavus  was  slain  in  the  battle  of  Lntie^ 
1«632.    The  war  was  successfully  prosecuted  by  the  Swedish  fCiM^* 
•hf  while  cardinal  Richelieu  harassed  the  house  of  Austria  LuUi^ 
Uermany  and  Spain. 

1w  Id  the  tncceedlng  rel^  of  Feidinand  UI.,  the  proteilMitvt 


yGoogk 


MODERN  HISTORY.  S19 

Gennany  found  (he  most  actire  sopport  both  from  the  Swedes  and 
the  French.  The  emperor  was  iorced  to  conclude  the  peace  ot 
Westphalia  in  1,648 ;  and  these  powers  dictated  the  terms.  By  this 
celelmted  treaty  all  disputes  were  settled  between  the  contending 
princes  of  the  empire,  and  also  between  the  contending  religions ; 
tiie  Swedes  were  indemnified  for  the  charges  of  the  war,  and  ac- 
quired Pomeranin,  Stettin,  Wismar,  and  other  provinces^  and  their 
kovercign  the  dignity  of  prince  of  the  empire ;  its  chief  posses* 
friuai  were  restored  to  the  raiatine  family;  the  king  of  France  was 
made  lantigravc  of  Alsace ;  and  an  equal  establishment  of  the  three 
religions  was  decreed.  This  salutary  pence  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  future  greatness  and  prosperity  of  the  German  empire. 


SECTION  LXIV. 
FRANCE  UNDER  LEWIS  XIV. 

I.  Of  the  death  of  Lewis  XIII.  in  1,633,  his  soo  Lewis  XIV.  sac^ 
ceeded  to  the  throne  in  the  fifth  year  of  his  age.  Europe,  as  we 
have  seen,  was  in  a  most  turbulent  state ;  and  France,  under  the  ad> 
mhustration  of  Richelieu,  acted  a  conspicuous  part  in  exciting  those 
general  commotions.  The  queen  mother  Anne  of  Austria,  appointed 
regent  by  the  states,  chose  for  her  minister  the  cardinal  Mazarin,  an 
Italiao,  and  from  that  circumstance  odious  to  the  people.  The  Spai> 
tarda,  taking  advantage  of  the  king''s  minority  and  the  popular  dls> 
contents^  nude  an  attack  on  Champagne ;  but  were  defeated  in  a 
series  oi  engagements  by  the  great  Conde.  The  marshal  de  To- 
reune  shared  with  him  the  palm  of  glory.  The  peace  of  Westphsk 
lia  composed  those  dificrences. 

^.  At  this  very  time  the  commotions  of  the  Frondt  broke  out  in 
Paris.  The  jemousy  of  Mazarines  power,  felt  by  the  nobility,  th« 
anpopukirity  of  his  measures,  the  €U!>order  of  the  tinances,  and  the 
oppression  of  new  taxes,  infiamed  the  nation :  and  the  intrigues  of 
the  coadjutor,  afterwards  cardinal  de  Uetz,  blew  tlie  flume  into  a 
ci^il  war.  The  parliament  of  Faris  took  part  with  the  rebels,  who 
were  headed  by  the  prince  of  Conti,  the  dukes  of  Longueviile  and 
BouilloD.  and  the  chief  nobility.  The  queen  and  the  Koyal  family 
remoTed  to  St  Gemiain^s,  and  the  ministerial  party  besieged  Paris. 
Tureooe,  who  at  first  supported  them,  was  gained  over  by  th» 
rpheK  The  women,  who  are  always  concerned  in  the  disturbances 
of  France,  acted  a  conspicuous  part  in  those  of  the  Fronds  A  short 
p3ciiicatioa  ensued ;  but  the  imprudent  violence  of  Mnzaria  soon  re- 
r>«>%ved  the  disorders.  At  length  tiie  parliament  of  Paris  assumed 
the  fight  of  banishing  this  unpopular  minister,  who  retired  to  the 
fnjpenal  dominions;  but  his  influence  continued  to  regukite  the 
cnr-aAores  of  state. 

3.  A  chanse  ensued  on  the  king^s  coming  of  aee,  1,652.  De 
K^CZ  and  Oncans,  the  chief  promoters  of  the  rebellion,  weie  bai^ 
i^^bedL  and  Mazarin  resumed  his  station  as  minister.  Conde  had 
•ntn^  the  Spaniards  in  an  attack  on  tiie  French  NelherlandS)  hoi 
viras  overmatched  by  Turenne,  who  revenged  this  insult  by  the  taking 
of  I>«mkirk  and  several  fortified  towns  under  the  Spanish  govero- 
I1M70L  By  convention  with  Cromwell,  Dunkirk  had  been  ceded  to 
(tM?  EogUtti,  ^d  aAerwvds  sold  la  France  by  Charles  IL^as  has  besD 


y  Google 


Mb  MODERN  mSTQRT. 

4.  The  war  with  Spain  ended  in  1,669,  hy  the  peace  of  the  Pjr- 
jtttiteB,  Many  cessions  were  made  on  both  sides,  but  France  liept 
Ronssillon  and  part  of  Artois.  It  was  stipulated  that  Lewis  Xlv. 
dhould  tnarnr  the  infanta,  daughter  of  Philip  IV.,  but  should  renounce 
all  right  which  mieht  thence  open  to  the  crown  of  Spain. 

5.  The  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees  gave  peace  to  the  south  of  Europe. 
The  wars  in  the  north  between  Sweden,  Poland,  and  Denmark, 
which  arose  after  the  abdication  of  Christina  of  Sweden,  were  tenni- 
tiated  in  the  year  following  by  the  treaty  of  Oliva.  Christina,  a  sin- 
gular, but  not  a  great  woman,  held  the  sceptre  of  Sweden  for  twen- 
ty-two years  after  the  death  of  her  father,  Gustavus  Adol^^us.  At 
length,  tired  of  the  cares  of  goyemment,  and  affecting  a  nassion  for 
literature  and  philosophy,  she  resigned  the  crown  to  her  cousin. 
Charles  X.,  in  1,654.  Soon  after  this  event  Casimer  king  of  Poland 
was  induced  by  age  and  sickness  to  abdicate  the  throne,  alter  an  hoo- 
odrable  reign. 

6.  Mazann  died  in  1,661,  and  Lewis  Xlv.  entered  on  a  vigorous 
and  splendid  career.  The  finances,  which  from  the  time  of  Henrr  IV. 
had  been  in  extreme  disorder,  were  admirably  regulated  by  Colbert ; 
and  the  commerce  and  manufactures  of  the  kingdom,  wisely  en- 
couraged  by  government,  were  soon  in  the  most  flourishing  situation. 
The  canal  of  Languedoc  joined  the  bay  of  Biscay  and  the  Med- 
iterranean; the  principal  sea-ports  were  enlarged  and  fortified;  and 
the  internal  police  of  the  kingdom  was  regularly  and  strictly  enforc- 
ed. At  the  same  time  the  arms  of  France  aided  England  against  the 
Dutch,  Germany  against  the  Turks,  and  Portugal  against  Spain. 

7.  On  the  death  of  Philip  IV.,  Lewis,  pretending  that  Spain  had 
failed  in  payment  of  the  dowry  of  his  queen,  besieged  and  took  Lble, 
with  several  other  fortified  towns  of  Flanders ;  and  in  the  next  cam> 
paign  made  himself  master  of  Franche-Comte.  Lewis  marched  with 
bis  armies,  but  the  glory  of  these  conquests  was  owing  to  Torenne 
and  Vauban.  The  triple  alliance  formed  by  England,  Holland,  and 
Sweden,  checke*d  this  career,  and  brought  about  the  treaty  of  Aix- 
la^hapelle,  1,668,  by  which  Lewis,  though  he  retained  Flanders, 
TOStored  Franche-Comte,  and  confirmed  the  peace  of  tlie  Pjrreoees. 

8.  The  strength  and  prosperity  of  the  kingdom  continued  to 
increase  onder  the  able  anministration  of  Colbert  and  Louvois.  The 
civil  factions  of  Holland  between  the  stadtholder  and  the  party  of 
the  De  Wits,  tempted  Lewis  to  undertake  the  conouest  of  tteit  coun- 
try. England,  Germany,  and  Sweden,  j&vourcd  his  views.  He 
overran  me  provinces  of  Utrecbt.  Overyssel,  and  Guelderland^  and 
advanced  almost  to  the  gates  of  Amsterdam,  when  the  Dutch  mun- 
dated  the  country  by  letting  hi  the  sea,  and  the  French  were  (breed 
to  retreat 

9.  The  codederate  powera  now  became  jealous  of  the  ascendan- 
cy of  France ;  and  the  prince  of  Oranee  had  sufficient  influence 
with  England,  and  both  branches  of  the  house  of  Austria,  to  obtain 
their  alimnce  in  aid  of  the  republic  The  arms  of  Lewis«  however, 
continued  to  be  successful,  and  the  peace  concluded  at  Nimegnea 
tn  1,678,  was  much  to  the  honour  of  France.  Franche-Comte  wn 
aasured  as  a  part  of  her  dominions,  and  Spain  allowed  her  right  (f 
cdnquest  to  a  great  proportion  of  the  Netherlands. 

10.  Notwithstandmg  the  peace,  Lewis,  with  the  most  cnlpdte 
inslDcerity,  seized  Strasburg,  and  secretly  assisted  the  Hongaiiitt 
and  Turks  in  their  attack  on  the  imperial  dominions.  Vienna  dosl 
haTe  fidkn  into  the  hands  of  the  Tans,  If  it  had  not  been  wemmftiw 

Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  ttl 

felieved  bj  the  victorioua  arms  of  John  Sobieski  king  of  Poland  m 
1,683. 

U.  One  of  the  weakest  and  most  impolitic  measures  of  Lewis 
XIV^  was  the  reyocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes^  granted  by  Henrj 
IV.  lor  the  toleration  of  the  protestanta.  While  their  worship  was 
sappressed,  their  churches  demolished,  and  their  ministers  banished, 
the  protectant  laity  were  forbidden,  under  the  most  rigorous  penal> 
lies,  to  quit  the  kingdom,  1 ,685.  France,  however,  by  this  measure, 
to:«t  above  500,000  of  her  most  mdustrious  and  useful  subjects ;  and 
tiie  name  of  Lewis  XIV.  was  execrated  over  a  great  part  of  Europe. 
Not  loojg  after  this  time  a  similar  excess  of  intolerant  bigotry  pie- 
« JpitatedJomes  11.  from  the  throne  of  Britain,  and  forced  hmi  to  seek 
an  asylum  from  the  monarch  of  France. 

12.  William  prince  of  Orange,  the  inveterate  enemy  of  Lewis, 
brought  about  the  league  of  Augsburg,  1,686;  and  the  war  was 
renewed  with  France  by  Germany,  Spain,  England,  and  Holland. 
The  French  arms  were  still  successful.  Luxemburg  deflated 
William  in  the  battles  of  Steenkirk  and  Nerwinden;  Noaillet*  was 
victorious  in  Spain;  and  an  army  of  100,000  French  ravaged  tlie 
Paiutinate,  and  took  many  of  the  most  important  towns  on  the  Rhine. 
This  was  the  crises  of  the  glory  of  Lewis,  whose  fortunes  were  to 
sustain  the  most  mortifying  reverse. 

15.  Those  various  and  most  extensive  military  enterprises,  how- 
ever flattering  to  the  pride  ot*  the  monarch,  had  been  attended  with 
tfoormous  expense,  and  no  solid  advantage  to  the  nation.  The 
fmancei  had  fallen  into  disorder  aAer  the  death  of  Colbert,  and  a 
peace  was  absolutely  necessary.  By  the  treaty  of  Ryswick,  concluded 
m  f  ,1697,  Lewis  restored  to  bpain  all  the  conquests  made  in  the  two 
UiU  wars,  several  towns  to  the  emperor,  the  duchy  of  Lorraine  to  its 
duke,  and  acknowledged  the  right  of  William  to  the  crown  of  Eng- 
bind. 

14.  The  succession  of  the  kingdom  of  Spain,  on  the  expected 
death  of  Charles  IL,  without  issuej  was  now  the  object  of  political 
intricue.  The  emperor  and  the  kme  of  France  had  the  onlv  natural 
rirhT  of  soccessjon ;  but  William  ifl.,  of  England,  from  the  dread 
ofsoch  an  increase  of  power  to  either,  proposed  a  treaty  of  partition 
of  the  Spanish  dominions,  at  home  and  abroad,  between  the  elector 
of  Bavaria,  the  dauphin,  and  the  emperor^s  second  son.  Charles  U. 
ihoae  rather  to  make  his  own  destination,  and  appointed  by  will  tliat 
the  duke  of  Anion,  second  son  of  the  dauphin,  should  inherit  Spain; 
oo  whofe  deatn  without  issue,  it  should  devolve  on  the  archduke 
Cbnries,  youngest  son  of  tlie  emperor. 

1&  On  the  death  of  Charles  the  duke  of  Ai\}ou  succeeded  to  the 
throoe  of  Spain,  in  virtue  of  this  settlement  The  emperor,  the 
ktn^  of  England^  and  (he  Dutch,  proposed  to  separate  from  his 
cTuwn  the  Spanish  dominions  in  Italy.  In  this  enterprise  prince 
Co^eoe,  son  of  the  count  de  Soissons,  commanded  the  imperial 
uoops,  an  illustrious  renegade  from  France,  of  great  prowess  and 
mtiteryskilL  .,      . 

16.  James  U.  of  England  died  in  1,701  at  St  Germam^and  Lewis 
^▼e  mortal  offence  to  the  government  of  that  country  by  acknowl- 
^dgme  the  title  of  hii  son.  On  the  death  of  king  WUiiam  in  the 
yearlonowinc  war  was  declared  by  England,  Holland,  and  the  em- 
pi  re,  against  France  and  Spain.  Lewis  AlV.  was  now  in  the  decline 
id'  fife.    He  bad  lost  the  ablest  of  his  ministers  and  his  greatest  gen 

The  financea  of  the  kmcdom  were  exhausted.    The  armies 

^^  *  Digitized  by  ^^OOgie 


Wt  MODERN  HISTORY 

of  his  enemies  were  commanded  by  Eugene  and  the  duke  of  Mart- 
borough),  the  ablest  generals  of  the  age,  and  supported  by  the  treia^ 
ures  of  tne  united  powers.  Savoy  anaFortugal  joined  this  formidahlo 
confederacy,  to  overwhelm  both  branches  of  the  house  of  Bourbon 
and  place  tne  emperor^s  son  on  the  throne  of  Spain. 

17.  Marlborough  took  Venlo,  Ruremonde,  and  Liege.  Eogerio 
and  Marlborough  defeated  Tallard  and  Marsin,  with  the  elector  of 
Bavaria,  in  the  signal  battle  of  Blenheim,  1,704.  England  and  H(>U 
land  attacked  Spam  by  sea  and  land.  Catalonia  and  Valencia  werr 
subdued  in  six  weeks.  Gibralter  was  taken  by  the  English^  an<i 
has  ever  since  remained  in  their  possession.  In  the  battle  of  Rsiini 
lies,  Marlborough  defeated  Villcroy,and  left  20,000  dead  on  the  he  lei. 
The  contest,  at  drst  doubtful  in  Italy,  ended  alike  disastrously  for  the 
house  of  Bourbon.  The  archduke  Charles  was  in  the  mean  tiuK^ 
proclaimed  king  at  Madrid ;  and  PhiUp  V.  had  serious  thoughts  oi 
abandoning  Spain,  and  establishing  his  dominion  in  America.  Bnt 
the  successes  of  the  duke  of  Berwk^k,  natural  son  of  James  II.,  recov- 
ered for  a  tvhile  his  desponding  spiriL  and  even  prompted  Ids  gniD<i- 
father  Lewis  to  avenge  himself  on  England,  by  aiding  the  bold  but 
desperate  enterprise  of  establishing  the  pretended  James  on  tlie 
throne  of  Britain. 

18.  But  France  and  Spain  were  daily  losing  ground.  The  pope 
had  acknowiedeed  the  title  of  the  archduke  Charles ;  the  Engiis}i 
seized  the  Mediterranean  islands ;  and  Lewis,  fallen  from  all  hi^ 
proud  pretensions,  humblv  entreated  a  peace,  which  was  refoseti, 
unless  on  the  condition  of  dethroning  his  grandson  with  his  own  arnH. 
He  maintained  for  a  while  this  unequal  contest,  and  was  at  lengtli 
forced  to  propose  terms  equally  humiliating ;  the  cession  of  all  his  con- 

auestB  in  the  Netherlands  and  on  the  Rhine  ;  the  acknowledgment  uf 
le  archduke's  title  to  the  crown  of  Spain;  and  a  promise  to  give  no 
aid  to  his  grandson.  But  these  terms  were  refused,  and  the  inhuman 
condition  still  insisted  on,  that  he  should  assist  in  dethroning  li'a 
grandson.  A  last  exertion  was  made  in  Sp:iin  under  the  duke  oi 
vendome,  at  the  head  of  a  prodigious  army ;  and  the  victory  ob- 
tained by  the  French  at  Villa- vitiosa  restored  Pliilip  V.  to  the  throne 
of  Spain.  His  ci/mpetitor,  the  archduke,  soon  ailer  became  en>- 
peror,  on  the  death  of  his  elder  brother. 

19.  The  intrigues  of  the  cabinet  of  queen  Anne,  and  the  coming: 
in  of  a  tory  ministry,  changed  the  politics  of  Europe.  It  was  re- 
solved to  make  peace  with  France  and  Spain,  and  the  treaty  wan 
concluded  at  Utrecht  in  1,713.  It  was  stipulated  that  Philip  kin^ 
of  Spain  should  renounce  all  eventual  right  to  the  crown  of  Franc* , 
and  his  brother  to  the  crown  of  Spain.  The  Dutch  obtained  an  ex- 
tension of  frontier,  and  the  emperor  a  great  part  of  Spanish  Flanders 
The  English  gained  from  Spain,  Gibraltar  and  Minorca,  and  fron 
France*  Acadia,  Newfoundland,  and  Hudson's  Bay,  with  the  demoliliori 
of  the  harbor  of  Dunkirk.  In  the  following  year,  a  peace  was  con- 
cluded at  Rastadt  between  France  and  the  empire. 

20.  The  conclusion  of  this  peace^  after  an  honourable  war^  wa^ 
the  most  memorable  event  in  ttie  reign  of  queen  Anne,  if  we  exce[  • 
the  union  of  the  two  kingdoms  of  England  and  Scotland,  in  1 ,706,  whict 
was  brought  about  by  the  negotiation  of  commissioner  mutual  1/ 
chosen,  to  secure  the  rights  of  each  kingdom  in  the  best  manner  dr 
their  mutual  benefit*  It  was  stipulated  that  both  should  be  represetf- 
rxi  by  one  parliament  (Sect.  LiX.,  §  8),  that  they  should  have  tiio 
same  privileges  with  respect  to  commerce,  and  tliat  each  Jdngdloi 

r  Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  Sf5 

itoM  retain  its  own  laws  and  established  religion.  Tlie  successioo 
to  the  crown  was  limited  to  the  hoase  of  Hanover.  Queen  Anne 
died  on  the  30th  of  July,  1,714.  Lewis  XIV.  died  on  the  Ist  of 
September,  1,715,  in  the  78th  year  of  his  aee.  He  was  a  prince  of 
^reat  vieour  of  mind,  of  good  talents,  though  unimproved  by  educa- 
tion, of  dignified  yet  amiable  manners,  iriis  greatest  fault  was  inor- 
dinate ambition,  to  which  he  sacrificed  the  real  interests  of  his  people. 
It  was  bis  liighest  honour,  that  he  discerned  and  recompensed  every 
»pf<:tes  of  merit  France  was  in  his  time  equally  illustrious  by  the 
great  military  talents  of  her  generals,  and  by  tlie  splendour  of  liter- 
ature and  ofthe  arts  and  sciences. 


SECTION  LXV. 

or  THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  FRANCE   UNDER   THE  MONARr 

CHY. 

I.  It  is  necessary  for  understanding  the  history  of  France,  that 
np  should  have  some  acc^uaintanco  v.  ith  its  foniirr  monarchical  con* 
fiitulion :  we  shall  therciore  brietly  trace  the  progress  of  the  gov- 
ernment under  the  diiTeient  races  of  its  soverei<:ns.  The  regal  pre- 
rogative was  extremely  liniited  under  the  Alerovineian  princes. 
\  ^cct.  II.,  111.)  The  general  assembly  of  the  nation  had  the  right  of 
«  l*'ctin|j  the  sovereign,  and  tlie  power  of  lc{;islation.  Under  the 
<  'iriovingian  race  the  authority  acquired  by  Pepin  and  Charlemagne 
«-irik  to  nothing  in  the  hands  of  their  weak  posterity;  and  though 
it.e  crown  had  ceased  to  b*;  elective,  the  regal  dignity  was  a  mere 
^hndow.  The  power  of  tlie  state  bad  pnivsed  into  the  hands  of  a 
iiirimlent  aristocracy,  ever  at  variance  among  themselves,  and  uniting 
<'j|y  to  abase  the  crown  and  to  oppress  the  people. 

^.  Inder  the  third  or  Capetian  nice  the  crown  acquired  more 
iv.?ight,  and  many  of  the  sovereigns  exerted  a  proper  spirit  in  re- 
^'i-.u-oing  the  power  of  the  nobles,  and  in  punishing  their  lawlpf« 
•  •tjtraffvs.  To  balance  the  weight  of  the  aristocracy  Philip  the  fair 
Introduced  the  thinl  estate  to  the  national  assemblies,  which  for 
'nve  four  centuries  had  consisted  only  ofthe  nobles  and  clergy 
The  chief  power  of  the  state  began  now  to  shift  to  the  scale  of  tnc 
iiK^narch.  Tha  national  assembly  intfriered  rather  to  nitify  than  to 
#locree ;  and  in  the  tifteenth  century  the  right  of  legislation  was  under- 
-tood  to  rcMde  wholly  in  the  crown.  The  right  of  taxation  seemed 
r  >  fi'Uow  of  coui'-ie.  The  a>senil»lios  or  statos-general  wore  now 
r  irvly  convened,  and  from  the  rei^n  of  LewisXUI.  were  discontinued. 

:v,  *But  anotlier  nower  gnidually  rose  in  the  state,  which  in  some 
f  asure  'Juppiied  tne  function  of  the  assemblies  in  hmiting  the  royal 
,.-*roifative.  The  parliaments  were  originally  the  chief  courts  of 
i  .-?icc  in  the  tenitory  where  they  were  established.  The  parlia- 
iTient  of  Parw  naturally  claimed  a  higher  respect  and  dignity  than 
tfie  parliaments  of  tlie  provinces ;  and,  acquiring  a  right  of  appeal 
from  their  decrees,  was  considered  a«<  the  paramount  jurisdiction, 
.inJ  the  depository  of  the  laws  of  the  kingdom.  The  sovereigns  of 
i  *nu>ce<»  on  tir^t  assuming  the  powers  of  legi^jlation  and  taxation,  pro- 
duced their  edicts  to  be  registered  in  tiie  court  of  the  paritament  of 
park|  and  frequently  consulted  with  its  members  on  momcntoas 
%^Sdn  of  state,  as  in  questions  of  peace,  war,  or  alliance.    Thus  the 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


»4  MODEKN  mSTORT. 

natioD  began  to  regard  the  parliament  of  Paris  as  a  bodr  whieh 
shared  the  powers  of  government  with  the  monarch.  In  the  latter 
reignft  the  parliament  availed  itself  of  that  general  opinion,  and  made 
a  b^ld  stand  in  opposing  any  arbitrary  stretohes  of  the  king^s  author* 
ity,  by  refusing  to  verity  and  register  his  edicts. 

4.  But  as  this  power  of  the  parliament  was  in  reality  a  usurpation, 
it  was  constantly  a  subject  otdispute.  The  numbers  of  this  couit 
were  in  no  sense  the  representatives  of  the  people,  nor  vested  with 
anv  portion  of  the  constitutional  authority  of  the  national  assemblies. 
They  were  in  the  king''s  nomination,  removable  by  him  at  pleasure, 
and  even  subject  to  entire  annihilation  as  a  body  at  his  comooand. 
£ven  without  so  violent  a  remedy,  the  sovereign  could  at  any  time 
frustrate  their  opposition  to  his  will,  by  personally  appearing  In  the 
hall  of  parliament,  and  commanding  his  edict  to  be  registereoT 

5.  Yet  a  power  thus  easily  defecisible  had  its  advantages  to  the 
state,  and  operated  as  a  considerable  restraint  on  the  rovalauthoritj. 
Considering  itself  as  the  guardian  of  the  public  liberty,  it  remonstrat- 
ed against  all  arbitrary  encroachments  of  the  crown,  and  by  giving 
alarm  to  the  nation,  furnished  an  opposition  sufficiently  powemiJ  to 
obtain  its  ends.  The  provincial  parliaments,  though  they  likewise 
registered  the  royal  edicts,  never  assumed  any  similar  authority. 
They  were  only  the  chief  courts  of  civil  judicature. 

6.  The  kins  of  France  was  therefore  to  be  considered  as  an  ab- 
solute monarch,  whose  authority  was  in  some  degree  limited  by  the 
consuetudinary  regulations  of  the  state,  and  could  not  easily  become 
entirely  despotic  and  tyrannical.  The  crown  was  hereditary,  but 
could  not  descend  to  a  female,  nor  to  a  natural  son.  The  royal  rev- 
enue was  partly  fixed  and  partly  arbitrary.  The  fixed  revenue  con>- 
prehended  the  royal  domains,  the  duties  on  wines  and  salt,  the  land 
tax,  capitation  tax,  and  gifit  of  the  clergy;  the  other  arose  from  ail 
other  taxes  which  the  monarch  thought  fit  to  impose,  and  from  the 
sale  of  offices.  Most  of  these  duties  were  leased  out  to  the  farmers- 
general. 

7.  The  Galilean  church,  though  catholic,  and  acknowledging 
the  spiritual  authority  of  the  pope,  had  greatly  abridged  his  ancient 

Srerogatives  within  the  kingdom.  The  assembly  of  the  church 
eclared,  in  1,682,  that  no  temporal  sovereign  could  be  deposed  by 
the  po^,  nor  subjects  absolved  from  their  alleeiaBce :  it  decreed  tho 
subjection  of  the  pope  to  the  councils  of  the  church,  and  denied  hi« 
inrallibility  when  in  opposition  to  the  canons  of  those  councib.  The 
pope  bad  no  power  to  levjr  money  in  France  without  the  royal 
ucense.  In  short,  the  ecclesiastical  authority  was  in  all  repects  solv. 
ordinate  to  the  civil. 


SECTION  LXVI. 

OF  PETER  THE  OREAT,  CZAR  OF  MUSCOVY,  AND  CHARLES 
XII.,  KING  OF  SWEDEN. 

1'  Two  most  illustrions  men  adorned  the  north  of  Europe  in  thi 
latter  part  of  the  age  of  Lewis  XIV.,  Peter  the  great  of  Muacovt 
and  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden. 

Russia  is  said  to  have  received  the  lizht  of  Christianity  in  tie 
tenth  century,  but  its  history  is  utterly  uxumown  till  the  midcUe  of 

^^^  Digitized  by  V^OOQIC   ■ 


MODERN  HISTORY.  225 

tbe  fifteenth    At  that  Deriod  Jolm  Baailowite  redeemed  the  empire  i 

from  Its  sulgection  to  the  Tartars,  and  extended  its  limits.    His  sue-  I 

ressore  mamtamed  a  considerable  splendour  as  sovereiens:  but  their  I 

w!S^p'{^w^l.li?''"!!^^^^^^     "S^  ^^'^  ^'^'^H^'  barbiSians.    Alexis 
Michaelowitz,  father  of  Peter  the  great,  was  the  firat  who  published 

*M  J*  *i!*'^  A^  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  Siberia  was 
U^t^of  Eu  ^^^^'  ^^^^  ^  *****  "'"^  ^^  ^^^  bounded  by  the 
2.  Peter,  the  youngest  son  of  the  emperor  Alexis,  became  mas 
ter  of  the  empire  m  1,689,  by  setting  aside  a  weak  elder  brother, 
and  banshmg  a  factious  sister,  who  had  seized  the  gOTeroment.  I  k' 
was  uneducated,  and  his  youth  had  been  spent  inTlebauchery  ;  but 
ihl  wlLi'/'!!/'''"  immediately  displayed  his  talents,  and  gave  birth  to 
the  wis^t  plans  for  the  improvement  of  a  barbarous  plople.  Thi- 
fi^l^i^^  f^^^a'^^j^**  hw  first  attention.  He  began  by  breiikini; 
he  turbulent  mihtia  ol  the  StreUtzes,  and  by  degrees  formed  a  regu- 
lar  army  of  1 2,000  men  on  the  strictest  model  of  discipline.  He  ciih 
ployed  some  Dutchmen  to  build  a  small  fleet,  and  made  the  first  ei- 
penmeot  of  his  arms  m  taking  Azof  from  the  Turks  in  1,696. 

fVr^iinSIIf^f;."^'*  *^®  li***®  instruction  which  he  possessed  from 
tcreiFnere,  Peter  resolved  to  travel  in  search  of  knowledge  Ap- 
pomung  Le  Fort,  an  able  Genevese,  his  ambassadorrhe  travelhS 
uu1^a\V^  J^'^^u^  ^^T^""  i[^^^"S^  Gennany  to  Holland,  and 
.l^tt^  ""n^i?^  shiDKbuildmg  by  working  in  the  dock,  with  his 

'^i*^L^J»iL  ^"7^^^P,.«*  ^^P^  '-^i-t  lilted  for  the  improvement  of 
'rl^lT/^T'  ^'''^  ^^^''}'^^  ?^'''"''^'  ^^^^  cultivated  with  the  s;.rno 
anlour  and  success ;  and  m  sixteen  months  he  returned  to  Mcscow  lo 
reduce  those  important  acquirements  into  practice 

4.  Regiments  were  rallied  and  tniined  to  exerciie  on  the  German 
m<.KJel;  the  fanances  arranged  and  systt  matized ;  the  qhurch  n> 
rorrocd  by  new  canons  and  regulations;  the  partriarchate  abolish- 
♦•d;  and  a  much  abused  civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction  taken  from 
the  ciergy.  It  was  necessary  to  carry  this  iolbrm  even  to  the  abo- 
"'''?^  U-.  r°rr  .  dress,  and  the  suppression  of  ancient  usages 
.mkJ  habits  of  life,  mnovations  reluctantly  submitted  to,  but  enforcL-d 
f.y  absolute  power.  ' 

5.  VVhile  this  great  genius  was  thus  em])loyed  in  new-modelling 

jfKi  polishing  a  barbarous  empire,  a  competitor  arose  to  cii«»pute  with 

t  :m  tlie  sovereignty  of  the  north,  nnd  to  divide  the  admiration  of 

h'trnpe.    ChariM  XIL  succeedetl  to  the  throne  of  Sweden  in  I.Oi'-), 

r.t  WIeen  yearsof  age ;  a  prince  whose  singular  heroism  of  character 

--i*J  extraordinary  acliievemeuts  have  ranked  him  with  the  creat^.l 

*..n€itjerore  ot  antiquity.     The  situation  of  his  kingdom  speedilv 

•  r  ought  his  gemus  nito  display.    Russia.  Poland,  and  Denmark,  ioined 

.'1   a   league  to  seize  and  divide  his  dominions.     The  attack   was 

^-^tm  by  the  Danes  on  Holstein,  while  the  king  of  Poland  invaded 

I  ^%  oola.  and  the  czar,  Ingria.    Charles  immediately  landed  an  army 

4,a  .rfScaUind,  at  the  ptes  of  Copenhagen,  and  in  six  weeks  forced  the 

kiLrg  to  purchase  liie  safety  of  his  capital  and  kingdom,  by  laying 

r  .vro  hH  arms,  and  making  full  indemnity  to  the  duke  of  Holsteii? 
■ .  •   now  hastened  into  Incria,  and  at  the  battle  of  Narva  defeated 

•.<X«  of  the  Russians,  and  took  30,000  prisonere.    Such  was  the 

- 1  ampaign  of  Charles  XII.,  then  a  boy  of  seventeen. 

o-  -i^obnd  was  destined  to  receive  a  more  humiliating  chastise- 
isfra  t^    Chaiies  reduced  Courland  and  Uthuaniat  penetrated  into  the 

9Q  .^^ 


226  MODERN  HISTORY. 

heart  of  the  kingdom,  and  subdued  the  capitals  of  Warsaw  and  Cra- 
cow. He  then  assembled  the  states,  declared  king  Augustus  de- 
posed, and  signified  his  pleasure  that  Stanislaus,  his  own  dependant, 
shoulu  be  elected  sovereign  of  Poland.  The  factions  of  the  king- 
dom aided  this  revolution,  and  the  will  of  Charles  was  complied 
with.  The  deposed  king  retired  to  his  electoral  dominions  of 
Saxony. 

7.  A  negotiation  begun  with  the  czar  was  abruptly  terminated  by 
Charles,  who  declared  that  he  would  negotiate  only  at  Moscow. 
Entering  the  Russian  dominions  with  45,000  men,  he  was  in  the  way 
of  executing  his  threat,  when  he  was  induced,  by  a  treacherous 
promise  of  aid  from  the  Cossacks,  to  march  through  the  Ukraine  in 
the  depth  of  winter.  His  army  was  wasted  by  fatigue  and  famine, 
when  he  was  encountered  by  the  czar  at  Pultowa ;  and  the  fate  of 
Russia,  Sweden,  and  Poland,  hung  upon  that  batUe.  Charles  was 
entirely  defeated:  9,000  Swedes  tell  in  the  field,  and  14,000  were 
taken  prisoners,  1,709.  Augustus  was  restored  to  the  throne  of 
Poland,  and  the  czar  took  possession  of  Finland  and  Livonia. 

8.  With  the  wreck  of  his  army,  reduced  to  1,800  men,  Charles 
retreated  into  the  Turkish  dominions,  and  formed  a  camp  near  Ben- 
der. He  endeavoured  to  prevail  upon  the  grand  seignior  to  arm 
against  the  czar,  and  succeeded  after  a  long  negotiation.  Two  hun- 
dred thousand  Turks  took  the  field,  and  the  czar's  army,  for  inferior 
in  number,  was  surrounded,  and,  atler  ineffectual  resistance,  forceil 
to  capitulate  to  the  grand  vizier.  The  news  of  this  capitulation  de- 
stroyed all  the  hopes  of  Charles ;  and  his  subsequent  conduct  seem:^ 
the  result  of  frenzy.  The  grand  seignior  having  intimated  his  de- 
sire that  the  Swedes  should  quit  his  territories,  Charles  fortified  hi^ 
camp,  and  declared  that  he  would  defend  it  to  the  last  extremity. 
After  every  means  ineffectually  tried  to  make  him  alter  this  resolu- 
tion, he  was  attacked  by  the  Turkish  army,  and  taken  fighting  sword 
m  hand  amidst  a  massacre  of  his  troops. 

9.  In  tlie  mean  time  the  czar  and  the  king  of  Denmark  were  rav- 
aging Sweden.  Charles  returned  in  disguise  with  two  of  his  officer*, 
to  his  own  dominions,  and  immediately  conceived  the  design  of 
wresting  Norway  from  Denmark.  Failing  in  the  outset  of  this  enter- 

5 rise,  he  was  persuaded  by  Gortz,  his  prime  minister,  to  attempt  to 
ethrone  George  II.,  to  seize  a  part  of  nis  continental  dominions^  am) 
to  place  the  pretender  James  on  the  throne  of  England.  This 
project  was  concerted  between  Gortz  and  Alberoni,  prinoe  minister 
of  Philip  V.  The  czar  joined  in  the  scheme,  and  made  peace  wiiti 
Sweden ;  but  an  unforeseen  event  broke  all  their  measures.  In  be- 
sieging the  Norwegian  fortress  of  Frederickshall,  Charles  was  killetl 
by  a  cannon-ball,  on  the  1 1th  of  December,  1,718. 

10.  Sweden  gained  by  the  death  of  Charles  a  reformation  of  her 
government,  and  a  salutary  limitation  of  the  arbitrary  power  of  the 
sovereign.  His  sister  Ulrica  succeeded  to  the  throne,  and  raised  to 
it  her  husband,  Frederick  landgrave  of  Hesse-Cassel.  The  states 
made  peace  with  all  the  hostile  powers.  The  czar  was  now  engaged 
in  a  war  with  Persia^  in  the  view  of  obtaining  the  command  an<f 
commerce  of  the  Caspian.  This  object  he  accomplished,  and  guinea 
by  cession  from  the  sophi,  three  provinces  of  the  Persian  empire. 

Peter  the  great  died  Januarj[  28, 1,725,  and  was  succeeded  by  tte 
czarina  Catherine,  formely  a  Dvonian  captive,  who  possessed  mefit 
equal  to  her  elevated  stauoa  His  only  son,  Alexis  Petrowilz,  Mci 
been  condeomed  to  lose  his  life  for  treason,  and  the  mode  of  Ma 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODERN  mSTORY,  W 

death,  which  immediately  followed  his  condemnafion^  is  unknown. 
Russia  owes  to  Peter  the  great  all  those  beneficial  rniproyements 
which  have  raised  her.  within  the  period  of  a  century,  from  barba- 
I  and  obscurity,  to  the  highest  rank  among  the  powers  of  Europe, 


SECTION  LXVn. 

A  VIEW  OF  THE  PROGRESS  OF  SCIENCE  AND  LITERATURE 
IN  EUROPE,  FROM  THE  END  OF  THE  FIFTEENTH  TO  THE 
END  OF  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY. 

1.  We  have  seen  how  much  literature  and  the  sciences  were  in- 
debted to  the  art  of  printin?  for  their  advancement  and  dissemination 
toivani  the  end  of  the  tifteenth  century.  (Sect  XXXIV.,  §  12.) 
From  that  period  classical  learninfi;,  criticisti,  poetry,  and  history, 
made  a  rapid  progress  in  most  of  the  kingdoms  of  Europe.  Philos- 
ophy did  not  keep  pace  with  literature.  The  dogmas  of  Aristotle 
had  kept  possession  of  the  schools  till  the  seventeenth  century,  and 
had  engralted  themselve?  even  on  the  doctrines  of  theology,  it 
required  a  superior  genius  to  dissipate  the  mist  of  error,  and  to 
break  the  fetters  on  all  advancement  in  useful  science.  Such  was 
the  great  Bacon  lord  Verulam,  tlic  most  profound  philosopher,  and 
f»«*rhape  the  most  universal  genius,  that  any  age  has  produced.  We 
tiDd  in  bis  works  an  estimate  of  the  actual  attainments  in  all  the 
«>ciocce<^  a  aitalogne  of  the  desiderata  in  each  department,  and  a 
detail  ol  the  methods  best  suited  to  prosecute  improvement  and  new 
iJi'^coverics.  In  fine,  we  owe  to  Bacon  the  sure  method  of  advanc 
ing  in  knowledge  by  experiment  and  the  observation  of  nature, 
utiiead  of  system  and  conjecture. 

i.  The  philosophy  of  Bacon  produced  its  effect  only  by  slow  de- 
crees. Gassendi,  though  he  exposed  the  doctrines  of  Aristotle,  was 
>Lill  a  theorir^t,  and  attempted  to  revive  the  atomic  system  of  Epicu- 
rTi5>.  Des  Cartes  followed  in  the  same  track,  and  reared  a  whimsical 
iheory  of  the  universe,  produced,  as  he  supposed,  by  the  fortuitous 
rnmbmatioii  of  atoms,  moving  in  vortices  through  the  immensity  of 
*-paco ;  a  theory  recommended  by  the  ingenuity  with  which  it  was 
-upported.  and  its  apparently  solving  many  ol  the  phenomena  of 
TiHture.  A  century  before  Copernicus  had  pul>lishea  his  system  of 
the  planets,  which,  though  condemned  by  the  church,  was  received 
b^  Ves  Cartes  and  the  K'st  philosophers. 

'3w  Galileo,  in  1,601^,  constructed  telescopes  (Sect.  XXXIV.,  §  5"), 
nod  discovered  the  satellites  of  the  larger  planets,  Jupiter  and  Saturn, 
i4nd  their  motions,  for  which  he  was  rewarded  by  imprisonment,  as  a 
^  upporter  of  the  Copemican  heresy.  Kepler  investigated  the  laws 
vr  nifcb  regulated  the  motions  of  the  planets,  and  the  analogy  between 
llieb'  distances  from  the  sun  and  periodical  revolutions.  Tne  discov- 
eries kk  astronomy  led  to  imnroveroents  in  navigation,  and  a  great  ad- 
wwaaoement  of  geometry  in  all  its  branches.  Napier,  in  1,614.  ahridg* 
ed  cakalation  oy  the  invention  of  logarithms.  The  Toricelliao  ex* 
nts  determined  the  weight  of  the  atmosphere.  In  1,616 
fey  discovered  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 
^  The  Royal  Society,  which  originated  from  private  meetings  ol 
It9«  Ehglish  philosophers,  was  incorporated  by  Charles  11..  in  1,662. 
^^A  has  greatly  cootiibated  to  the  advancement  of  the  sciences  im 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


m  MODERN  HISTORY. 

uaefol  arts.  The  Aojal  Academy,  of  Sciences  yma  iostitoted  in  1,660 
by  Lewis  XIV.  Sicauar  iqstitutioDS  were  founded  in  mo$t  of  tlie  ceun- 
tries  of  Europe ;  among  which  there  is  a  communication  of  science, 
and  a  laudable  emulation  exclte4  by  the  publication  of  theii  traosac- 
tions. 

.5.  In  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  arose  the  immortal  Newton, 
who,  by  exhausting  the  most  important  discoveries  of  the  laws  of  na- 
ture, has  rendered  it  impossible  for  posterity  to  eclipse  his  fame,  i  I*' 
had  discovered,  before  the  age  of  twenty-four,  the  theory  of  univers,il 
gravitation,  a  principle  which  solves  the  chief  phenomena  of  naturL*, 
and  connects  and  regulates  the  whole  machine  of  the  universe,  iii^ 
theory  of  light  and  colours  is  the  foundation  of  the  whole  science  vi 
optics,  and  his  Principia  the  basis  and  elements  of  all  philosophy. 

6.  Locke,  the  coijJtemporary  of  Newton,  successfully  applied  Ion! 
BaconN  mode  of  investigation  to  the  study  of  the  human  mind ;  mxl, 
utterly  rejecting  the  systems  of  the  old  philosophers,  examined  tho 
soul  by  attending  to  its  operations.  From  the  simple  fact  that  ail 
knowledge  is  progressive^  and  that  an  infant  gains  its  ideas  gradual!  v 
throueh  the  medium  of  its  senses,  he  drew  the  general  conclusiun, 
that  there  are  no  innate  ideas  in  the  mind,  but  that  ail  are  either  i im- 
mediate perceptions  conveyed  by  the  senses,  or  acts  of  the  mind  n- 
flecting  on  those  perceptions;  a  conclusion  wnich  has  been  obstimiic- 
ly  controverted,  chiefly  by  drawing  from  it  false  consequences,  b'^t 
which  has  never  yet  been  shaken. 

7.  The  progress  of  literature  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeemh 
centuries  was  equally  remarkable  with  that  of  science  and  philox  ^ 
phy.  Trissino  was  the  first  of  the  modems  who  composed  an  ejiic 
poem  in  the  language  of  his  country,  U Italia  liberata  da  Gua',  nnA 
the  first  Italian  who  wrote  a  regular  tracedy,  Sophonisba.  Of  merit 
much  superior  to  the  epic  poem  of  Trissino  is  tlie  IaisuuI  of  1 1  it- 
Portuguese  Camoens,  a  work  abounding  with  passages  of  hi§h  poetic 
beauty,  and  displaying  a  sublime  imagination.  Li  the  end  oi  the  six- 
teenth century  Spain  produced  the  Araucana  of  Ercilla,  an  epic  poen* 
of  great  inequahty  of  merit,  but  frequentljr  exhibiting  noveUy  oi 
figures  and  bold  conceptions.  The  subject  is  a  revolt  of  the  Peru- 
vians against  tlie  Spaniards. 

8.  But  the  principal  epic  poems  of  this  age  are  the  OrUmdo  Fu- 
rioso  of  Ariosto,  and  the  Gterusalcnvne  Liberata  of  Tasso :  the  IbnrK  r 
a  work  most  irregular  in  its  plan,  most  unconnected  and  desultory  i.i 
its  conduct,  most  extravagant  and  absurd  in  the  characters  of  its  i^  r- 
flons,  but  displaying  alternate Iv  every  excellence  of  poetry  in  tiu- 
various  departments  of  the  descriptive,  comic,  satiric,  moral,  an.  I 
sublime.  The  Gierusalemme  of  Tiisso,  of  a  regular  plan  and  perli?c  i 
polish  in  its  structure,  has  been  frequently  brought  in  compari^^ou 
with  the  equally  highly  finished  poem  of  the  ^ncid;  nor  does  the 
Italian  suffer  much  m  the  comparison.  There  is  a  romantic  charrii 
both  in  the  incidents  and  characters  of  his  poem,  which  most  ever  ren- 
der it  a  favourite  with  all  readers  of  genuine  taste. 

9.  From  the  time  of  Tasso  the  genius  of  epic  poetzy  lay  dormant 
for  a  century,  till  the  days  of  Milton ;  for  the  Fairy  ^ucen  of  Speoser 
is  rather  a  romantic  allegory  than  an  epic  poem.  The  Paradiu,  Lou^ 
compared  with  the  gresS  poems  of  antiquity*  is  more  irregular  and 
less  perfect  as  a  whole  than  the  Rwd,  Mmad^  and  Odyssey;  but  cxr 
hibits^  in  detached  parts,  more  of  the  sublime  and  beautiful  than  anf 
of  them.  It  has  been  well  remarked,  that  the  inequality  of  this  pocn 
vises  in  a  great  measure  from  the  nature  of  the  subject,  of  wliid^ 

CigitizedbyV^OOgie 


MODERN  HISTORY.  229 

Xrtf  are  the  most  lofly  which  can  enter  into  the  human  mindi 
rs  eoold  only  have  been  supported  by  a  laborioos  elegance 
tod  poliflh^  which  the  author's  genius  could  not  stoop  to  bestow. 

IQl  Lync  poetry  was  cultivated  in  the  sixteenth  century,  in  ltaly» 
Fnnoe,  and  England,  but  with  no  great  success,  llie  less  poems  of 
Ariosto  and  Tasso  have  no  tincture  of  the  genius  displayed  in  their 
i;reater  works.  Chiabrera  is  perhaps  the  only  lyric  poet  of  this 
feriod  that  merits  distinction,  fai  France,  Ronsanl  and  Bellay  imi- 
iMted  Petrarch  with  all  his  false  wit,  but  without  his  passion.  Marot, 
iMiwever,  in  the  nahete  and  easy  vein  of  ids  humour,  is  justly  ac- 
C4N»ted  the  master  <^  La  Fontaine.  In  the  beginning  of  tlie  seven- 
leeDth  centory  French  versification  received  a  considerable  polish 
tram  the  compositions  of  Kacan,  and  yet  more  from  those  of  Mai- 
hcthe :  and  toward  the  end  of  that  century  lyric  poetry  was  cultivat- 
cad  with  high  success  by  La  Farre,  Chapelle,  and  Bachaumont,  Chau- 
Uea  and  Grcsset. 

II.  The  English  lyric  poetry  of  the  sixteenth  century,  of  Spenser, 
Surrey,  iiurrington,  Sydney,  and  even  Shakespeare,  is  harsh  and 
unfaHiiDonious:  nor  is  much  improvement  discernible  till  the  time  of 
Cowley  and  Waller.  The  merit  of  Cowley  as  a  lyric  poet  was  too 
highly  prized  in  his  own  age,  and  is  underrated  in  ours.  With  all  hin 
u^ie  wit^  pedantry,  and  obscuritv.  he  is  of)en  both  sublime  and 
pathetic  m  no  moderate  degree.  I  he  lyric  ode  in  the  tliird  book  of 
liie  Davideis  has  few  parallels  in  the  English  language.  As  a  prose 
writer,  Cowley  shines  in  that  age  with  superior  exceflence.  Waller 
k  more  polished  and  harmonious  than  any  of  the  preceding  or  coti- 
tempomry  poets,  but  his  wit  is  quaint,  and  his  elevation  too  frequent- 
ly bombast. 

J  2.  Dryden.  in  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  carried  lyric 
poetry  to  perfection.  His  Ode  on  St  Cecilia's  dajr  surpasses  all  the 
lyric  compositions  both  of  ancient  and  modem  times,  lie  siiines 
coDspicaou!*ly  as  a  satirist,  possessing  the  keen  and  caustic  wit,  with- 
out ine  indelicacy,  of  Juvenal  or  Horace.  Hi-^  ven<ioos  from  Chau- 
r«r  and  lioccacio  are  easy  and  sfmited,  sind  display  a  happy  talent 
tor  poetical  narmtive.  His  numerous  dramatic  pieces,  though  exlub- 
ittng  both  invention  and  poetic  beauty,  arc  deficient  in  true  passion, 
aod  in  the  just  dclinealion  of  character. 

13.  At  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  drama  in  Europe  be- 
raa  to  furnish  a  rational  entertainment.  At  that  period,  Lope  de 
Vega  and  Caldcrona  in  Spain,  and  Shakespeare  in  England,  produced 
tfnodc  pieces,  which,  though  irregular  and  ptained  with  blemishes 
are  at  (his  day  the  admiration  of  their  countrymen.  The  ^Spani^h 
plava  of  that  age  have  been  a  rich  mine  for  succeeding  dnunntibl:^, 
Dotn  asiong  the  French,  Italians,  and  English.  The  merits  of  bhake;^ 
pcare  arc  lamiliar  to  every  person  of  taste.  Ignorant  of  th*;  rules 
of  bis  art,  he  is  the  pure  child  of  nature,  and  thus  exhibits  of\en  her 
caprices  and  absurdities;  but  these  are  redeemed  by  the  most  ti-ans- 
cendent  beauties.  The  old  English  drama  is,  with  all  its  irregulai^ 
Hies,  incomparably  superior  to  the  modem,  both  in  touching  tlic  pa»> 
BS  and  in  displaying  just  views  of  human  character.  The  penooa 
)  more  discriminated  by  various  and  appropriate  features,  and  the 
er  ?ha<les  of  nearly  resembling  characters  are  thus  more  distinctly 
inarkcd.  The  mixture  of  the  comic  and  tragic  hi  the  same  plol^ 
though  condemned  by  modem  practice,  is  a  great  source  of  pleasure 
mtbe  pieces  of  Shakespeare  and  his  contemporaries;  nor  is  there  an]f 
IblDS  kk  SQch  a  mixture  but  what  is  consonant  to  nature.    To  a  per 

^  Digitized  by  ^^OOgie 


J30  MODEliN  HISTORY 

■on  of  trae'  taste  it  will  be  found  often  to  heighten,  by  coDtrast,  tbe 
capital  emotion  to  be  excited. 

14'.  The  compositions  for  the  French  stage,  in  the  end  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  are  strictly  conformable  to  dramatic  roles; 
and  many  of  those  pieces  are  models  of  a  correct  and  polished  taste. 
The  morality  of  the  French  drama  of  that  age  and  the  next  is  in  gen- 
eral purer  than  ours ;  but  their  pieces  are  deficient  in  the  nice  delin- 
eation of  character,  and  in  the  power  of  exciting  the  passions^ 
Coroeille  and  Racine  brought  the  French  tragedy  to  its  highest  ele- 
vation; as  Moliere  the  comedy.  Comeille  has  more  grandeur  and 
fiublimity  than  his  rival,  who  excels  him  in  the  tender  and  pathetic 
I'he  comedies  of  Moliere.  highly  amusing  in  tlie  present  time,  were 
more  particularly  valuable  in  the  age  when  thev  were  written,  and 
had  a  sensible  eflect  in  correcting  its  prevailing  follies ;  the  pedantry 
of  the  ladies,  the  ignorance  and  quackery  of  uie  physicians,  and  the 
pride  and  arrogance  of  the  French  nobles«e.  liie  last  of  the  emi- 
nent dramatists  who  adorned  France  in  the  seventeenth  century  was 
the  elder  C  re  billon,  who  drew  many  sublime  and  impassioned  scenes 
from  the  source  of  terror ;  and  who,  in  all  his  works,  was  as  emi- 
nently the  friend  of  virtue  as  his  worthless  son  has  been  the  pander 
of  vice. 

15.  The  most  eminent  historians  of  the  sixteenth  century  are, 
De  Thou,  Daviia,  and  Machiavel.  De  Thou  has  written  the  annals 
of  his  own  time,  from  1,545  to  1^07,  with  great  judgment,  and  in 
most  elegant  Latin  composition.  The  history  of  DavUa,  the  annab 
of  the  civil  wars  of  France  in  the  time  of  the  league,  though  the 
work  of  a  partisan,  is  composed  with  no  common  degree  of  candour 
and  impartiality.  In  tbe  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  Machia- 
vel wrote  his  History  of  Florence,  of  which  the  style  is  classical  and 
the  matter  well  arranged,  but  too  much  interrupted  by  reflections  and 
political  discussions.  In  the  seventeenth  century  Ikntivoglio  com- 
posed his  History  of  the  Civil  Wars  of  Flanders,  with  the  most  ac- 
curate knowledge  of  his  subject,  perspicuity  of  narrative,  and  ele- 
eance  of  style.  Among  the  English  historians  in  the  beginning  of 
mat  period  Riileigh  is  the  most  distinguished ;  though  his  History  of 
Uie  World  is,  in  point  of  style,  inferior  to  the  judgment  shoivn  in  the 
arrangement  of  the  matter.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth 
century^  Clarendon's  History  of  the  Rebellion  is  a  work  of  the  high- 
est merit,  whether  we  consider  the  authenticity  of  the  facts,  the  deep 
knowledge  of  human  nature  displayed  in  the  delineation  of  the 
characters,  or  the  grave  and  manly  eloquence  of  tbe  style.  If,  m 
the  opposition  of  political  opinions,  he  has  been  deemed  too  partial 
in  defence  of  his  sovereign,  even  his  adversaries  have  admitted  his 
perfect  integrity,  and  entire  conviction  of  the  rectitude  of  the  cauM 
which  he  supports. 


y  Google 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS. 


SECTION  I. 

A  GENERAL   VIEW  OF  THE  HISTORY  OF  MANKIND  IN  THB 
PRIMEVAL  AGES. 

1.  In  contemplating  those  great  outlines  of  history,  the  memorable 
md  important  events  which  have  determined  the  condition  of  man- 
kmd,  and  rendered  the  aspect  of  the  moral  and  intellectual  world 
each  89  wc  now  view  it,  we  shall  find  abundant  subjects  for  obeenra* 
tkn  and  rellcction.  In  many  ciises  we  shall  be  obliged  to  have  re- 
course to  coniecture,  founded  on  dlfl'erent  degrees  of  probability; 
aod  some  of  those  probabilities  may  be  so  corroborated  by  general 
ezisting^  circumstances  as  to  amount  almost  to  certtinty. 

2.  Ot  the  primeval  state  of  mankind  we  know  little  from  historical 
information,  and  can  form  an  opinion  of  it  only  from  conjecture 
fbuoded  on  the  nature  of  things.  1?  rom  the  extremely  slow  progress  of 
civilisBalion  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  men  must  have  existed  a 
loo£  time  before  they  began  to  write  the  history  of  such  transactions 
aildeTeDts  as  they  deemed  most  important.  All  their  care  and  alten- 
tioQ  would  at  first  be  employed  in  providing  the  means  of  supplying 
tlieir  physical  wants,  and  of  rendering  their  existence  tolerable,  m 
that  state  of  simple  nature  tliey  would  not  think  of  transmitting  ao  ac- 
couot  of  their  actions  to  posterity,  and  could  hardly  liave  any  oc- 
corrences  worth  recording.  Here  our  knowledge  of  human  nature 
and  of  human  wants  will  supply  the  deficiency  of  history.  From 
tbe  experience  of  our  own  wants,  and  of  the  means  of  supplying  them, 
we  may  mfcr  almost  with  certainty,  that  habitations  would  be  built ai 
a  shelter  from  the  inclemency  of  the  weather;  and  in  fact  we  find 
thb  to  be  the  case  in  all  those  countries  which  are  at  present  occupied 
by  savages.  In  process  of  time  some  attention  would  be  given  to 
tbe  cultivation  ot  the  soil,  to  make  the  earth  produce  such  vegetables 
a»  were  fit  for  the  food  of  man.  The  arts  most  essential  to  the  con>- 
fortible  existence  of  the  human  species  would  be  invented  before 
the  use  of  letters. 

X  From  all  these  circumstances  we  may  reasonably  suppose  that 
the  6rst  rude  sketch  of  history  would  be  the  traditionary  tales  d^ 
liTered  from  lather  to  son  through  suoce^^sive  generations ;  and  these 
tn  reality  constitute  the  basis  of  the  fint  historical  records.  Such  are 
the  £ibiilo«i5  relations  of  the  first  historians  among  the  Greeks.  It 
appears  that  tbe  Greeks  had  adopted  the  historical  legends  of  the 
EgjfAian  priests,  who  were  accustomed  to  cover  their  religion  ioid 
icarning  with  the  mystical  veil  of  allegory ;  and  that  in  many  cases 
tbey  mi9tod£  the  Egyptian  mode  of  allegorizing  the  early  penods  ot 
hmorj^  and  have  presented  to  posterity  an  absurd  and  moostroui 
CMue  of  iabnloQs  narratiTe  of  kiiic9  who  never  reigned,  aod  of  heroei 
of  celntial  desoeoL 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


t32  MODERN  fflSTORY. 

4.  Saperstitlon  being  natural  to  man  before  the  mind  isenlijgntened 
by  philosoptiy,  it  is  no  wonder  that  the  writings  of  the  first  histonana 
contain  many  relations  of  the  commanication  of  gods  and  demi-gods 
with  mankind^  and  of  the  frejuent  interference  of  supernatural 
agents  in  human  affairs.  The  vivid  imaginations  of  the  early  Greek 
antiiors,  heated  ivith  superstition,  and  unrestrained  by  philosophy, 
expanded  into  wild  exuberance,  and  fabricated  the  most  absurd  and 
rimculous  tales.  Hence  the  period  of  time  which  elapsed  between 
the  establishment  of  political  and  civil  society  in  Greece,  and  the 
Trojan  war  may  be  justly  denominated  the  fabulous  age ;  and  indeed 
most  part  of  what  is  related  concerning  that  war,  has  evident  marks 
of  fiction  stamped  upon  it ;  for  all  the  historical  accounts  of  it  are 
originally  founded  on  the  poems  of  Homer.  No  writings  am  claim 
the  title  of  an  authentic  historjr  of  Grecian  affairs  before  the  Per- 
sian wars.  The  histories  of  all  other  heathen  nations  were  not  le^ 
febnlous  and  absurd  than  those  of  the  Greeks;  and  indeed  all  that 
we  know  concerning  them  lias  been  transmitted  to  us  through  the 
medium  of  Greek  writers. 

5.  When  we  consider  the  general  state  of  the  world  in  the  early 
ages,  with  respect  to  political,  commercial^  and  literary  communica- 
tion, however  we  may  amuse  ourselves  witli  perusing  the  accounts 
transmitted  to  us  of  the  transactions  of  remote  antiquity,  reason  telLs 
us  that  they  are  nothing  but  fiction  or  historical  romance.  (Tntil 
the  Greeks  (who  were  tne  inventors,  or  at  least  the  improvers  of 
arts  and  sciences)  had  attained  a  considerable  degree  of  civiliziitioii 
and  opulence,  and  had  begun  to  cultivate  the  arts  of  convenieucy, 
luxury,  and  elegance,  little  credit  is  due  to  profane  history.  Tbi^ 
period  cannot  be  fixed  long  before  the  firet  Persian  war,  which  hap- 
pened about  503  years  be  lore  the  birth  of  Christ  For  inibrmation 
relative  to  tlie  state  of  mankind,  and  the  events  which  occurred 
before  that  period,  we  must  have  recourse  to  the  writings  of  the 
Jews. 

6.  This  consideration  naturally  leads  us  to  turn  our  attention  to 
those  ancient  records  of  the  Jews,  which  have  always  been  deemed 
sacred  by  them,  and  of  which  the  autlienticity  has  been  acknowl- 
edged by  the  generality  of  mankind,  who  have  perused  them  with 
due  attention.  Tlie  Jewish  annals  are  (he  most  ancient  of  all  Uiat 
have  been  transmitted  to  us,  and  tlie  most  intrinsically  rational  and 
probable.  They  likewise  contain  a  series  of  transactions  and  events 
equally  curious  and  interesting.  In  them  we  find  the  only  rational 
account  of  the  creation  of  the  world,  and  the  beginning  of  things ; 
of  the  dispersion  of  mankind,  and  the  origin  of  ancient  nations. 


SECTION  IL 
SUMMARY  VIEW  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

1.  The  Israelites,  or  ancient  Jews,  were  those  distinguished  peo- 
ple, who  were  favoured  by  the  immediate  care  of  the  Almighty, 
andf  conducted  by  his  especial  guidance  to  Judea,  a  place  ofresi- 
dence  promised  to  their  remote  ancestors.  In  consequence  o£  their 
obstinacy,  idolatry,  and  wickedness^  and  more  particulariy  for  the 
rejection  of  their  Messiah,  they  were  subdued  by  the  Romans,  after 
•OitainiDg  a  siege  in  their  metropolis,  Jerusalem,  unparaUeled  m  the 

_  Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  S95 


amaii  ofhistorf  for  its  diitressea,  calamitiefl,  and  slangbter. 
lem  waft  reduced  to  ruins,  the  Jewish  ^oyemmeDt  was  totally  aob- 
Teited,  and  the  sarvlvlng  people  were  disj^rsed  over  most  parts  of 
*Jie  world.  Their  descendants  still  remain,  unmixed  with  tlie  rest 
of  mankind,  and  are  marked  by  their  original  features  of  national 
pectiliarily :  the^r  adhere  with  the  most  zealous  attachment  to  the 
ix*ligioa  of  their  forefathers,  and  cherish  the  hopes  of  restoration  to 
tlicir  A>nner  prosperity  and  country  by  means  ol  a  glorious  and  tri« 
umplumt  Deliverer. 

2.  They  preserve,  with  the  most  watchful  care,  the  s?.cred  books 
of  their  ancient  writers.  And  astonishing,  Tjery  asionMng  it  is  to 
vhserve^  iiuU  in  the  prophetical  parts  iif  these  sacred  books  are  contained 
ail  the  events  before  mentioned  cf  their  eoctraordinary  history.  Their 
ivarticular  conduct,  and  the  vicissitudes  of  their  national  aflairs,  were 
]jrpdicted  by  their  projpbets,  and  more  especially  by  Moses,  theif 
gr^iit  biw-giver,  in  the  infancy  of  the  world,  at  the  vast  distance  of 
Uiirty-Chree  centuries  from  the  jresent  times.  The  accomplishment 
<  f  these  predictions  bears  the  fullest  and  most  striking  evidence  to 
the  truth  and  inspiration  of  their  prophets,  and  illustrates  the  di»> 
pertsations  of  Providence  to  his  chosen  people. 

3.  These  sacred  books  contain  likewise  predictions  the  most  exact 
of  the  character,  oflice,  and  actions  of  the  Messiah  of  the  Jews,  the 
groat  Law-giver  of  the  christians,  the  appointed  Saviour  of  the  world. 

4.  Such  interesting  circumstances  as  these,  in  addition  to  the  pe- 
culiar nature  of  the  Jewish  polity,  considered  as  a  divine  institution, 
tJie  curious  manners  and  customs,  and  the  memorable  actions  of  the 
«J<^^sceBdRnts  of  Abraham,  the  most  ancient  people  of  whom  we  have 
.«Q^  authentic  accounts,  combine  to  place  these  books  first  in  order 
at*  importance,  as  in  order  of  time,  if  we  consider  ike  great  aniiqui' 
rvt  the  subjects^  and  the  characters  of  the  writers^  rf  these  bwks^  and  the 
filace  wlach  they  occupy  in  the  order  of  ^^eneral  history,  particular- 
ly as  they  stand  connected  with  the  christian  revelation,  tiiey  will  b« 
i^^und  to  deserve  our  very  earnest  attention. 


SECTION  lU. 
THE  ANTIQUITY  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 

1.  No  writings  of  any  other  nation  can  be  brought  into  competi- 
tiofu  in  respect  of  antiquity,  with  those  of  the  Jews.  In  proof  of 
thw  assertion  it  may  be  remarke(L  that  Moses  lived  more  than  a 
rh'Tunnd  years  before  the  age  of  Herodotus,  who  is  reputed  the 
i .  'her  of  Grecian  history.  As  another  proof  of  the  priority  of  the 
J«  W9  to  the  Greeks,  it  appears  by  the  confession  of  the  Greek  wri* 
f  ^TS  that  they  received  the  letters  of  their  alphabet  from  the  Phoe- 
'  .<  nns ;  and  tiiere  are  very  suHicieot  grounds  for  believing  that  the 
t'CMseakiaDs  derived  the  art  of  writing  from  the  Jews.  The  learned 
■f'^tfj  acute  Forphyry,  who  was  an  equal  enemy  both  to  Jews  and 
•t.'.rs^tBinsand  much  attached  to  the  learning  of  Greece,  candidly 
IK  ksiowledged  tliat  Moses,  and  the  prophets  who  immediately  suc- 

•  '^-<Jed  bkn,  flourished  nearly  a  thousiind  years  before  any  of  the 

c  J  reek  philosophers. 

22.  Toe  booK^  which  compose  the  canon  of  the  Jewish  scriptures 

S  «ve  the  coDCorrence  of  all  antiquity  in  favour  of  their  originality. 

':  lieT  were  delivered  to  the  Hebrews  in  their  own  huiguage«  with 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


C34  MODERN  HISTORY. 

every  mark  of  genuineness,  by  the  persons  whose  names  they  bear, 
and  those  persons,  by  recorain^  contemporary  events,  constantly 
appealed  to  well-known  proofs  o^  their  regard  to  truth.  The  pro- 
phetical books  in  particular  contain  the  evidences  of  their  inspira- 
tion, as  well  as  of  the  integrity  and  piety  of  their  authors.  The  ex- 
ternal proo&  are  clear  and  strong,  as  well  as  the  internal ;  In  conse- 
auence  of  which  all  these  books  have  always  been  preserved  with 
le  greatest  care,  and  have  been  held  in  the  highest  veneration. 

3.  It  is  no  less  curious  than  important  to  remark  the  traditions 
preserved  in  the  pagan  world,  which  confirm  the  truth  of  the  Pen- 
tateuch, or  the  five  books  written  by  Moses.  The  Chaldeans  pre* 
served  the  history  of  their  Xisurus,  who  was  the  Noah  of  Moses. 
The  Egyptians  asserted  that  Mercury  had  engraved  his  doctrine 
upon  columns,  which  had  resisted  the  violence  of  a  deluee.  The 
Cninese  historians  record  that  Feyrun,  a  mortal  beloved  and  protect 
ed  by  the  gods,  saved  himself  in  a  vessel  from  the  general  inundation 
The  Hindoos  say  that  the  waters  of  the  ocean  spread  over  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  except  one  mountain  to  the  north ;  that  one  woman 
and  seven  men  saved  themselves  on  this  mountain,  with  certain 
plants  and  animals.  They  add,  in  speaking  of  their  god  Vishnou,  that 
at  the  deluge  he  transformed  himself  into  a  fish,  and  conducted  the 
vessel  which  preserved  the  relics  of  the  human  race.  This  vessel 
is  likewise  a  subject  of  tradition  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  world. 
Sulivan's  View  of  Nature,  Letter  67. 

4.  That  the  sacrilice  of  animals  was  necessary  to  appease  the 
offended  gods,  was  a  religious  tenet  very  general  and  veiy  ancient. 
The  account  of  the  lon^  lives  of  the  patriarchs  is  confirmed  by  wri- 
ters of  various  countries.  Their  primitive  manners,  and  their 
mode  of  performing  sacrifices,  and  onering  prayers  to  the  great  Au- 
thor of  nature  on  the  summits  of  mountains,  and  in  the  retirements 
of  groves,  agree  with  the  descriptions  of  Homer,  and  many  other 
early  writers.  Zoroaster^  the  great  teacher  of  the  ancient  Persi^iui, 
derived  from  the  books  of  Moses  the  first  principles  of  his  reli|;ion, 
his  ceremonial  laws,  his  account  of  the  creation,  of  the  first  parents 
of  mankind,  of  the  patriarchs,  and  particularly  of  Abraham,  whose 
pure  religion  he  professed  to  restore. 

5.  In  the  attributes  and  characters  of  the  heathen  gods  may  be 
found  allusions  to  the  ancient  expressions  of  the  Hebrew  scripture^. 
In  the  customs,  laws,  and  ceremonies  of  many  other  nations  may  be 
traced  a  resemblance  to  the  Mosaical  institutions.  In  the  accounts 
of  the  deities  of  the  Pagans,  and  the  early  heroes  and  benefactors  ot 
mankind,  particularly  in  those  which  adorn  the  pages  of  Grecian 
history*  are  represented  man^r  of  the  patriarchs  and  illustrious  per> 
eons  of  scripture.  Many  principles  of  llie  most  eminent  philoso- 
phers, many  fictions  of  the  most  celebrated  poets,  both  of  Greece 
and  Rome,  and  many  institutions  of  tlie  most  renowned  heathen  law- 
givers, cannot  fail,  by  their  circumstances  of  resemblance,  to  direct 
our  attention  to  the  great  legislator  of  tlie  Jews.  The  most  venera- 
ble and  ancient  traditions  of  the  world  seem  to  contain  the  parts  of 
one  original  and  uniform  system,  which  was  broken  by  the  disper- 
aion  of  the  primeval  families  after  the  deluge,  and  corrupted  by  the 
revolution  of  ages.  They  were  the  streams  which  flowed  through 
the  various  countries  of  the  earth,  from  the  great  source  of  Mosa^ 
kal  history.* 

•  See  StiUingfleet,  b.  iii,  c.  5 ;  Bryant's  Mythology ;  Maorice^s  India 
AntiquiUei ;  Ral^igVi  History  of  the  World,  p.  71. 

Digitized  by  CjOOQIC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  f3ft 

6.  JoflephoS)  the  Jewish  historian,  flourished  in  the  reign  of  the 
emperor  Vespasian.  He  was  a  person  of  great  learning  and  enih 
neoce,  and  conducted  his  inquiries  with  singular  diligence,  ind jstrj. 
und  care.  He  corroborates  the  testimony  of  the  sacred  writers,  and 
liUistrates  their  truth ;  as  he  not  only  gives  a  regular  detail  of  the  most 
reofiarkaMc  transactions  of  the  Jews,  but  introduces  considerable 
notices  of  all  those  people,  with  whom  they  formed  alliances,  or  car- 
liod  on  wars,  in  his  treatise  against  Apion  he  exposes  the  contra- 
i:icLions  which  occurred  in  the  Egyptian,  Chaldean,  and  Phoenician 
rei:ords;  vindicates  the  authority  of  the  Jewish  scriptures;  describes 
tJie  care  which  wiis  taken  in  Iheir  preservation ;  and  states  their 
superior  pretensions,  more  particularly  in  point  of  antiquity,  to  (he 
ruspect  ajtd  reverence  of  mankind."* 


SECTION  IV. 

THE  SUBJECTS  OF   THE  BOOKS,  AND  CHARACTERS  OF  THE 

WRITERS. 

1.  The  subjects  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament  are  truly 
wofMlerful  and  strikinsc,  and  of  such  a  nature  as  to  surpass  all  menu- 
njonlB  of  profane  learning,  equally  in  importance  as  in  antiquity. 
Of  all  parts  which  compose  the  sacred  canon,  none  are  more  curious 
thin  Grnctif,  the  first  b»>ok  written  by  IMoses ;  because  it  contains  a 
sketch  of  the  earliest  history  of  niankhid.  There  stand  recorded 
tii<»  creation  of  the  world  and  its  inlmbitants,  the  fall  of  our  first  pa- 
r^^nts  from  their  state  of  innocence  and  happiness,  and  their  banish- 
ment from  the  garden  of  Eden ;  the  repeated  and  signal  promises  of 
a  future  restorer  of  the  lost  blessings  of  mankind ;  the  history  of  the 
pitriarchs,  honoured  by  the  revelations  of  Jehovah;  the  description 
<*i  xhe  general  deluge  ;  the  dispei*3ion  of  the  progenitor  of  the  bu- 
rn :in  race  over  all  the  earth ;  the  adoption  ol  a  particular  family  to 
perpetuate  the  remembrance,  and  establish  the  worship  of  the  true 
Gi^U  and  their  prosperous  settlement  in  Kgypt.  Instances  indeed  are 
mentioned  of  early  depravity,  and  of  the  violence  of  the  passions, 
aS*iMled  with  suitable  punL-bments ;  yet  society  appears  under  its 
simplest  form  in  point  ot  mannei^,  and  we  discern  no  traces  of  the 
luxunr  and  false  retincment  of  subsequent  times. 

i  IQ  tlie  books  of  the  Jews  is  recorded  an  account  of  the  descen- 
dints  of  Israel :  a  race  of  men  selected  from  all  othere,  and  favoured 
with  successive  revelations  of  the  divine  will.  Here  are  shown  the 
i:i-taDces  of  tb«ur  fidelity,  perversenes<»,  and  disobedience;  iheir 
glory  and  triumphs ;  their  disgraces,  and  their  subjection  to  foreign 
iNtfvers.  Here  is  seen  the  superintendance  of  a  divine  and  especial 
rrovidcnce  watching  over  innocence,  suspending  wnith,  and  Uiking 
t^e  most  signal  vengeance  upon  unrepented  offences.  Here  ait? 
d^-i'plooed  the  failings  of  the  most  virtuous  persons,  and  the  obdurate 
wickedness  of  conHrmed  sinners.  Here  are  displayed  the  mixed 
ci^aracters  even  of  the  most  excellent  men,  the  eminent  examples  ol 
Liiih  and  pietv,  of  courage  and  patience,  in  the  conduct  oi  Abrahanu 
LjoVf  Job,  Joseph,  Moses,  David,  Hezekiah,  Josiah,  and  Daniel 

•  Kcte't  Interpreter  of  Prophecy,  vol.  i,  p.  200.    Lardner,  vol.  vU,  p, 
SO«  259,  frc. 


y  Google 


f3$  *       MODERN  HISTORir. 

And  most  interesting  is  it  to  observe,  that  the  knowledge  of  (he 
one  true  God  was  communicated  to  this  people^  and  preserred  by 
them  aione;  that  they  had  the  most  sublime  ideas  of  his  nature 
and  attributes;  that  a  magniiicent  temple  was  erected  to  his  honour; 
a  regular  service  was  instituted ;  holy  ceremonies  were  performed ; 
an  order  of  priests  uf  one  particular  family  was  consecrated ;  a  pure 
worship  was  established  by  his  express  command,  and  regulat^  by 
his  particular  laws.  Thus  were  the  Jews  enlightened  by  a  knowl- 
edge  of  the  true  object  of  divine  worship ;  and  Uius  were  the  purity 
and  holiness  of  their  religious  ordinances  conducted,  at  a  time  when 
all  other  nations  presented  a  wide  scene  of  gross  superstition  and 
mental  darkness ;  when  the  rest  of  the  human  race,  and  even  the 
most  inteliieent  and  polished  nations  of  Egypt  and  Greece,  showed 
the  most  abject  degradation  of  their  nature,  by  prostrating  them- 
selves before  idols  of  their  own  workmanship ;  and  abused  the  evi- 
dence of  sense,  and  the  faculty  of  reason,  by  imputing  to  wood  and 
atone  the  attributes  of  divine  power. 

3.  We  see  likewise  a  succession  of  prophets  raised  up  among  the 
Jews,  to  communicate  the  divine  will,  to  warn  them  of  evils,  aind  to 
announce  to  them  blessings  to  come.  These  holy  men,  ever  obedi- 
ent to  the  call  of  Heaven,  rose  superior  to  all  worldly  considerations ; 
and  with  a  spirit  of  intrepidity  and  independence,  which  cleariy 
showed  that  Heaven  was  the  source  of  their  reliance,  they  ex6Ciite<l 
their  sacred  commissions,  unawed  by  the  threats  of  kings,  or  the 
resentment  of  the  people.  They  foretold  remote  events  in  times 
when  they  appeared  mont  improbable  ever  to  take  place,  and  when 
no  human  foresighL  and  no  calculation  of  chances,  could  guide  them 
to  the  discovery  of  the  particular  afi&irs,  which  fulfilled  their  pre> 
dictions.  Moses,  in  a  long  and  most  interesting  detail  of  threats  and 
promises,  foretold  the  exact  manner  in  which  his  people  were  ordain- 
ed to  be  nappy  or  miserable,  according  as  they  followed  or  disobeyed 
the  divine  laws.  At  a  subsequent  period,  when  Jerusalem  was  laid 
in  ruins,  and  the  Jews  were  groaning  under  the  sorrows  of  the  Baby* 
lonish  captivity,  Isaiah  solenmly  addressed  Cyrus  by  his  name,  more 
than  a  hundred  years  before  his  birth,  as  the  deliverer  of  Ifunael,  and 
the  new  founder  of  the  Holy  City.*  When  Babylon  was  shining  in 
the  meridian  of  its  glory,  and  its  monarchs  ruled  over  all  the  natioa^ 
of  the  e^ist  with  the  most  despotic  sway«  the  same  prophet  predicteil 
the  total  subversion  of  their  empire,  and  the  complete  desolation  of 
their  vast  metropolis.  That  all  these  and  numerous  other  predktiooi 
were  exactly  verified  by  the  events,  are  truths  confirmed  by  the  evi- 
dence of  profane  as  well  as  sacred  history. 

4.  The  same  inspired  prophets  had  a  much  more  grand  and  inv 

Fsrtant  object  in  view,  than  to  declare  the  future  dispensations  of 
roVidence  to  one  nation  in  particular;  for  they  announced,  in  terntf 
at  first  dark  and  mysterious,  but  progressively  more  clear  and  cLr- 
curostantial,  the  future  birth  of  a  Messiah,  a  glorious  km^,  a  divine 
legislator,  who  was  to  abolish  the  sacrifices  and  religious  mstitations 
of^the  Jews,  and  to  proclaim  and  establish  a  general  law  for  the 
observance  and  happiness  of  all  mankind.  Here  the  evangelists  con- 
tribute their  aid  to  illustrate  the  declarations  of  the  prophets,  and 
unite  the  history  of  the  Old  with  that  of  the  New  Testament,  ii 
the  most  close  and  indissoluble  bonds  of  union. 

'     *  Isaiah,  B.  C.  757.  Cynia,  B.  C.  589.    Kett^s  Interpx«ter  ofPnplMcli 
v^  i,  p.  ISO. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  t99 

&  The  hiitorical  books  of  8criptiire,  considered  from  the  time  of 
the  pyiDg  of  the  law  to  Moses  to  the  refonnation  in  the  worship  and 
^veniment  by  Nehemiah,  alter  the  Babjlonisb  captivity,  contain  a 
•amsiaiTaccoant  of  the  Jewish  aiSairs  for  a  period  of  eleven  centu- 
ries.* They  were  evidently  not  intended  to  give  a  complete  detail 
of  nationai  transactions,  as  their  writers  had  a  more  sublime  and  Im- 
portant end  in  view.  To  iUustrste  the  prophecies,  by  relating  cir- 
comstances  which  existed  at  the  time  when  they  were  utterecL  and 
(o  show  their  accomplisbment ;  to  record  various  revelations  or  the 
divine  will,  and  to  describe  the  state  of  religion  amon^  the  Hebrews^ 
and  the  various  dispensations  of  Providence,  in  public  as  well  as  in 
private  occurrences,  seem  to  have  been  their  chief  objects.  Hence 
It  is  that  the  chain  of  history  is  sometimes  broken  into  detached  parts^ 
•nd  Its  detail  is  interrupted  by  a  recital  of  private  transactions.  The 
books  of  scripture  occasionally  assume  the  form,  and  comprise  the 
beauties  of  a  very  interestine  kind  of  biography.  Of  this  nature  are 
tlie  several  accounts  of  Job,  Tiuth,  and  Esther ;  but  they  are  far  from 
bekg  unconnected  with  the  principal  design  of  the  sacred  writers; 
Inasmuch  as  they  show  that  the  same  divine  Providence  which  presid- 
ed over  the  nation  at  large,  extended  its  particular  care  to  individ- 
uals, and  that  the  examples  of  private  virtue  were  inseparable  from 
the  great  interests  of  public  welfare  and  happiness. 

6.  The  Israelites,  tor  many  ages  separated  from  the  rest  of  maOp 
khid  l>y  their  peculiar  institutions^  were  little  acquainted  with  coi»> 
merce,  and  made  small  advances  in  those  arts,  which,  with  a  refine- 
ment,  and  a  diversity  of  employments,  introduce  luxury  and  corrup* 
tion  of  manners,  lliey  were  governed  by  equal  laws,  and  possessed 
nearly  equal  {)roperty.  They  admitted  no  hereditary  distinction  of 
rank,  except  in  lavour  of  the  regal  tribe  of  Judah,  and  the  saper- 
dotal  family  of  Levi.  Their  occupations  from  the  earliest  times  were 
of  the  mo«t  simple  kind,  and  consisted  in  pastomge  and  agriculture. 
To  guide  the  plough,  and  tend  the  flock,  were  employments  whiclu 
recommended  by  Ine  innocence  of  primeval  manners,  and  dignified 
by  length  of  time,  were  exercised  by  kings,  prophets,  and  generals. 
Mooes  was  called  from  feeding  his  dock,  to  conduct  the  Israelites  to 
Che  promised  land ;  Elisha  forsook  the  plough,  to  be  invested  with 
the  flttotle  of  prophecy ;  and  Gideon  left  the  threshing-floor,  to  lead 
the  amy  of  his  countir  to  battle. 

7.  The  country  of  Judea  presented  a  scene  diversified  by  fruit- 
(bl  TBlUes,  barren  rocks,  and  lofW  mountains,  and  was  watered  by 
Dumerous  streams.  It  produced  the  palm-tree,  the  balsam,  the  vine, 
Che  olive,  the  fig,  and  all  the  fruits  which  abound  in  the  more  tem- 
pente  regions  ot  Asia.  From  the  kbours  of  the  fiekl,  and  from  cul- 
CiTating  the  vine,  the  attention  of  the  Israelites  was  regularly  called 
by  rehgious  worship,  which  was  Intimately  blended  with  the  civil 
ooQBtitution  of  the  state.  The  splendour  of  their  publk  servicer  the 
pomp  and  magnificence  of  their  rites  and  ceremonies,  the  stated  re> 
corrence  of  their  various  festivals  and  sacrifices,  the  sabbath,  the 
pflssover,  the  celebration  of*  the  sabbatical  year,  and  the  jubilee ;  and. 
more  than  alL  the  constant  experience  of  divine  faiterpositioii,  filled 
tfieir  mkids  with  the  most  awful  and  grand  ideas,  and  gave  them  the 
^feraesl  hnpressioDS  of  the  migesty,  power,  goodness,  and  justice  el 

B.C.  1^1.    Kthflnlsk,  & C. 646.    Gny'iKajtolhaCI* 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


138  JEWISH  HISTORY 

8.  These  were  the  circumstances  which,  combiniog  to  form  thetr 
national  manner?,  had  the  greatest  influence  upon  their  writioga. 
The  historical  style  is  marked  by  the  purest  simplicity  of  ideas,  oc 
casionally  raised  to  a  tone  of  elevation.  In  the  works  of  Moses  tbere 
is  a  majesty  of  thought,  which  is  most  strikingly  expressed  in  plain 
and  energetic  language.  In  the  prophetical  writings  the  igreatest 
splendour  and  sublimity  of  composition  are  conspicuous.  They  are 
enriched  bjr  tliose  glowing  images,  and  raised  uy  that  erandeur  oi 
diction,  which  charm  the  classical  reader  in  the  most  admired  pro- 
ductions of  Greece  and  Rome.  The  royal  psiilmist  is  eloquent,  dig- 
niBed,  and  pathetic.  All  the  beauties  ot  composition  unite  in  IsiiiatiH 
•uch  is  the  majesty  of  his  ideas,  the  propriety,  beauty,  and  fertility 
of  his  imagery,  and  the  elegance  of  his  language,  employed  upon  thu 
noblest  subjects  which  could  possibly  engage  our  attention.  Jere- 
miah excels  in  those  expressions  of  tenderness,  which  excite,  wiUi 
the  most  pleasing  enthusiasm,  the  feelings  of  compassion. 

9.  By  such  peculiar  beauties  of  composition  are  recommended 
the  most  interesting  details  of  events,  and  the  most  faithful  deline- 
ations of  characters.  The  great  Creator  calls  ail  things  into  ex- 
istence with  his  omnipotent  word.  The  first  parents  of  mankindt 
innocent  and  happy,  are  blessed  with  his  immediate  converse,  and 
eiyoy  the  blooming  groves  of  Paradise.  Joseph,  the  pious,  the 
chaste,  and  the  wise,  ader  having  undergone  great  atllictions,  and 
rising  oy  his  extraordinary  merit  to  an  olhce  of  the  highest  honour 
in  the  court  of  Pharaoh,  discovers  himself  in  a  manner  the  most 
pathetic  to  his  repentant  brethren,  and  is  restored  to  bis  ageo  and 
affectionate  father,  whom  he  invites  into  Egypt  to  share  his  pro^ 
perity.  The  children  of  Israel,  guided  by  the  divine  Power,  which 
veils  its  glory  in  a  cloud,  jxiss  saiely  through  the  Red  Sea,  in  which 
the  host  of  the  impUjus  Pharaoh  are  overwhelmed.  Upon  the  sunv 
init  of  Mount  Sinai  Moses  receives  the  two  tables  of  the  comnianil 
ments,  amid  the  thunder,  lightning,  clouds,  and  darkncs.s,  witich 
obscure  the  great  Jehovah  from  his  eyes.  The  royal  psalm^t  sioj^ 
the  wonders  of  creation,  the  powers  of  his  God,  and  his  own  de- 
feats and  triumphs.  The  peaceful  and  prosperous  Solomon,  whose 
renown  was  extended  over  all  the  east,  rears  the  structure  of  tho 
magnificent  temple;  and  amid  the  multitudes  of  his  adoring  sut»- 
jects  consecrates  it  to  the  service  of  the  one  true  God,  in  a  prayer 
which  eaually  attests  his  wisdom  and  his  piety.  In  the  visions  of 
futurity  Isaian  beholds  the  deliverance  of  the  chosen  people;  the 
complete  destruction  of  the  great  empire  of  Babylon,  by  which 
they  were  enslaved;  and  the  promised  Messiah,  the  Saviour  oi 
mankind^  sometimes  depressed  by  want  and  sorrow,  and  sometimes 
(Urayed  m  the  emblems  of  divine  majesty  and  power.  He  predicts 
the  hnal  recal  of  the  Jews  to  their  native  land,  and  the  wide  difTiv 
fion  of  the  christian  faith.  Jeremiah  sinks  a  weeping  mourner  over 
the  ruins  of  his  native  city,  deplores  its  calamities,  and  consoles  his 
countrymen  by  expressly  declaring,  that  they  should  never  cease 
to  be  a  nation  to  the  end  of  the  world.  Daniel  explains  to  Bel- 
shazzar  the  mystic  characters  inscribed  upon  the  walls  of  his  palace^ 
and  views,  in  his  wide  prospect  of  future  times,  the  fates  of  the  four 
great  empires  of  the  world.  C^rus,  long  before  announced  by 
Isaiah,  as  the  great  subverter  of  the  Babylonish  empire,  and  the 
restorer  of  the  glory  of  Jerusalem,  publishes  his  decree  for  thi 
restoration  of  the  captive  Jews ;  and  the  holy  cit^  and  tempU 
rite  from  their  ruins  with  new  grandeur  and  magnificence.    Th* 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


JEWISH  HISTORY.  299 

iewB  are  settled  and  reformed  by  the  pious  care  of  Nehemiah,  and 
the  canoQ  of  the  scriptures  is  closed  oy  Malachi.  This  last  of  the 
prophets  enjoins  the  strict  observance  of  the  law  of  Moses,  tiU  the 
rreat  Precursor  should  appear,  in  the  spirit  of  Elias,  to  announce 
aie  approach  of  the  Messiah,  who  was  to  establish  a  new  and  an 
everlastinc  covenant* 

10.  Such  are  a  few  of  the  interesting  circumstances  contained  In 
the  books  of  the  Did  Testament,  which  engage  our  attention,  charm 
our  imagination,  and  gratify  our  curiosity,  while  they  confirm  our 
belief  in  the  great  evidences  of  revelation.  In  all  these  works 
we  may  remark  the  bright  truths  of  religious  instruction,  shining 
forth  amid  the  venerable  simplicity  of  the  most  ancient  history ;  a 
history  unrivalled  for  the  grandeur  of  the  ideas  which  it  conveys 
ti>e  livelinesa  of  its  descriptions,  and  the  number  of  its  beautiful  and 
•ablime  images. 

11.  In  these  books  of  sacred  history  there  Is  an  impartiaHhf  of 
tianatlve,  which  is  an  undoubted  characteristic  of  truth.  If  we 
read  the  Lives  of  Plutarch,  or  the  History  of  Livy,  we  soon  dis- 
cover that  these  writers  composed  their  works  under  the  influence 
of  many  prejudices  in  favour  of  their  respectives  countries.  A  veil 
L4  thrown  over  tlie  delects  of  their  heroes,  but  their  virtues  are 
pliced  in  a  strong  light,  and  painted  in  vivid  colours.  In  the  scrip- 
tares,  OD  the  contrary,  both  of  the  Old  and  the  New  Testament,  the 
•trictest  Impartiality  prevails.  The  vices  of  David,  Solomon,  and 
tiieir  successors,  are  neither  concealed  nor  palliated.  There  is  no 
c^tentation  of  vanity,  no  parade  of  panegyric ;  virtue  charms  with 
I.t.T  native  l»eauty,  and  vice  requires  no  disguise  to  conceal  her  de- 
i*  rmily.  The  cnaracters  of  persons  are  sketched,  and  the  effects  of 
'i.^:  p;u:9ions  are  re preeenteci  without  reserve  or  conccaJment ;  and 
r>'.*  moral  to  be  drawn  from  each  description  is  so  obvious,  as  to  ao- 
c  Mint  for  the  frequent  omission  of  rcnuirks  and  applications.  The 
3t>ject  condition  of  the  Jews,  when  prohibited  the  use  of  weapons  of 
\Tttr  by  \he  victorious  Philistines:  their  relapses  into  idolatry^  their 
ptf  i-veneoess  of  disposition,  and  tneir  various  defeats  and  captivitieoi 
Hitli  every  circumsUuice  of  private  as  well  as  public  disgrace,  are 
n  corded  without  palliation  or. reserve.  Always  rising  superior  to 
the  motives  which  induce  other  authors  to  violate  tlie  purity  and  d^ 
(Hide  the  ma^sty  of  truth,  these  writers  keep  one  great  and  most 
important  end  constantly  in  view,  and  show  the  various  methods  by 
which  the  providence  of  God  effected  his  gracious  designs;  how  he 
urodoci^  good  from  evil,  and  employed  the  sins  and  follies  of  maD- 
kind  as  the  instruments  of  his  gracious  purposes 

12.  Ad  acquaintance  with  the  afi^rs  of  the  Jewbh  nation  fonni 
tfic  6isl  link  m  the  chain  of  ancient  records.  Thus  we  may  observe 
the  cocmexion  which  subsists  between  the  branches  of  sacred  and 
profime  history.  We  place  the  worics  of  pagan  writers  in  their 
proper  situation,  and  give  them  additional  value,  bT  making  them 
tiibeervient  to  the  cause  of  religion,  and  instrumental  in  the  illustra* 
Uf^Q  of  revealed  truth.  If  the  student  is  not  called  upon  by  profe^ 
tA  joal  iedacements  to  read  the  scriptures  in  their  original  languagesi 
be  may  rest  contented  with  translations;  and  it  seems  to  be  a  welW 

*  For  tbcte  very  imprcnive  pasaget  of  the  Bible,  see  Gen.  i,  U,  zHv 
&lv ;  Exo(U  sir,  jlx  ;  the  Pialms ;  1  Kings  viii ;  laaiah  ii,  ri,  is,  s,  xi,  ziv 
is,  xxzit,  zl,  xliii,  Iz,  Izi,  Iziii,  Izv,  and  more  particularly  lui ;  Im 
L  i,  &C. ;  Daniel  v,  vii ;  £m  vU  i  Nehea.  ziii ;  Malachi  iil,  it. 

.      Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


Ud  JEWISH  HISlX)Ry. 

fbiioded  opinioD  amoDf^  the  learned,  that  he  may  rely  wlflicoifidenoe 
jtpaa  the  general  fidelity  of  our  Eugliah  version. 

SEcnosr  v. 

OF  THE  ANTEDILUVIAN  WORLD. 

1.  Ak  authentic  acconnt  of  the  creation  of  the  world,  and  of  tho 
primitive  state  of  manlcind  is  to  be  found  only  in  the  bible.  There 
we  are  informed  by  Moses,  the  most  ancient  of  all  historians,  that  in 
0ie  beginning  God  created  the  earth,  the  celestial  bodies,  and  »l( 
things  both  animate  and  inanimate ;  that  he  created  one  man  and  one 
woman,  named  Adam  and  Eve,  and  placed  them  in  a  garden  or  pani- 
^dlse,  situated  in  the  land  of  Eden.  According  to  the  best  chronoic^ 
gers  the  creation  of  the  world  was  accomplished  in  the  year  4,0()4 
A.  C.  Adam  and  Eve  soon  transgressed  the  commands  of  God,  and 
were  therefore  expelled  from  their  delightful  abode. 

2.  Adam  and  Eve  had  two  sons,  whose  names  were  Cain  and  Ahp  I. 
Cain,  the  elder,  was  a  husbandman,  and  Abel  was  a  shepherd.  Cain 
was  of  a  vicious,  Abel  of  a  virtuous  disposition.  Hence  tiie  worship 
of  Abel  was  more  acceptable  to  the  Lord  than  that  of  Cain.  Insti- 
gated by  envy  and  malice,  Cain  killed  his  brother  when  they  were 
together  in  the  field.  For  this  atrocious  crime  he  was  severely  piir>' 
Ished  by  the  Lord,  and  became  ^  a  fugitive  and  a  vagabond  upon  tiie 
earth." 

3.  After  the  murder  of  Abel,  another  son,  named  Seth,  was  bom 
to  AdanL  From  this  time  the  descendants  of  Adam  multiplied  rapiJ- 
ly,  and  at  length  spread  over  the  face  of  the  earth. 

4.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  circumstances  of  the  former  wo?!.  J 
Is  the  longevity  of  the  people.  Adam  lived  930  years,  Seth  ^li 
years.  Jared  962  years,  Metnuselah  969  years,  Noah  950  years. 

.  5.  in  process  of  time  mankind  became  so  wicked  that  the  Ix^rd 
was  resolved  to  destroy  them  by  a  deluge.  Amid  the  general  cc^i^ 
tuption  and  depravity  of  the  human  race  one  virtnous  man  was  found. 
Noah,  the  son  of  Lamech,  zealous  ibr  the  reformation  of  men,  be- 
came a  preacher  of  righteousness  to  the  degenerate  and  vicious 
people  among  whom  he  lived,  and  employed  both  his  council  and  nu- 
thority  to  reclaim  them ;  but  in  vain.  And  God  commanded  Noah  to 
build  a  great  ship,  called  an  ark^  and  to  put  in  it  his  wife,  his  three 
sons  and  their  wives,  and  also  a  few  males  and  females  of  every  spty 
cies  of  living  thines,  that  they  might  be  saved  from  the  general  deU 
Qge  which  wouM  shortly  overwhelm  the  whole  earth,  and  extirpate 
ofl  creatures.  The  flood  continued  150  days,  and  then  gradually  sub- 
flided.  Noah  and  his  family,  and  all  the  animals,  went  out  of  the 
ark  (2,343  A.  C.) ;  and  in  process  of  time  they  multiplied  and  spread 
over  the  surface  of  the  earth,  as  we  now  see  them. 

€.  Of  the  literary  and  scientific  attainments  of  the  antedHovians 
we  know  very  little.  From  the  Mosaic  account  they  do  not  appear 
to  have  been  great  Moses  has  briefly  informed  us  what  was  tlie 
origin  of  various  customs  and  arts,  and  ha^  recorded  the  names  o/ 
thetr  inventon.  Lamech  ihe  son  of  Cain  gave  the  first  example  of 
polygamy.  Cain  built  the  first  city,  and  introduced  the  use  d 
weights  and  measures.  One  of  Cain^s  grandsons  ^^  was  the  fatber  <f 
>tich  as  dwell  in  tents,  and  of  such  as  have  cattle.^  Jubol  invcDlni 
moslc;  Tubal  Cain  the  arU  of  forging  iron,  and  of  casting  broB; 
and  a  womaa  called  Naamah  the  arts  oi*  apioiUDg  and  waaviic 

Digitized  by,V^OOQlC 


JEWISH  HISTORY.  Ml 

VmrnS^  s  litet  were  few  and  sinple.    They  wcmhipped  God 
by  pn^er,  and  sacrifices  of  certain  animals. 


SECTION  VL 

FIRST  AGES  AFTER  THE  DELUGE. 

1.  I'm  remembrance  of  the  three  sons  of  Noah,  the  first  foun- 
ders of  the  nations  of  the  earth  afler  the  deluee,  has  been  preserved 
imoDg  the  several  nations  descended  from  them.  Japhet  peopled 
the  isieater  part  of  the  west,  sad  continued  Iod^  iamous  under  the 
name  of  Japetns.  Ham  was  reverenced  as  a  deity  by  the  Egyptians, 
under  the  title  of  Jupiter  Hammon.  The  memory  of  Shem  has 
aiwavs  been  venerated  by  his  descendants,  the  Hebrews,  who  de- 
rived their  name  from  bis  son  Heber. 

iL  Except  the  building  of  the  tower  of  Babel  no  event  of  impor> 
tmce  occurs  in  the  history  of  Moses  during  the  space  of  nearly 
1,100  years  from  the  deluge  to  the  call  of  Abraham.  About  100 
yean  ailer  the  deluge  the  descendants  of  Noah  were  become  nu- 
merous at  the  foot  of  Mount  Ararat,  and  in  the  plain  of  Shinaaiv  ex- 
teoding  along  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates  and  tlie  Tigris.  They 
found  Biat  the  country  was  not  extensive  enough  to  contain  them 
much  iooger,  and  therefore  that  they  must  separate.  They  agreed 
to  build  a  very  high  tower,  which  might  be  a  signal  of  union,  if  they 
-houU  ever  desire  to  return  to  their  native  country.  When  tney  had 
raised  the  tower  to  a  certain  height,  the  workmen  suddenly  perceiv- 
ed that  they  did  not  understand  tiie  words  of  one  another,  and  that 
ill  spoke  oiflferent  languages.  Consequently  it  was  impossible  to 
i  oDtinae  the  work,  and  the  people  dispersed  in  different  directions. 
iit^Dce  the  origin  of  different  languages,  and  the  dispersion  of  the 
Tiuman  race  over  the  habitable  globe. 

3.  Sooo  afler  this  memorable  event,  Nimrod,  a  violent  and  impe- 
rious man,  built  the  city  of  Babel,  or  Babylon,  and  laid  the  founda- 
i«m  of  the  first  great  empire,  caUed  the  Babylonian,  which  was 
oiterwBnb  so  iamous  in  the  history  of  the  Jews. 

SECTION  VII. 

OF  THE  JEWS. 

I .  The  Jews  derived  their  origm  from  Abrahanu  the  son  of  Terah, 

h«>  tendi  in  lineal  descent  from  Shem  the  son  of  Noah.    The  de- 

-^  eodants  of  Shem  spread  from  Armenia,  where  the  ark  is  supposed 

*  *  liave  rested  afler  the  deluge,  to  Mesonotamia^  and  thence  into 

'  li^dea,  where  Abraham  was  bom.    As  Abraham  was  appointed  to 

v-  \he  progenitor  of  a  great  and  distinguished  nation,  God  separated 

im  from  the  other  descendants  of  Shem,  by  causing  Tenth  to  re- 

'  "Te  fitom  Chaldea  into  the  country  of  Haram,  near  the  borders  of 

M'«opota0ia,  where  he  died.   Ahranam  Intended  to  settle  in  Haram: 

r  at  in  obedience  to  the  will  of  God,  he  removed  into  the  land  of 

I  *anaaDj  which  was  appointed  to  be  the  inheritance  of  his  posterity. 

Krvmtnis  period  comraences  a  kmg  series  of  events,  which  are  re- 

rorded  in  Che  book  of  GeneaiSy  and  are  represented  as  immediately 

alrectod  by  the  LonL 

^  After  Abiaham  arrived  Id  Caono,l^fint  care  was  to  erect  an 

^^  31 


yGoogk 


J42  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

altar  for  the  worship  of  God,  who  appeared  to  him,  and  confinned 
iie  promise  which  ne  had  before  made  to  him,  to  give  the  country 
to  his  children.  When  he  had  lived  some  time  in  Canaan,  a  fam- 
ine compelled  him  to  remove  his  SamHj  into  Effypt,  (1,916  A.  C.^ 
where  he  resided  till  the  femine  ceased,  and  wen  returned.  His 
wife  Sarah,  when  she  was  advanced  in  years,  brought  him  a  6oa» 
who  was  called  Isaac.  When  Isaac  grew  to  man's  estate  he  married 
Rebecca,  who  was  afterward  the  mother  of  Jacob.  In  process  of 
time  Jacob  had  ten  son&  who  were  the  fathers  often  tribes.  By  thfi 
command  of  the  Lord.  Jacob  took  the  name  of  Israel,  and  hence  his 
posterity  were  called  Israelites,  or  the  children  of  Israel. 

3.  Joseph,  the  ninth  son,  was  the  favourite  of  his  father,  which 
excited  the  jealousy  and  hatred  of  his  elder  brothers,  who  sold  him 
to  some  merchants,  and  told  Jacob  that  he  had  been  devoured  by 
wild  beasts.  The  merchants  carried  their  slave  into  Egypt,  and 
sold  him  to  Potiphar,  an  ofhcer  of  king  Pharaoh^s  guard,  1,724  A. 
C.  Joseph  served  Potiphar  witli  such  diligeDce  and  tidelity,  that  hs 
soon  committed  to  him  the  care  of  his  domestic  affairs. 

The  wife  of  Potiphar  repeatedly  attempted  to  seduce  Joseph  into 
the  gratification  of  ner  amorous  propensities ;  but  her  immodest  ad- 
vances being  rejected  with  disdain,  she  was  incensed,  and  mahcious- 
ly  accused  him  of  an  attempt  to  violate  her  chastity.  On  this  tais« 
accusation  he  was  immediately  thro^vn  into  prison,  but  was  soon 
liberated  by  the  king.  Such  is,  in  all  ages  and  in  all  countries,  the 
vindictive  disposition  of  a  lascivioos  woman,  whose  allurements  tiav« 
been  neglected  or  resisted.  The  disappointed  wanton  prosecutes, 
with  everlasting  enmity^  the  innocent  object  of  her  carnal  desires ! 

4.  Joseph,  being  skilful  in  the  interpretation  of  dreams,  was  intro- 
duced to  Pharaoh  Icing  of  Egypt,  who  was  perplexed  by  two  dreams 
which  he  could  not  explain.  Joseph  interpreted  his  dreams,  which 
predicted  abundant  products  of  the  earth  for  seven  years,  and  after- 
ward a  dreadful  famine  for  seven  years.  He  was  released  from  prU 
on,  and  appointed  to  conduct  the  affairs  of  Egypt  under  Pharaoh. 

5.  In  consequence  of  the  famine  with  which  Canaan  was  afflkted 
fas  it  had  been  foretold),  Jacob  and  his  family  removed  into  Egypt, 
1 ,702  A.  C.  Joseph  assigned  them  a  residence  in  the  land  of  Goshen, 
a  fertile  country  nt  for  pasturage,  situated  between  the  Nile  and  the 
Red  Sea.  In  this  happy  country  the  descendants  of  Jacob  Increased 
and  flourished,  and  became  so  numerous  and  prosperous  that  at 
leo^h  the  envy  and  fears  of  the  Egyptians  began  to  be  excited 
against  them.  To  check  their  prosperity  rigorous  measures  were 
pursued  by  the  rulers  of  Egypt.  Their  lives  were  imbittered  by 
nard  service,  and  all  theu*  male  children  were  ordered  to  be  drowned 
at  their  birth. 

6.  Till  the  time  of  their  residence  id  the  land  of  Goshen,  the  He* 
brews  had  led  a  pastoral  life,  and  had  not  been  sufcgect  to  any  reguht 
form  of  government  Children  were  obedient  to  their  parents,  and 
servants  to  their  masters.  Helieion  appeared  in  its  most  simple  and 
anuabie  form.  One  God,  the  Creator  and  Governor  of  the  woild« 
was  worshipped  without  hnages,  and  without  an  establisbed  priest* 
bood.  Equal  puritv  in  &ith  and  worship,  in  princljrfe  and  practice 
prevailed  amons  the  people.  But  in  proportion  as  wealth  uA 
kixury  incrtaseo,  the  religion  of  the  Hebrews  became  more  sensuiL 
like  all  eastern  nations  they  were  prone  to  the  worship  of  the  he#  - 
enly  bodies.  Priestcraft  employed  imakes,  and  the  deuisive  aitifipe« 
«f  Mfperstitioa  to  attract  the  devotioii  of  the  people. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


J£WISH  HISTORT.  U5 

*.  Tlie  history  of  the  Hebrews,  during  the  patrifirchal  ages,  is 
related  in  the  first  book  of  Mcses,  with  simplicity,  minutehesn,  and 
apoarent  fidelity.  There  we  read  a  description  of  ancient  customs 
and  maDoers  in  the  lives  of  the  natriarchs,  Abraham*  Isaac*  and 
Jacob.  The  story  of  Joseph  ana  his  brethren  has  Seen  alwa^ 
attfanired  for  the  simplicity  of  the  ]angna|;e,  and  the  affectinij:  cip- 
cumstances  which  it  exhibits.  As  the  numerous  facts  and  incQents 
in  the  early  periods  of  the  history  of  the  Hebrews  are  familiar  to 
<>¥err  reader,  and  are  besides  of  little  importance  in  the  political 
annafi  of  the  nation,  it  seems  superfluous  to  enter  into  a  cietail  of 
them.  We  shall  therefore  next  present  a  compendious  view  of  th« 
history  of  the  Hebrews  from  the  period  of  their  departure  out  of 
Egypt,  1,487  A-  C. 

8.  After  much  oppre&<<ion  and  suffering,  God  raised  up  a  deliverer 
of  his  chosen  people,  who  rescued  them  from  a  state  of  cruel  servi- 
tude, and  brought  them  out  of  the  land  of  bondage.  This  deliverer 
wa<(  Mo«es,  the  most  distinguished  pei^sonnge  of  ancient  times,  bom 
1,567  ^.  C.  In  consequence  of  Pharaoh's  inhuman  decree,  Moses 
was  exposed  by  hi^^.motiier  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  and  was  found 
hy  the  ting's  daugliter,  who  compassionately  adopted  him,  and  thua 
fuvcd  his  life.  Before  their  departure  from  Egypt,  and  in  their  long 
and  tedious  journey  of  forty  ye.irs  through  the  wilderness,  many 
extraordinary  and  supomaluraf  events  are  recorded  in  the  Bible,  and 
a«cribed  to  the  miraculous  interposition  of  the  Lord  in  behalf  of  his 
people.  During  their  wanderings  in  the  desert,  they  received  from 
their  illostrious  guide,  with  many  other  signal  proofs  of  divine  favour 
a  syslem  of  religion  and  laws,  under  the  sanction  of  God. 

d.  The  Mosaic  code,  though  the  most  ancient  that  has  been  tram^ 
mitted  to  posterity,  contains  the  best  maxims  of  legislative  wisdom. 
It  ts  BO  admirable  summary  of  our  various  duties  to  God  and  man ; 
and  it  enforces  the  oiwcrvance  of  these  duties  by  the  powerful  roo* 
tires  of  gratitude,  hope,  and  fear.  It  directs  our  adoration  to  one 
God,  the  author  of  ail  blessinp;  commands  us  to  reverence  his  holy 
name ;  and  denounces  dreadtul  vengeance  against  those  who  shall 
tmnsfer  to  idols,  or  to  the  creature,  tliat  worship  which  is  due  only 
to  the  Creator.  To  prevent  the  neglect  of  those  sacred  obligations, 
it  ordains  a  Sabbath  every  week,  to  be  set  apart  for  rest,  and  for  pious 
meditation  on  the  works  and  the  beneficence  of  God.  Four  of  the 
"tatotes  of  the  Mosaic  code  comprehend  the  principles  of  universal 
jmiapradence.  1.  llwu  shalt  not  kill  2.  Thou  sfiall  not  commii  ackUr 
(try,  X  Thou  ^alt  not  steal,  4.  lliou  shalt  not  bear  false  witness. 
They  have  formed  the  basis  of  criminal  law  in  all  civilized  nations, 
and  are  essential  to  the  good  order  of  society.  They  conclude  with 
hu  admonition  against  avarice,  the  incentive  to  the  commission  of  all 
oilencesL 

10.  While  Moses  lived  in  Erypt  he  must  hare  remarked  the  bane- 
tnl  effects  of  the  abioe  of  mihmited  power  entrusted  to  priests.  He 
Miereibre  wL«ely  separated  the  sacerdotal  jurisdiction  from  the  civil. 
The  mausters  of  religion  were  not  allowed  to  interfere  In  seculai 
affairs.  Their  duties  were  confined  to  the  worship  of  God  i  and 
U»eir  civil  authority  extended  no  farther  than  to  take  cognizance  of 
nxh  ofiences  or  trespasses  as  were  immediately  connected  with  re- 
i  i^om  worship.  The  care  and  direction  of  all  secular  concerns  were 
€  ommttted  to  the  Mm^  of  the  people,  who  administered  justice  m> 
i'.er  tbe  cootrol  of  a  sqprene  magistrate,  emphatically  styled  « 
>Mb»    hi  the  Judge  was  rested  all  power  dvU  and  miUtary.    It  ap 

Digitized  by  CjOOQIC 


244  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

peaiB  however  that  the  high  priest  at  length  invaded  the  miUtaiy 
prerogative  of  the  judge. 

11.  Sensible  of  the  Ignorance  and  perverseness  of  the  peojrfe 
under  his  care,  Moses  omitted  no  precepts  nor  instroctions  which 
he  thought  might  tend  to  infonn  their  minds,  to  regulate  their  coo- 
duct,  to  correct  their  vicious  propensities,  and  to  promote  tlieir  wel- 
fare and  security.  He  prescnbed  rules  for  their  met,  for  the  preser- 
vation of  their  health,  and  for  the  treatment  and  cure  of  those 
diseases  to  which  they  were  most  liable.  Having  conducted  the 
Israelites  through  many  dangers  and  difficulties  wiuin  sight  of  the 
promised  land,  and  appoint^  Joshua  his  successor,  Moses  died  in 
1,447  A.  C. 


SECTION  vm. 

THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  HEBREWS  DURING  THE  GOVERIiMENT 
OF  THE  JUDGES. 

1.  This  period  is  extremely  turbulent  and  sanguinary;  a  period 
of  barbarism,  ignorance,  and  anarchy.  We  i^now  not  certainly  how 
the  judges  were  chosen,  nor  what  was  the  extent  of  their  power. 
They  appear  to  have  been  militarv  chiefs,  for  they  commanded 
armies,  and  some  of  them  acquired  fame  by  successful  expeditions 
against  the  enemies  of  their  country. 

2.  The  chiefs  or  rulers  of  the  Syrian  kingdoxns,  principalities,  or 
townships,  had  chosen  no  common  leader,  or  generalissimo,  nor 
digested  any  regular  plan  of  defence  against  the  Hebrews,  who  had 
been  long  hovering  on  the  frontiers  ofSyria,  and  betrayed  hostile 
intentions ;  consequently  many  of  these  pettf  states  on  both  sides 
of  the  river  Jordan  were  subdued,  and  the  inhabitants  massacn^d, 
before  any  league  was  formed  for  tlieir  mutual  defence.  At  length 
they  became  apprehensive  of  utter  destruction  from  their  fierce 
and  cruel  invadera,  and  a  general  alliance  was  concerted  among  the 
remaining  kings  and  chie»  of  the  country  between  the  Jordan  and 
the  Mediterranean  sea.  Joshua  twice  attacked  the  combined  army 
unexpectedly,  and  defeated  it  with  great  slaughter.  Most  of  tlie  in- 
habitants, except  those  who  resided  m  impregnable  cities  on  the  sea 
coast,  were  put  to  the  sword«  or  compelled  to  flee  from  tlie  ven- 

rce  of  their  enemy.  Their  possessions  were  divided  among 
tribes  of  Israel ;  and  thus  the  victorious  Hebrews  conqaered 
and  occupied  the  southern  parts  of  Svria,  called  Judea  or  Canaan, 
and  still  known  l^  the  name  of  Palestme.  Joshua  having  on  man^ 
occasiooB  received  miraculous  assistance  in  the  perilous  conquest  ot 
Canaan,  and  m  the  execution  of  the  arduous  and  important  ofnccs  of 
a  government  of  incessant  activity  and  energy,  died  in  1,439  A.  C. 
leaving  the  Israelites  in  the  quiet  enjoyment  of  the  country  which 
the  Lord  had  formerly  promised  to  ^nmam  and  his  posterity. 

3.  After  the  conquest  of  Canaan  the  Hebrews  did  not  continue 
long  to  observe  and  obey  the  institutions  of  Moses,  They  ieU  intc 
apostacy  and  confusion.  They  were  alternately  harassed  by  intestim 
commotions,  and  reduced  to  temporary  bondage  by  the  nations  whicA 
the^r  had  beibre  conquered.  When  relieved  from  the  miseries  of  a 
foreign  yoke,  they  commonly  became  subject  to  the  more  grievois 
oppreselODa  of  domestic  tyrann  •    But  in  the  various  changes  of  their 

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JEWISH  HISTORY.  245 

and  fortunes,  it  is  remarkable  that  some  of  their  gross* 
est  idoIatrieiL  and  severest  afflictions,  Imppened  when  the  civil  power 
and  the  anthoritj  of  the  priesthood  were  exercised  by  the  same 
penoQ. 

4.  After  the  death  of  Joshua  the  Israelites  were  governed  by  elders 
about  20  years.  Then  followed  an  anarchy  of  about  1 8  years,  dunog 
which  they  were  engaeed  in  many  successful  and  unsuccessful  wars, 
and  were  often  reduced  to  servitude. 

After  the  government  of  the  Hebrews  had  continued  with  little 
intermption,  about  295  yeara,  under  twelve  successive  judges,  in  the 
Ibrm  prescribed  by  Moses,  £ii,  the  hieii-priest  united  in  his  person 
those  powers  and  functions  which,  before  his  accession  to  the 
supreme  magistracy,  had  been  kept  distinct  Eli  appeals  to  have 
been  equally  mcapable  of  discharging  the  civil,  the  mmtary,  uid  the 
reUgtons  duties  of  his  high  offices.  The  people  fell  into  idolatry, 
and  were  subjugated  by  an  ancient  nation  called  the  Philistines,  m 
a  great  battle  with  the  Philistmes  the  army  of  the  Hebrews  was 
rooiked  with  dreadful  slaughter,  and  the  two  profligate  sons  of  Eli 
were  killed.  The  news  of  this  disaster  put  an  end  to  the  life  of  Eli, 
after  he  had  governed  the  Israelites  forty  vears. 

d.  The  next  and  last  radge  of  the  Hebrews  was  Samuel  the 
prophet,  1,112  A.  C.  He  brought  back  the  people  to  a  sense  of  their 
doty,  and  soon  restored  the  departed  glory  of  Israel  by  a  great  vic- 
tory over  the  Philistines.  They  now  recovered  their  liMrty,  and 
the  cities  which  had  been  taken  from  them  m  former  wars.  Samuel 
tvas  inde&tigable  in  the  administration  of  justice.  When  age  had 
rendered  him  incapable  of  executing  his  laoorious  duties,  he  united 
hi:9  two  sons  with  him  in  the  admmistration  of  the  government 
Bo(  their  evil  conduct  offended  the  people,  who  complained  to  Sam- 
net  tint  his  sons  were  not  worthy  to  succeed  him  as  judges.  They 
demanded  a  km^  to  govern  them.  Samuel  therefore  as^mbled  the 
people,  and  explained  to  them  the  extreme  danger  of  changing  their 
ancient  form  of  goveniment  to  that  of  a  monarchy  <  but  in  vain. 
They  penitiod  in  their  resolution,  and  a  man  named  Saul  was  ap- 
pofaled  the  first  king  of  the  Hebrews,  afler  the  government  by 

'es  had  subsisted,  with  some  intermission,  about  356  years,  from 
natoSanL 


SECTION  IX. 

RETROSPECT  OF  THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  HEBREWS. 

1.  Tbe  advancement  of  Saul  to  the  regal  dignity  was  the  second 
chanee  made  in  the  constitution  given  by  Moses.  The  common- 
wealtn  was  originally  a  theocracy;  and  the  people  acknowledged 
fio  other  king  mjX  God.  They  paid  respect  to  tne  priests,  as  tlie 
ciipaintendents  of  his  worship;  and  they  obeyed  the  judges,  as 
the  interpreters  of  his  laws,  and  the  delegates  of  his  power.  The 
AKcettioo  to  the  priesthood  was  fixed,  bein|;  made  hereditary  b 
Ihe  fiuwly  of  Aaron.  The  office  of  ruler,  or  judge*  being  apparent- 
K  left  to  the  appointment  of  God.  and  determinable  neither  by  the 
caiQice  of  the  people,  nor  by  lineal  aescent,  gave  access  to  disturbance, 
violence,  and  mtngue.  Moses  prevented  any  public  commotion  by 
SOHiig  and  cooaecrating  a  successor  to  himselfl 

X*  Digitized  by  V^OOgie 


f46  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

2.  After  the  death  of  Joshua  intestine  diyisions,  or  rather  a  spiifl 
of  licentiousness  and  rapine,  threw  the  nation  into  a  state  of  anarcny 
and  confusion.  As  this  disunion  and  civil  disorder  exposed  them  to 
the  invasions  of  the  adjacent  states,  military  talents  and  success  were 
regarded  as  infallible  proofs  of  divine  favour,  and  conferred  upon  any 
person  so  distinguished,  the  title  and  authority  of  judge.  Gideon 
obtained  many  signal  victories  over  the  Philistines,  the  inveterate 
enemies  of  the  Hebrews,  and  enriched  his  soldiers  with  plunder. 
Out  of  gratitude  for  his  services,  the  people  offered  to  make  him 
and  his  posterity  their  rulers.  Though  ne  declined  the  name  of 
judge,  yet  he  retained  the  power,  and  appropriated  to  himself  the 
most  valuable  part  of  the  spoils  of  his  enemies.  His  natural  son 
Abimelech  succeeded  to  the  office  of  judge  by  force  and  violence. 
Sacred  history  does  not  inform  us  how  the  next  two  judges  obtained 
their  dignit]^.  After  them  the  supreme  power  was  conunitted  to  one 
of  Gilead's  illes^itimate  issue,  on  account  of  his  valour  and  military 
talents.  Thus  the  office  of  judge  continued  to  fluctuate  till  it  was 
annexed  to  the  high  priesthood  in  the  person  of  Eli,  as  has  been  re* 
lated.  The  death  of  his  two  vicious  sons  interrupted  the  succession 
in  his  line.  The  office  was  lastly  conferred  on  bamuel,  whose  ui>- 
just  and  rapacious  sons  were  thought  unworthy  to  succeed  him.  Tbe 
})eople  having  received  no  permanent  benefits  from  the  administra- 
tion either  of  judges  or  of  priests,  resolved  to  appoint  a  king  to  covem 
them.  This  political  innovation  was  the  result  of  levity  ana  impa- 
tience rather  than  of  mature  deliberation.  It  neither  gave  stability  to 
the  new  government  nor  prevented  the  evils  of  the  old. 


SECTION  X- 
REGAL  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  HEBREWS. 

1.  The  reign  of  Saul  began  about  T,091  A.  C.  He  was  a  shep- 
herd of  lofly  stature.  The  beginning  of  his  reign  was  auspicious, 
and  distinguished  by  a  complete  victory  gained  over  the  Ammonites, 
which  made  him  popular  among  his  subjects.  But  he  incurred  the 
displeasure  of  Samuel,  the  prophet,  and  his  whole  reign  of  40  years, 
was  a  continued  scene  of  foreign  or  domestic  troubles.  Being  de- 
feated in  a  batde  with  the  Philistines  m  1,051  A.  C,  he  kiiiedliim- 
self. 

2.  Two  candidates  preferred  their  claim  to  the  vacant  throne. 
Ish-bosheth,  SauPs  son,  founded  his  pretensions  on  the  right  of  im- 
mediate descent,  and  was  supported  oy  xnony  of  the  tribci.  David, 
a  young  shepherd,  was  famous  for  killing,  with  a  stone  thrown  from 
a  sling,  a  Philistine  named  Goliath,  a  man  of  gigantic  size  and 
ftren^h.  He  had  likewise  been  privately  anouited  by  Samuel 
before  the  death  of  Saul ;  and  his  title,  as  of  divine  appointment, 
was  therefore  acknowledged  by  the  powerful  tribe  ot  Judah.  A 
civil  war  ensued^  which  lasted  above  seven  years,  and  was  terminat- 
ed by  the  assassination  of  Ish-bosheth.  All  the  tribes  now  submit- 
ted to  David,  and  the  kingdom  became  hereditary  in  his  family, 
though  the  right  of  succession  was  still  unsettled,  and  was  transfer- 
able from  one  branch  to  another  at  the  will  of  the  reigning  sover* 
^gn.  This  appears  from  Solomon^s  succession  to  the  throne  ii 
preference  to  his  elder  brother. 

3.  The  reign  of  David  is  illuslnoas  and  interesting.    He  enlarged 

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JEWISH  HISTORY.  147 

the  bonndB  of  Palestine  by  conquest,  took  Jerusalem,  which  he  made 
the  capital  of  his  dominioDS^  and  enriched  liimself  and  bis  subjects 
with  the  spoils  of  his  enemies.  He  revived  among  the  people  an 
attachment  to  religion  by  the  institution  of  solemn  ceremonies  ;  and 
he  introduced  a  taste  for  the  arts,  by  invitine  into  the  country  able 
mechanics  and  artists  for  the  completion  of  ue  grand  edifices  which 
he  erected. 

4.  The  latter  part  of  David^s  reign  was  unfortunate.  The  kiof^ 
dom  was  ravaged  by  pestilence,  famine,  and  disastrous  wars.  Hn 
mind  was  harassed  bv  domestic  misfortunes.  Some  of  his  sons  weie 
disobedient  and  wicked.  His  favourite  son  Absalom  raised  a  rebeV 
lion  with  a  de9ie;n  to  dethrone  his  father;  but  was  defeated  and  slain. 
David  caused  his  son  Solomon  to  be  crowned  in  1,01 1  A.  C,  and  died 
in  1,010  A.  C,  having  reiened  seven  years  and  a  half  over  Judah, 
and  33  years  over  all  firaeC 

6.  The  reign  of  Solomon  presents  a  splendid  view  of  the  kingdom 
of  Israel  in  the  height  of  its  prosperity,  tielicity,  and  glory,  enjoying 
all  the  blessings  oi  tranquillity  in  sucn  a  manner,  and  for  eiich  a 
length  of  lime,  as  it  never  experienced  in  any  former  or  subsequent 
period.  It  directed  the  councils  of  all  the  petty  states  between  the 
lluphrates  and  the  Mediterranean ;  and  held  the  balance  of  power 
between  the  two  great  monarchies  of  Egypt  and  Assyria.  Conv 
nierce  flourished  in  a  degree  which,  at  that  early  period  of  the  world, 
must  appear  extraordinary.  The  fleets  of  Israel,  under  the  direc- 
tjuo  of  Tyrian  mariners,  traded  to  the  land  of  Ophir,  which  some 
«»uppow  to  be  a  district  in  Ethiopia,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa 
To  this  country  they  probably  went  by  the  Red  Sea.  By  their  lu- 
crative voyages  they  augmented  the  wealth  of  the  nation,  which 
David  had  already  enriched  by  the  spoils  of  war.  But  this  agreeit- 
ble  and  prosperous  condition  did  not  continue  lon^.  Solomon,  elated 
by  uniform  prosperity,  set  no  bounds  to  his  magniticence  and  luxury ; 
and  laid  heavy  taxes  on  the  people  to  enable  him  to  support  his  pro* 
tu^  expenditure.  These  burdensome  imposts  created  disaflection 
in  the  minds  of  his  subjects,  and  toward  the  end  of  his  reign  gave 
f  t*e  to  a  powerful  faction,  at  the  head  of  which  was  a  haughty  and 
impetnoos  young  man  called  Jeroboam. 

H.  The  most  remarkable  event  in  the  reign  of  Solomon  is  the 
buikiing  of  a  magnificent  temple  at  Jerusalem,  which  was  completed 
in  about  seven  years.  The  plan  had  been  formed  by  David,  and 
materials,  workmen,  and  money,  provided  for  its  execution.  This 
was  probably  the  most  superb  and  costly  fabric  that  has  been  erected 
in  ancient  times. 

Tlie  wisdom  of  Solomon  is  proverbial.  The  books  of  Proverl* 
and  Ecciesiastes  are  ascribed  to  him,  either  as  the  author  or  col* 
k^or;  and  al>ound  with  precepts  and  maxims  that  are  applicable  to 
every  condition  of  life.  But  notwithstanding  the  superior  knowl- 
edge for  which  Solomon  was  so  justly  celebrated,  he  appears  to  have 
hi!eo  immersed  in  sensual  pleasures.  He  had  700  wives  of  diflerent 
countries  and  religions,  beside  300  concubines !  The  allurements  of 
those  Toluptuous  women  led  him  into  effeminacy,  and  the  excess- 
ive indulgence  of  the  animal  passions,  and  into  tne  neglect  of  hia 
important  duties  to  God  and  his  people :  and  their  influence  and  sor 
perstitions  at  len^  drew  him  into  idolatry.  This  illustrious  and 
reoowned  monarcn  reigned  40  years,  and  died  in  971  A.  C,  without 
Jeavbe  any  memorial  of  his  sower. 

7«  With  SolomoD  expired  the  grandeur  and  the  tranquillity  of  the 

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t48  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

Hebrews.  Upon  the  accession  of  his  son  Rehoboam  to  the  throLc 
the  faction  of  Jeroboam  brolce  out  into  open  rebellion,  and  tenninat- 
ed  in  ^e  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes  from  their  allegiance  to  the  house 
of  Dayid.  The  tribes  of  Judah  acd  Benjamin  continued  loyal  to 
their  lawful  sovereign.  The  revolced  tribes  elected  Jeroboam  for 
their  kin^,  and  the  monarchy  was  split  into  the  two  separate  king- 
doms of  Israel  and  Judah,  971  A.  C. 

8.  The  policy  of  Jeroboam  produced  a  religious  as  well  as  a  po- 
litical separation.  While  the  kmgs  of  Judah  held  the  temple  where 
the  sacriiices  were  offered,  and  wnither  all  the  people  were  obliged 
to  resort  at  stated  times,  they  would  always  nave  an  ascendancy 
over  the  kingdom  of  Israel.  Jeroboam  therefore  thought  it  neceb- 
sary  to  adopt  some  measures  to  prevent  the  frequent  visits  o£  hh 
subjects  to  Jerusalem,  the  metropolis  of  the  kjn£dom  of  Judah. 
The  priests,  the  Levites,  and  all  who  were  concernea  in  the  ministry 
of  religion,  were  firmly  attached  to  the  house  of  David ;  and  Jero- 
boam supposed  that  they  would  naturally  exert  the  influence  which 
religion  gave  them  over  the  minds  of  the  people*  to  alienate  their 
affection  from  his  governments  and  to  bring  them  back  to  their  alle- 
giance to  their  lawful  sovereien.  To  prevent  the  obvious  conse- 
quences of  the  continuance  of  his  subjects  in  religious  communion 
with  the  house  of  David  and  kingdom  of  Judah,  Jeroboam  sacrificed 
the  interest  of  religion  to  his  political  motives.  He  built  a  new 
temple,  and  instituted  a  new  priesthood ;  and  thus  produced  a  new 
schism  among  the  followers  of  the  Mosaical  laws,  which  was  never 
extinguished.  Soon  after  this  separation,  the  religion  of  the  ten 
tribes  under  Jeroboam,  deviating  more  and  more  from  the  original 
institutions  of  Moses,  became  a  mixture  of  Judaism  and  Pagan  idol- 
atry. 

9.  After  this  memorable  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  Israelites  we 
find  little  more  in  their  annals  than  such  transactions  and  events  as 
constitute  the  ordinary  subjects  of  political  records.  The  kingdom 
of  Judah  adhered  with  inflexible  attachment  to  princes  of  the  house 
of  David ;  but  usurpations  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel  were  comnxwi. 
The  history  of  the  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah  during  a  period  of 
almost  400  years,  till  the  burning  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, may,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  intervals,  be  called  the  an- 
nals of  aisunion,  vice,  wars,  massacres,  servitude,  fiunine,  and  pesti- 
lence. In  this  long  period  of  general  wickedness  and  misery,  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  events  is  a  great  battle  fougbt  between 
Jeroboam  and  Abijam  the  successor  of  Rehoboam.  'uie  armj  of 
the  former  consisted  of  eight  hundred  thousand  men,  that  of  the 
latter  of  four  hundred  thousand.  Jeroboam  was  defeated,  and  five 
hundred  thousand  of  his  men  were  killed  in  the  battle.*  . 

10.  At  last  the  kingdom  of  the  ten  tribes  was  extinguished.  The 
people  were  transported  into  Assyria,  and  dispersed  into  difierent 
parts  of  the  country,  whence  they  never  returned.  The  common 
people  who  were  lefl  in  Canaan  were  intermixed  with  strangers  ; 
and  from  that  mixture  of  different  nations  spruDjg  the  motley  race« 
which  were  afterward  known  by  the  name  oflSamaritans.  The 
sad  catastrophe  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel  is  described  by  the  proph- 
ets in  very  pathetic  terms.  The  infants  and  pregnant  women  were 
murdered  with  horrid  barbaritv.  The  men,  who  nad  not  been  slain 
m  battle,  nor  had  not  escaped  by  flight,  were  dragged  into  bondage 

^  The  limits  of  thii  work  do  not  admit  a  partkolar  history  of  the  g«ci^ 
tally  uniataresting  reigns  from  thif  period  to  the  Babylooisb  captivity^ 

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JEWISH  HISTORY.  «49 

tai  (Mr  coootry  was  divided  amoos  the  cdomes  of  the  conqoeron. 
This  event  happened  about  720  A.  C^  after  the  kingdom  had  sub- 
wted  about  254  yean. 

1 1.  The  tottering  kiDgdom  of  Judah  still  continued  to  enjoy  a 
precaiioua  existence ;  in^ed  at  different  times  by  the  Babylonians, 
rendered  tributary,  and  finally  subjugated ;  its  metropolis  and  temple 
razed  to  their  foundations  by  that  mighty  conqueror  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, 584  A.  C. ;  and  all  the  principal  peisons,  and  the  must  skilful 
artists  of  every  kind,  removed  to  Babylon.  Thus  ends  the  kingdom 
of  Judea.  after  it  had  subsisted  468  years  from  the  beginning  oT  the 
reign  of  David,  and  388  years  from  the  separation  ot  Judah  and  the 
tea  tribes. 


SECTION  XI. 

RESTORATION    OF    THE   JEWS   TO    THEIR    LIBERTY   AND 
COUNTRY. 

1.  The  privation  of  liberty,  and  ^e  miseries  of  bondage  seem  to 
have  brought  the  people  of  Israel  and  Judah  to  a  sense  of  their  past 
traosgressions.  Unable  to  resist  the  power  of  man,  they  now  placed 
their  sole  confidence  in  the  coodness  and  mercv  of  God.  Neither 
promiaes  nor  threats  could  induce  them  to  abandon  their  duty,  and 
wonhiD  the  idols  of  the  heathens. 

2.  After  they  had  been  in  captivity  70-years,  Cyrus,  kine  of  Persia. 
nnTiDg  conquered  Babylon,  set  them  at  fiberty,  and  issued  a  decree. 
by  which  they  were  permitted  to  retun>  to  their  own  country,  and 
to  rebaild  Jerusalem  and  the  temple,  543  A.  C.  He  restored  to 
them  all  the  sacred  utensils  which  Nebuchadnezzar  had  taken  away 
irom  the  temple.  He  laid  down  a  plan  of  the  new  temple,  and 
ordered  that  the  expense  of  erecting  it  should  be  paid  out  of  the 
royal  treasury.  All  who  desired  it  were  allowed  to  remain  in  their 
preaeol  places  of  reskleDce,  and  to  contribute  as  much  as  they  pleas- 
ed to  the  holy  edifice. 

It  nay  be  proper  to  observe  to  this  place,  that  the  Israelites  who 
returned  from  the  captivity  of  Babylon  were  tlien  and  ever  after- 
ward called  Jews^  because  the  tribe  of  Judah  was  the  most  power- 
I'al  of  ail  the  tribes  of  Israel,  and  indeed  almost  the  only  one  which 
was  considerable  after  their  restoration  to  their  liberty  and  country. 

3.  Many  of  the  Israelites  chose  to  remain  at  Babylon.  Those 
who  returned  to  Palestine  began  the  work  of  the  temple  with  abic- 
rity  and  vigour.  Its  pro^ss  suffered  a  temporary  obstruction 
throogh  the  intrigues  of  their  enemies,  and  the  caprice  of  Cyrus's 
immMiate  successors.  But  in  the  beginning  of  the  reirn  of  Darius. 
the  <iecree  of  Cyrus  in  favour  of  the  Jews  was  ratified,  and  many 
oevr  clauses  were  added  for  their  effectual  assistance  and  security. 
A  p«rticolar  charge  was  given  to  the  governors  of  Syria  and  Sama- 
riar  not  only  to  prevent  any  faither  obstruction  of  the  work,  but  also 
to  tbmish  supphes  out  of  the  tribute  of  those  provinces  for  carrying 
it  oo  with  cneater  expedition;  and  it  was  declared  that  all  persons 
who  flboola  8M:t  contraiy  to  these  faifltroctionft  would  be  punished  with 


4.  DarioB  coottnoed  to  maaifest  his  favour  for  the  Jews,  daring 
f}fm  reminder  of  hfai  long  leign.  Their  privileges  were  confirmed 
to  flaem  by  hit  ion  Xenaa.    Their  faiterest  was  still  greater  with 

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f60  JEWISH  fflSTORY. 

Artuerzes,  the  Ahasuenis  of  scripture,  through  the  inflaence  of  hh 
crUeen  Esther)  a  Jewess,  and  also  through  the  services  of  her  imck 
Mordecai,  who  had  discovered  and  frustrated  a  conspiracy  afaiost  th« 
king^s  life.  From  Artaxerxes,  Ezra  obtained  very  liberal  doDatioDS. 
to  be  applied  to  the  service  of  the  temple ;  and  full  powers  to  gov^ 
cam  the  Jews  as  the  divine  will  should  mrect  The  like  commission 
was  also  granted  to  Nehemiah,  who  rebuilt  the  walls  of  Jerusalem, 
lOid  reformed  many  abuses  both  civil  and  religious. 

After  these  two  we  find  no  more  governors  of  Judea,  which  prob* 
ably  became  subject  to  the  governor  of  Syria,  from  whom  the  nigh- 
priests  might  immediately  derive  their  authority.  In  this  prosperous 
etaXe  were  the  Jews  about  420  years  before  the  christian  era. 

5.  From  this  time  we  may  ascribe  most  of  the  misfortunes  whicf 
befel  the  Jewish  nation  to  men  who  aipired  at  the  sacerdotal  ^figniti 
through  ambition  and  avarice  more  than  zeal  for  religion.  Fm 
whole  centuries  the  ofhce  of  high-priest  was  the  chief  object  of  men% 
ambition.  The  candidates  purchased  the  office  from  the  Syrian  gov- 
ernors, and  retained  it  by  means  of  money.  Hence  they  oppreised 
the  people  with  taxes  that  they  might  fulhl  their  pecuniary  engage- 
ments. There  was  no  energy  among  this  degraded  peoi>le,  no  mg- 
tuty  among  the  great,  no  foresight,  no  thought  of  pursuing  proper 
measures  against  foreign  invasion. 

6.  About  3^8  A.  C.  Alexander  the  great  besieged  Tyre,  and  was 
iticensed  against  the  Jews,  because  they  had  refused  to  supplvhii 
army  with  provisions  during  the  siege.  After  the  capture  ot  Tyrs 
he  marchea  to  Jerusalem  with  the  intention  of  punishwg  the  Jews 
for  their  disobedience  of  his  orders.  Jaddua  the  hi^h-priest  was 
ordered  ia  a  dream  to  meet  the  threatening  conqueror  m  his  poQti6> 
cal  robes,,  at  the  head  of  all  the  priests  in  their  proper  habits,  aod 
Intended  by  the  rest  of  the  people  dressed  in  white  garments. 
Alexander  was  struck  with  this  religious  pomp,  and  approaching 
the  high-priest  with  awful  respect,  embraced  him  with  a  reti^oos 
kind  of  veneration.  He  told  his  attendants,  who  expressed  surprise  at 
his  submissive  behaviour,  that  he  did  not  p^y  this  profound  respect  to 
the  high-priest,  but  to  the  God  whose  minister  be  was.  Alexander 
then  went  to  Jerusalem,  and  offered  sacrifice  in  the  temple  to  (fas 
God  of  the  Jews.  Upon  his  departure  he  granted  to  the  Jews  tha 
freedom  of  their  country,  laws,  and  religion,  and  exempted  them 
itom  paying  tribute  every  seventh  year.  During  his  whole  reign 
they  enjoyed  great  tranquillity ;  but  with  him  expired  the  prosperous 
fitate  of  their  country.  Judea  was  successively  invaded  and  subdued 
by  the  Syrians  and  Egyptians,  and  the  people  were  reduced  lo  boo- 
dage. 

7.  The  Jews  kept  their  sabbath  so  rigidly  that  they  would  not 
fight  on  that  day,  nor  even  defend  themselves  ahhouch  attacked  by 
an  enemy.  Ftolemj[  kin^  of  E^pt,  having  invaded  Judea,  took  ait 
vantage  of  this  religious  impediment  He  entered  Jemsalem  on  the 
sabbaTb-day  without  resistance,  and  carried  away  to  Egypt  a  huBdsed 
thousand  captives,  316  A.  C. 

After  thtu  time  the  Jews  became  tiie  victhns  of  ibreigaand  domes 
tic  wars,  and  of  horrid  massacres. 

8^  About  19.8  A-  C.  Antiochus  the  great,  king  of  Syria,  tooV 
Jerusalem,  plundered  the  temple,  sold  40.(K)0  Jews  to  the  neieb 
bouring  nations,  and^  establiahed  paeanism  throughout  Judea.  Ttt 
iacrifices  ceased,  and  there  scarcely  existed  any  external  aigns  i 
religioBU 

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JEWISH  HISTORY.  t9l 

This  peTBecntion  roased  the  resentment  and  provoked  the  tefAA- 
■Dce  oi  A  priest  named  Mattathias,  and  his  fiye  sons  sumamed  JAbc- 
cabeas.  They  all  retired  into  the  wilderness,  and  were  soon  joined 
by  a  great  nunber  of  Jews  who  wished  to  avoid  idolatry  and  reiigioos 
penecntion.  An  army  was  raised,  of  which  the  command  was  given 
to  the  eldest  son  of  Mattathias,  named  Judas  Maccabeus. 

The  deliverance  of  the  Jews  from  the  tyranny  and  oppression  of 
the  Greeks,  by  the  uncommon  talents,  bravery,  and  patriotism  of 
Judas  Maccabeus,  is  an  achievement  as  glorious  perhaps  as  any  per- 
fonned  by  the  most  illustrious  heroes  of  Greece  and  Rome.  Having 
gained  many  signal  victories,  and  delivered  his  country  from  bondage 
and  idolatry,  he  was  at  last  slain  in  battle,  157  A.  C. 

9.  The  brothers  of  Judas,  pursuing  their  advantages  with  perse- 
verance and  exertion,  estabiisned  the  independence  oT  their  country, 
and  changed  its  republican  government  to  a  vigorous  and  flourishing 
mooarchT. 

10.  John  HyrcanuB^  son  of  Simon  Maccabeus,  uniting  hi  his  person 
(he  offices  of  nigh«priest  and  generalissimo  of  the  armj,  and  possess- 
ing all  the  talents  requisite  for  the  pontifical,  the  military,  and  the 
regal  offices,  vanquished  the  enemies  of  his  countrjr,  and  firmlv  estab- 
lished his  government  His  sons  assumed  the  title  as  well  as  the 
power  d*  kmgs ;  and  the  high-prieslhood  remained  in  his  family, 
tboQgh  not  in  the  person  of  the  monarch.  The  descendants  of  Hyr- 
canos  are  dislineuished,  in  the  history  of  the  Jewish  nation,  by  the 
appeUation  of  me  Asmonuoi  dynaity^  which  continued  about  126 
yean. 

11.  The  unlucky  dissensions  of  this  family  terminated  ultimately 
in  the  conquest  of^Judea  and  the  captme  of  Jerusalem  by  Pompey 
the  great,  and  the  subjection  of  the  Jewish  nation  to  the  Romans, 
59  A.  C. 

12.  AAer  this  event  the  Jewish  monarchy  was  re-established  by 
the  fiivour  and  under  the  protection  of  the  Romans,  who  nlaced 
Herod  the  great,  the  son  of  Antipater,  on  the  throne  of  David. 
This  prince  demolished  the  old  temple  of  Jerusalem,  and  rebuilt 
it  io  a  very  magnificent  manner.  He  reigned  with  great  splendour, 
bat  with  singular  despotism  and  tyranny.  He  possessed  great  abili- 
tiea,  bat  was  cniel  and  unjust  both  in  his  public  and  private  transac- 
tions. His  public  liie  exnibits  a  continued  scene  of  battles,  massa- 
cret,  and  violence.  He  died  in  the  first  year  of  the  birth  of  Christ, 
or  the  fourth  of  the  vulgar  era. 

The  reign  of  Herod  was  distinguished  by  a  memorable  event, 
which  has  proved  more  important  in  iu  conseauences  than  any  tbal 
has  occurred  since  (he  creation  of  the  worid,  ihit  hirtkqf  Jma  Christ, 
the  mu^WT  of  the  christian  religion. 

13.  Soon  after  the  death  of  Herod,  Judea  was  m  reality  reduced 
lo  a  Roman  province,  and  the  eoveroors  were  appointed  by  the 
emperon  of  Rome.  In  this  condition  it  remained  tul  the  final  ex- 
Cioctioo  of  the  Jewish  nation  in  the  year  of  Christ  75,  or  of  the  vul- 

The  rapine  and  cruelty  ot  Florus,  governor  of  Judea^  caused  a 
rebellkm  of  the  Jews,  in  which  IbOfiSo  persona  are  said  to  have 
periibed.  69  of  Christ,  or  A.  D.  6G. 

The  vioient  and  sanguinary  Actions  amoqg  the  Jews,  destroyed  in- 
credQile  numbers  of  people  of  all  ranks. 

14.  At  length  the  Jewish  nation  was  exthiguished  by  the  Romans, 
mtA  Ijbi  iiiKtro{K»lb  reduced  to  asii^  by  Tituf  tbe  Rom^n  genet?]. 

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252  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

The  last  siege  of  Jerosalem  was  attended  with  scenes  of  canage, 
fiunine,  disease,  and  desperation^  far  more  horrible  tlian  anj  to  of 
found  in  the  annals  of  human  wickedness  and  misery.  Dunng  the 
calamitous  progress  of  the  siege,  Titus  displayed  many  instances  of 
humanity  toward  the  sufferings  of  the  besieged,  and  of  his  solicitude 
for  the  preservation  of  the  city  and  temple ;  but  in  vain.  Theh 
doom  was  predestinated  by  the  irrevocable  degree  of  the  Almighty. 
The  magnificent  temple  of  the  Jews  perished  in  the  general  wreck 
of  the  nation,  and  not  one  stone  was  left  upon  another,  75  of  Christ, 
or  A.  D.  72. 

According  to  a  moderate  calculation  the  nmnber  of  persons  who 
perjshed  by  violent  <leaths  during  the  last  war  in  Judea  amounted  U 
more  than  one  million  four  hundred  thousand,  besides  many  who  diet 
of  grief  and  famme. 

Since  that  time  the  descendants  of  those  who  survived  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  J<3wish  nation  have  been  wandering  about  the  worid 
the  objects  of  hatred  and  contempt  rather  than  of  kindness  and  com- 
miseration. In  all  countries  where  they  have  been  permitted  to 
reside,  thev  have  been  excluded  from  the  participation  of  certain 
political  privileges  which  the  people  of  those  countries  eqjoy. 

SECTION  xn. 

THE  STATE  OF  LEARNING  AND  COMMERCE  AMONG  THE 

JEWS. 

1.  Or  all  the  interesting  prospects  which  history  opens  to  our 
view,  the  progressive  advancement  of  the  human  mind,  in  the  im- 
provement of  its  faculties,  is  the  most  agreeable,  ana  the  roost 
worthy  of  our  attention  and  regard.  The  DriUiant  and  destructive 
exploits  of  conquerors  may  dazzle  for  a  while;  but  the  silent  labours 
of  the  student  and  the  artist,  of  the  architect  and  the  hustxmdman. 
which  embelibh  the- earth  and  convert  it  into  a  paradise,  confer  per- 
manent benefits  on  mankind,  and  promote  their  prosperity  and  hap- 
piness. The  arts  and  sciences  distinguish  the  civilized  man  from  the 
savage  ;  and  the  investigation  of  their  origin  and  progress  would 
constitute  the  noblest  attribute  of  history.  How  unfortunate  it  is 
that  the  ancient  historians  have  almost  neglected  so  interesting  and 
pleasing  a  subject  All  the  knowledge  which  we  can  obtain  concern- 
ing the  origin  and  progress  of  learning  must  be  gleaned  from  uncon- 
nected fragments  and  scattered  notices,  laboriously  collected  from 
a  multifarious  and  confused  mass  of  trivial  particulars. 

2.  The  period  of  the  scriptural  history  includes  the  whole  space 
of  time  from  the  creation  of  the  world  to  the  subversion  of  the 
Babylonian  monarchy,  or  about  3,467  years.  During  this  long  suc- 
cession of  ages  a  great  variety  of  political,  civil,  and  religious  in- 
stitutions had  been  invented ;  the  human  mind  had  been  much  im- 
proved in  some  countries ;  agriculture  had  been  skilfully  practised ; 
the  sur&ce  of  the  earth  had  been  adorned  with  large  cities  and 
stately  edifices,  Of  these  interesting  sul^cts,  few  particulars  have 
been  faithfuilv  transmitted  to  posteri^,  except  such  as  relate  to  Jew- 
ish laws  and  institutions,  some  scattered  nints  respecting  ancient 
commerce,  and  some  excellent  specimens  of  writing  in  the  Prophets 
and  Psalms.  In  those  venerable  monuments  of  antiquity,  the  sacred 
writings,  we  trace  the  Israelites  from  the  patriarchal  ages,  throagft 
toe  turbulent  times  oi  barbaric  ignorance,  to  a  considerable  degree 

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JEvnSH  HISTORY.  283 

of  chriliEatiOD  and  refinement  Of  their  civil  and  religions  instito- 
ticxv  we  haye  a  clear  and  explicit  account ;  of  their  knowledge  of 
the  arts  and  sciences  we  possess  little  information.  The  Jews  do  not 
seem  to  haye  been  a  scientific  or  philosophical  nation  in  any  jperiod 
of  their  history.  They  appear  to  have  been  sufficiently  skufiil  in 
the  arts  of  necessity  and  conveniency ;  but  not  to  have  made  much 
proficiency  in  those  of  luxury  and  ornament  Some  admirable  speci* 
mens  of  literature  are  presented  in  the  scriptures,  especially  in  the 
writbgs  of  the  Prophets,  and  in  the  Psalms.  In  the  historical  books 
we  observe  plainness  or  style  and  conciseness  of  narrative,  and  nn- 
common  perspicuity  in  the  didactical  pieces,  llie  writines  of  the 
prophets  are  chiefly  poetical,  veiy  different,  and  all  originals.  Most 
of  tnem  display  sublime  sentunento,  expressed  with  energy  of  diction, 
and  decorated  with  oriental  imagery. 

X  In  the  patriarchal  ages  commerce  was  so  far  known  and  exer- 
cised that  gold  and  silver  were  used  as  the  medium  by  which  it  was 
legolated.  m  the  tumultuous  times  which  succeeded  the  patriarchal 
we  obtain  very  little  information  concerning  the  state  of  commerce. 
We  have  no  reason  to  think  that  commerce  was  ever  in  a  flourishing 
state  among  the  Jews.  In  times  of  remote  antiquity  the  mechanic 
arts  and  various  kinds  of  manufactures  had  made  considerable  prog- 
ress in  some  countries.  This  is  manifest  from  the  curious  ana  rich 
materials  of  the  tabernacle  and  of  the  high-priest^s  garments.  The 
braeljtes,  no  doubt,  brought  fi'om  Egypt  much  of  their  knowledge 
of  arts,  Bcteoces,  and  literature;  for  the  Egyptians  had,  trom  time 
immemorial,  been  gradually  advancing  in  learning  and  civilization ; 
and,  during  the  greater  psut  of  the  period  now  unJer  contemplation. 
weie&mous  for  the  excellence  of  tneir  civil  policy,  the  extent  and 
popnlatioD  of  their  cities,  the  magnificence  of  their  public  edi- 
nc^and  the  flourishing  state  of  agriculture.  In  all  these  respects 
tbeE^ptians  were  distinguished  above  aU  the  contemporary  nations 
of  antiquity. 

CONCLUSION. 

1.  In  taking  a  retrospective  view  of  the  various  nations  which 
have  floccessively  appeared  and  flourished  upon  the  ^rand  theatre 
of  this  worU,  and  have  at  length  vanished  and  sunk  mto  oblivion, 
their  rise,  progress,  and  decline,  arrest  our  attention,  and  excite  our 
curioeity  and  compassion.  The  ignorance,  avarice,  wickedness,  and 
ambition  of  mankind  may  be  assigned  as  the  general  causes  of  the 
dissolution  of  nations.  Many  of  those  kingdoms  and  sUtes  once  so 
gr^at  and  flourishing  have  not  only  disappeared,  but  even  their  names 
and  all  remembrance  of  them  must  have  perished,  if  they  had  not 
been  preserved  and  perpetuated  in  the  historical  records  of  scrip- 
ture. In  them,  however,  we  behold  the  transitory  and  fading  splen- 
Jour  of  all  human  glory,  and  a  diminutive  picture  of  every  thing 
which  the  world  calls  great;  as  eminence  of  genius  and  learning. 
military  honour  and  fiune,  extent  of  power  and  doniimon,  poiiUcal 
wisdom,  the  fiiculty  of  eloquence.  Finally,  we  draw  thfe  sad  concia 
(ion,  that  history  is  little  more  than  a  dismal  record  of  the  crimes 
and  the  calamities  of  the  human  race  !* 

•  For  a  very  copiooi  and  weftil  chroooloeical  table  ofthe  hutoiy  of 
the  Bible  tee  Calmest  Dictionaiy  of  the  Bible,  vol.  II.    Thii  Uble  is  an 
of  the  hhtory  of  the  JewK  and  wiU  be  particalarly  uaefol  U 
Istttdeats. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


yGoogk 


ELEMENTS 


GENERAL   HISTORY, 


ANCIENT  AND  MODERN; 


BEiNO  A  oonmraA'noiit 


naiakATiiwAv 


DfaasE  or  his  hajestt  kirq  geobqe  ul,  i^bul 


BT  THE  REV.  EDWARD  NASEB,  D.  D. 

of  BfoduD  Hbcocy  in  tht  0alvtnl^  cf  Okfri(L 


COYCOAD,  A*,  a 

raHUSHED  BT  HORATIO  ESU^  A  0» 

1830. 


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ADVERTISEMENT. 


As  the  leaned  author  of  the  ElementB  of  General  HistorT,  pro- 
fe«8or  I>f  tler^  (hy  courtesy  lord  Woodhoiuelee,)  lived  until  i£e  year 
1^813,  it  is  much  i6bt  itegt^Ul^  that'he>di4liot  faring  his  hiatoiy 
down  to  a  later  period. 

In  the  present  Tolome  nothing  farther  has  been  attempted  than  to 
continue  the  history  from  the  point  at  which  the  professor  left  it,  io 
the  same  concise  style,  and  with  as  much  attention  to  the  origmal 
method  and  desjjgn,  as  cofiidiie  rsodesed  consistent  with  the  extraor 
dioary  nature  ofthe  &cts  and  inddents  to  be  recorded. 

To  this  end  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  carry  on  the  history  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland  from  the  penod  of  the  death  of  queeo 
Anne; 

That  of  the  Soutfaen^CoByDental  StateSrof  Enropa,  fiom  the  end 
of  the  reign  of  LduisXIV; 

And  that  of  the  Noithem  States  from  the  death  of  Charles  Xa 
of  Sweden,  wd  Peter  the  First  of  Russia. 


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PART  THIRD. 
MODERN  HISTORY. 

SECTION  I. 

rR.\liCE  FROM  THE  DEATH  OF  LEWIS  XIV.  1,715,  TO  THE 
PEACE  OF  VIENNA,  1,738. 

1.  Tbb  last  yean  of  the  Tery  long  and  iplendid  reign  of  Lewi§ 
XIV.  were  clouded  by  many  severe  domestic  misiortnnes,  and  a 
great  cfaange  m  the  sentimenta  and  manners  of  the  sovereign  and  his 
court  A  mystical  religion  became  the  yogue,  accompanied  with  » 
eraritT  of  demeanour  approaching  to  prudery.  The  amiable  Fene- 
J<)n  ieu  into  these  errors,  which  were  countenanced  by  madame  de 
MaintenoD,  who  had  been  privately  married  to  the  king,  and  seems 
to  hare  possessed  his  confidence  in  a  }dgh  degree. 

2L  On  the  Idng's  demise  (see  Sect  LXIV.)  the  crown  descended 
to  his  pandson,  Lewis  XV.,  an  m£mt,  only  five  years  old.  In  a 
T».  ry  short  space  of  time,  losses  had  occurred  in  the  rojal  family,  so 
-{nn|;e  and  unexpected,  as  to  afford  ground  for  suspicion,  greatW 
tA  the  prejudice  of  tlie  duke  of  Orleans,  nephew  of  Lewis  XiV. 
Three  neirs  to  the  crown,  the  Dauphin,  his  son  the  duka  of  Bur- 
e'lndy,  and  his  grandson  the  duke  of  Bretagne,  had  all  died  witfafr* 
the  short  space  of  eleven  months,  during  the  years  1)711,  IJli^ 
J-aviDg,  to  intercept  the  claims  and  pretensions  of  the  duke  or  Or- 
W  .inss  only  the  dukamf  Berry  and  one  infant  apparently  of  a  feeble 
inJ  delicate  constitution,  ana  whose  own  life  nad  also  been  in  dan- 
r«'r.  The  king  of  Spain  had  been  previously  compelled,  accordiD(p 
to  the  spirit  of  the  celebrated  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees,  formally  to 
n  nooDce  his  claims  to  the  succession,  notwithstanding  his  near  rela- 
'  nship  to  the  crown  of  France.  liaistly,  the  duke  of  Berry  died, 
1  ly  U'^H,  at  the  early  age  of  18. 

;;.  Fortunately  for  the  reputation  of  the  duke  of  Orleans,  (who, 

<'iOugh  of  loose  morals,  seems  to  have  possessed  too  generous  a 

.  t-art  lor  such  base  deeds),  the  infant  dauphin  not  only  uved  to  be- 

•  ^ine  king^  but  to  survive  the  duke  himselt^  many  years.    Nor  were 

r.^  saspicioos  which  had  been  raised  by  the  sudden  deaths  of  so 

- 1  iny  heirs  to  the  crown,  strong  enough  to  prevent  the  nation  repos- 

t^  :he  highest  confidence  m  the  duke,  by  suffisring  the  kingly  power 

. .  poMB  mto  his  hands,  as  sole  regent,  during  the  minority ;  though 

•  •-fitrary  to  the  express  appointment  of  the  late  kinf,  who  is  said 

r  •  I  iiave  wisely  observed,  when  for  formes  sake  he  executed  liis  will, 

ifint  it  would  tiave  but  tittle  weight  with  the  people,  or  the  pariia- 

B  t«!  lit.  as  soon  as  his  eyes  were  dosed.    The  nation  willinciy  acceded 

^  yg  33 

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SBS  MODERN  HISTORT. 

to  the  dispoBitioD  of  the  pariiament,  io  settm^  aside  the  claims  of  the 
iUegitimate  princes,  whom  the  wul  of  Lewis  XIV.  favoured ;  and 
the  duke  of  Orleans  was  careful  to  fix  that  body  in  his  interest,  by 
promising  to  restore  to  it  its  full  power  of  remonstrance,  which  naa 
oeen  greatly  restrained  during  the  preceding  reign. 

4.  Lewis  XIV.  had  left  his  kingdom  so  incumbered  with  debt,  and 
so  surrounded  by  mortified,  jealous,  and  exasperated  neighbouiSi 
eager  to  recover  what  had  been  taken  from  them  durins  the  trium- 
plmnt  wars  of  that  monarch,  that  it  became  an  olgect  of  the  highest 
miporfance  to  the  regent,  for  the  nation^s  sake,  as  well  as  his  own,  (o 
mamtain  peace  as  far  as  he  could  with  foreign  states.  To  this  end, 
though  contrary  to  any  former  course  of  things,  he  prudently  endea- 
voured to  form  alliances  with  the  courts  of  &  James's  and  Vienna. 
fai  the  former  case  the  advantages  were  similar  and  mutual  By  thft 
treaty  of  Utrecht,  England  stood  engaged  to  secure  th«  French 
crown  to  the  regent,  in  case  Lewis  XV.  should  die  without  issue ; 
and  to  keep  her  steady  to  this  engagement,  it  was  easy  for  the  duke 
to  comply  with  the  wishes  of  the  whig  government  of  England,  m 
vithholdii\g  all  encouragement  from  the  pretender. 

5.  However  pacific  the  views  of  the  regent  might  be.  Spam 
seemed  to  present  an  obstecle  to  the  repose  and  tranquillity  of  Eik 
rope.  There  a  minister  of  a  very  different  disposition  had  obtained 
the  chief  management  of  af&irs,  who  appeared  bent  upon  disturbing 
both  i^e  French  and  English  governments,  in  order  to  recover  what 
had  been  taken  from  Spain  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  especially  in 
Italy ;  to  deprive  the  duke  or  Orleans  of  the  regencV)  in  favour  of 
the  king  his  master,  and  to  seat  the  pretender  on  ue  throne  of  Great 
Britain,  with  the  aid  of  Russia  and  Sweden.  Such  were  the  plans  of 
the  celebrated  AWeroni ;  originally  the  son  of  a  gardener;  afterwards 
in  the  lowest  stations  in  the  church  of  Flacentia,  but  who  had  raised 
himself,  by  an  extraordinanr  display  of  genius  and  talent,  to  the  high- 
est degree  of  credit  and  influence  at  the  court  of  Philip  V.,  with  tne 
esdted  rank  of  eardmaL 

6.  These  movements  indeed  on  the  part  of  Spain,  were  not  in 
fliemselves  altogether  unfavourable  to  tne  vie\ts  of  the  regent ;  in 
better  securing  to  him  the  good  will  of  England  and  Austria,  always 
prepared  to  be  jealous  of  too  close  an  intimacy  between  the  courts 
of  Paris  and  Madrid.  Some  historians  have  even  gone  so  far  as  to 
suppose  it  to  have  been  a  settled  contrivance  to  impose  on  the  former 
two  courts,  but  certainly  without  sufficient  erounds. 

7.  It  seems  to  have  been  a  great  oversight  in  the  negotiatiooft  at 
Utrecht,  not  to  have  endeavoured  more  effectually  to  reconcile  the 
courts  of  Austria  and  Spain.  The  former,  afler  the  treaty^  remained 
jealous  of  the  occupation  of  the  Spanish  throne  by  Philip;  wiuk 
the  latter  could  not  fail  to  be  aggrieved  and  offended  at  being  made 
to  contribute  to  the  indemnification  of  Charles  VI.,  by  a  veiy  coosid- 
eraUe  dismemberment  of  its  domkdons,  without  any  imtable  or 
adequate  remuneration. 

8.  To  counteract  the  prcgects  of  Alberoni,  the  regent  entered  tato 
an  alliance  with  Englana  and  the  United  States ;  entirely  sacarificing 
fo  the  former  the  interests  of  the  pretender,  who  was  to  be  sent  out 
«f  France.  But  the  Spanish  minister  was  not  to  be  deterred  by  thi« 
triple  alliance  and  confederacy  against  him.   Having  watched  hia  op 

Crtunitf  of  a  war  between  the  emperor  of  Germany  and  &e  PorUt 
suddenly  commenced  hostilities ;  and,  with  no  small  degree  m 
tMttcbeiy,  IB  the  couise  of  the  yean  1  717  and  1 718  succeeded  ia 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  26d 

wrestioi;  bcm  Aostria  the  island  of  Sardinia,  and  from  the  duke  of 
Savoy  tnat  of  Sicily,  thus  violating,  in  the  most  direct  and  glAring 
maoaer,  the  solemn  treaty  of  Rastadt,  so  lately  concluded,  m  cod- 
«(!queiice  of  these  proceedings^  and  in  order  to  remedy,  as  if  would 
?f  om,  the  defects  and  omissions  of  the  original  convention,  Austria 
was  admitted  a  party  to  the  alliance  between  France,  Elnglaod,  and 
lloUand,  with  a  view  to  bring  about  a  reconciliation  between  the 
emperor  and  Spain,  upon  the  basis  of  the  following  airaneemeut : 
liiat  the  former  should  renounce  all  claims  to  the  Spanish  throne  in 
t:»vour  of  Philip,  while  the  lattt»r  should  surrender  to  the  emperor  the 
Netherlands,  the  duchy  of  Milan,  and  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  as- 
-iC^ed  to  him  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  and  the  quadruple  alli:mc«. 
Ttisit  the  duke  of  Savoy  sbould  yield  Sicily  to  Austria,  receiving  in 
*  X change  the  island  of  Sardinia  from  Spain ;  and  that  the  eldest  sou 
<i  Philip  by  his  second  marriage,  don  Cai'los.  should  be  st!curcd  in 
trx*^  reversion  of  the  duchies  ot  Parma  and  Placcntia,  and  the  grami 
«!'ichy  of  Florence,  to  be  holden  as  male  fiefs  under  the  emperor, 
Hail  on  DO  occasion  whatever  to  be  united  to  the  crown  of  Spam. 

^.  There  never  was  a  period  perhaps  in  which  it  would  have 
\t(*en  more  difficult  to  unravel  the  policy  of  these  several  courts,  k 
was  certaifdy  a  strange  thing  for  the  emperor  to  agree,  in  any  man- 
iHT,  to  admit  the  Spaniards  into  Italjr,  of  which  he  had  so  much  reason 
(n  be  distrustful ;  much  more  to  assist  In  doine  so.  While  those  verv 
terms,  which  were  undoubtedly  introduced  to  gratify  the  Spanish 
minister,  in  this  particular  respect,  so  far  from  securing  the  ready 
'-''nseot  of  the  court  of  Madrid,  only  induced  it  to  make  trcsh  cfrort& 
'l*he  predominance  of  France  and  England,  however,  soon  became 
•o  coDspicuous,  as  to  compel  Philip  to  subscribe  to  the  articles  of  the 
alliance,  and  even  to  dismiss  his  favourite  minister,  the  cause  of  aU 
the  ^evaoces  of  which  the  allied  powers  had  to  complain.  In 
IJ20  AuBtria  took  possessioa  of  Sicily,  and  Victor  Amadeus  IL  trans- 
tf^rred  the  seat  of  his  fovemment  to  the  island  of  Sardinia. 

10.  In  the  month  or  December,  1,723,  in  the  50th  year  of  his  age, 
the  regent  duke  of  Orleans  died  very  suddenly  in  a  ht  of  apoplexy. 
He  was  a  prince  of  shining  talents,  and  of  great  taste  and  spirit;  but 
•\^4soIale  m  his  habits  of  life  to  a  most  disgraceful  pitch  ot  extravu 
tnince.  He  did  not  indeed  suffer  his  pleasures  and  licentious  connez- 
.«iis  to  interfere  greatly  with  the  discharge  of  his  public  duties,  but 
*h(ix  tarnished  his  iame,  and  in  all  likelihood  shortened  his  life.  He 
:.:ul  the  misfortone  in  his  youth  to  be  put  into  the  hands  of  a  most 
nr. principled  tutor,  the  Abbe  Dubois,  who  continued  with  him  to 
rlip  last  year  of  his  life,  dyfri^  only  four  months  before  him,  a  cardi- 
nal of  Rome,  and  prime  minister  of  France !  The  elevation  of  this 
f*rodi^te  man  to  such  high  stations  m  the  church  and  state,  diu 
iij4>re  miKhief  to  the  cause  of  religion  and  morality,  than  the  person- 
al vices  of  the  regent,  who,  amidst  a  thousand  foibles,  had  some  great 
^OfX  brilliant  qualities. 

Neither  Austria  nor  Spain  were  satbfied  with  what  had  been  done 
f  jf  thenu  and  strone  remonstrances  were  prepared  on  the  part  of  the 
dukes  of  Parma  and  Placentia,  the  ^nmd  duke  of  Tuscany,  and  the 
pope,  against  the  grants  in  reversion  to  the  Infant  of  Spain.  At 
umpla  were  made  to  reconcile  the  two  courts  more  effectually  by  a 
cob^resa,  summoned  to  meet  at  Cambray,  In  the  year  1,724.  under 
tiie  joint  mediation  of  France  and  England,  but  meffectually  :  in 
1 ,7^  another,  but  more  private  attempt,  hao  better  success ;  it  wu 
•ndeitakeo  by  a  very  lingular  and  eccentric  charscter,  the  baron,  oi 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


260  MODERN  HISTORY. 

duke,  de  Ripperda,  Dutch  minister  at  the  court  of  Madrid,  who  8uc> 
ceeded  so  f^,  through  his  own  intrigues,  and  the  venality  of  the  im- 
perial court,  as  to  give  umbraice  to  the  ^oyemments  of  France  and 
England ;  the  latter  soon  saw  £e  necessity  of  guarding,  by  a  coun- 
ter-treaty, framed  at  Hanover,  against  the  effects  of  Kipperda's  in- 
terposition. 

11.  Secret  articles  were  said  to  be  signed  and  executed,  to  recov 
er  for  Spain  the  fortress  of  Gibraltar  and  the  island  of  Minorca,  to 
seat  the  pretender  on  the  throne  of  Great  Britain,  to  forward  the 
emperors  views  with  regard  to  the  Ostend  East  India  Company^ 
and  to  cement  the  alliance  by  marriages  which  would. have  laid  a 
foundation  for  the  reunion  bf  the  Austrian  and  Spanish  donoinioni 
under  one  sovereign.  Ripperda  himself  is  said  to  have  communlcat 
ed  these  secret  articles  to  the  English  government :  he  was  made  to 
pay  dear  for  his  treachery. 

As  the  empress  of  Russia  had  acceded  to  the  treaty  of  VtamoL, 
concluded  bv  Ripperda.  and  France  and  England  had  taKen  steps  to 
secure  Holland  and  Prussia  on  their  side,  Europe  seemed  to  be 
threatened  with  another  general  war,  but  the  timely  death  of  the 
empress,  in  1,727«  and  the  defection  of  Prussia,  eave  a  turn  to  afl^iis. 
and  left  room  for  the  renewal  of  the  congress  of  Cambray,  transferred 
in  the  vear  1,728,  to  Soissons,  where  msh  endeavours  were  made 
to  establish  a  solid  and  permanent  peace.  As  the  emperor,  however, 
insisted  on  the  accession  of  all  the  contracting  powers,  to  the  Prag- 
matic Sanction,  which  was  to  secure  to  his  heirs  general  the  undi- 
vided succession  to  all  his  territories  and  dominions,  the  other  courts 
withdrew;  and  ki  November,  1,729,  concluded  at  Seville  in  Spain  a 
separate  treaty,  in  which  it  was  agreed,  between  France,  England. 
and  Spain,  to  support  the  pretensions  of  the  In&nt  to  the  duchies  of 
Parma,  Placentia,  and  Tuscany.  To  this  treaty  Holland  was  soon 
after  brought  to  accede,  on  the  condition  that  her  rights  should  be 
protected  against  the  new  East  India  Company,  established  by  the 
emperor  at  Ostend,  which  was  considered  as  contrary  to  the  treaty 
of  Westphalia,  and  manifestiy  iigurious  both  to  England  and  the 
United  States.  The  treaty  orSeviUe  was  settled  so  totally  without 
the  concurrence  of  the  emperor,  that  his  name  was  not  even  men- 
tioned in  it ;  which,  as  might  bie  reasonably  expected,  gave  great 
offence.  In  the  ^ear  1,731,  however,  England,  and  in  1,732  Holland, 
acceded  to  the  wishes  of  the  emperor,  in  regard  to  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction^  on  condition  that  the  archduchess,  who  should  succeed  to 
the  empire,  should  not  many  any  Bourbon,  or  other  prince  or  po- 
tentate, capable  of  disturi[)ing  the  peace  of  Europe.  The  Ostend 
Company  was  given  op :  the  Infant  don  Carlos  took  possession  of  the 
duchies  of  Parma  and  Placentia  on  the  death  of  the  last  of  the  Fui^ 
nese  family,  and  the  grand  duke  of  Tuscany  acknowledged  him  us 
his  heir.  A  treaty  between  England^  Holland,  and  the  empire,  call- 
ed the  second  treaty  of  Vienna,  was  signed  and  executed  at  the  lattei 
j^ce,  which  may  be  said  to  hav^  terminated  all  the  differences  arl^ 
mg  out  of  the  Spanish  succession,  by  which  the  greater  part  of  Ku* 
rope  had  been  kept  in  a  state  of  agitation  for  the  space  of  thirtr 
years. 

While  these  things  were  in  agitation,  Victor  Amadeus,  embarrass 
ed,  as  iV  is  said,  with  the  counter  engagements  he  had  entered  int» 
with  Austria  and  Spain,  thought  fit  to  resign  his  crown  to  his  sc^ 
Charles  Emmanuel,  but  soon  repenting  of  what  he  had  doue,  pif> 
pared  to  reascend  bis  abdicated  tmrone;  this  rash  and  ioijudicioas  step 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODERN  mSTORT.  S6l 

wm  the  cause  of  hk  impnMxunent,  and  probably  of  his  death,  wUch 
happened  in  NoTember,  1,732. 

12.  In  1,733,  France  became  involved  again  in  a  war,  both  the 
orif^in  and  end  of  which  had  sometliing  remarlcable  in  them.  The 
thiooe  of  the  elective  Icingdom  of  Poutnd  becoming  vacant  by  the 
demise  of  Augustus  of  Saxony,  two  competitors  anpeared  on  the 
stafe ;  tlie  son  of  the  deceased  king,  and  Stanislaus  jCescinskT,  who 
oad  with  great  credit  previously  occupied  it  tlirough  the  interposi* 
tton  of  Clmries  XU.  of  Sweden,  (see  ^ect  LXVl.)  and  whose  daugh- 
ter was  married  to  Lewis  XV.  The  emperor  of  Germany,  the 
Casirina,  and  the  kiug  of  Prussia,  espoused  the  cause  of  the  former, 
France  supported  the  latter,  and  commenced  hostilities  against  the 
emperor,  oy  detaching  the  king  of  Sardinia  from  his  interests,  and 
occupying  Lorrain,  whose  duke  was  engaged  to  marry  the  emperor*8 
diiugnter.  But  the  principal  seat  of  war  was  in  Italy,  where  the 
Freocli,  Spanish,  and  Sardinian  confined  troops  obtained  many  ad- 
vantages, and  ultimately  succeeded  in  seating  don  Carlos,  duke  <^ 
Parma,  kc^  on  the  throne  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  to  which  he  had  been 
particalarly  invited  by  the  Neapolitans.  Tne  Austrian  court  had 
Wji  very  supine,  in  not  guarding  better  against  the  manifest  de- 
v'gm  of  the  Queen  of  Spain,  mother  of  don  Curios.  He  was  crown- 
•!<1  kine  by  the  title  of  Charles  the  third,  July  3^  1,735.  Naples 
n  .L«  subdued  in  1,73  4,  and  Sicily  in  the  year  folfowmg.  During  this 
cimlest,  the  celebrated  prince  Eugene,  though  then  past  seventy 
vears  of  age,  had  the  command  of  tnc  imperisd  army  on  the  Rhine  ; 
iMjt  he  had  great  cause  to  be  offended  witn  the  situation  in  which  he 
<^a4  placed;  the  French  bein^  stronger;  England  not  to  be  roused 
to  a^Aiflt  him,  through  the  pacilic  views  of  the  minister  Walpole ;  and 
hnviog,  both  at  court  and  m  the  army,  many  rivals  and  secret  ene- 
rr.:e:s.    His  only  consolation  was,  the  extreme  and  enthusiastic  at* 

*  uliment  of  the  soldiers,  the  very  remembrance  of  which,  as  he 
t"f  liaely  acknowledges  in  his  own  memoirs,  often  aflerwaros  drew 
t»:ar9  urom  his  eyes. 

13.  Matters  were  brought  to  an  accranmodation.  through  the  medi- 
.ttioo  of  the  maritime  powers,  (who,  undoubtedly,  appear  in  this 

•  a<)C  to  have  been  guilty  of  mbleading  the  emperor.)  by  a  conven* 
'xi>a  sigDed  at  Vienna,  in  November,  1,738.  By  this  treaty  some 
I  err  extraordinary  appointments  took  place.  Stanislaus,  the  depoa- 
<h)  king  of  Poland,  lather-in-law  to  the  kin^  of  France,  obtained| 
Kf^epiog  his  kingly  title,  the  duchies  of  Loxram  and  Bar,  to  revert  to 
f  rooce  after  his  death,  which  did  not  take  place  till  the  year  1.76C. 
In  exchange  for  what  was  thus  bestowed  upon  Stanislaus,  the  duke 
>t'  Lonain  obtained  the  grand  duchy  of  Tuscany,  the  reversion  of 

fvhich  bad  been  guaranteed  to  the  m&nt  don  Carlos,  but  who  was^ 
iy  the  same  treaty,  acknowledged  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  surreo* 
•l«'nag  in  his  turn  to  the  emperor,  his  two  duchies  of  Parma  and  Pla- 
•uifitia ;  Vigevano  and  Novaro  were  given  to  the  king  of  Saidinia  ; 
caJ  CO  the  emperor,  the  Milanese,  the  Mantuan,  and  Parma. 

Od  the  conclusion  of  the  peace,  France  acceded  to  the  Pragmatic 
Siuiclloa  The  kings  of  Spain  and  Sardinia  rtiowed  some  reluctance 
( .>  a^ree  to  the  terms  of  the  treaty,  but  were  bduced  to  sign  it  in  the 
.  oarse  of  the  year  1,729.  It  is  certahily  very  remarkable,  that,  in 
<''.«ifeqaence  of  a  dispute  about  the  crown  or  Poland,  not  only  the 
•  *^peror  ihouki  have  lost  ahnost  all  his  posiesloDs  hi  Italy,  bot 
f-'raace  sfaookl  have  been  able  to  recover  a  provbce  of  which  she 
bJiid  beeo  deprived  lor  the  space  of  neariy  a  thoQMMl  yeaiSiaeAao 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


ftSt  MODERN  HISTORT 

dtuated  as  to  render  it  ooe  of  the  most  splendid  and  gratifpog  ao^ 
^oos  she  could  possbly  liaye  contemplated. 


SECTION  IL 

ENGLAND  FROM  THE  ACCESSION  OF  THE  HOUSE  CM*  HAN- 
OVER,  1,714,  TO  THE  END  OF  THE  REIGN  OF  GEORGE  THB 
FIRST,  1,727. 

1.  Qina3f  Anne  was  no  sooner  dead,  [Part  II.  Sect  LXIV.  §  20.] 
than  steps  were  taken  for  the  immediate  acknowledgment  of  her  soo- 
cessor,  George  Lewis,  elector  of  Brunswick  Luneburg,  pursuant  tt) 
the  several  acts  of  parliament,  for  securing  the  protestant  succession, 
in  exclusion  of  the  pretender,  the  house  of  Savoy,  and,  in  fact,  everf 
catholic  branch  oi^the  royal  family  of  England;  many  of  whom 
were  more  directly  in  the  line  of  inheritance  than  the  protestant 
descendants  of  James  the  first,  in  whom  the  crown  was  now  vested ; 
not,  however,  wiAout  due  regard  to  that  hereditary  line  which  ovtv 
be  said  to  have  occupied  the  throne  from  the  time  of  Egbert.  Th£ 
late  union  with  Scotland,  1,706,  [see  as  above]  was  calculated  tosup- 

Sress  any  general  desire,  on  the  part  of  the  people  there,  to  plac« 
lemselves  again  under  a  distinct  sovereign. 

2.  The  accession  of  George  I.,  to  judge  from  the  addresses  of  the 
two  houses  of  parliament,  and  the  general  tranquillity  manifested  in 
all  parts  of  the  three  kingdoms,  at  the  time  of  his  proclamation, 
would  seem  to  have  been  acceptable  to  the  nation  at  large,  JVor 
was  the  French  king  long^  before  he  openly  acknowledged  his  right 
and  title  to  the  crown  ot  Great  Britain,  though  the  sincerity  of  lis 
declarations  in  favour  of  a  protestant  succession,  and  the  exclusion 
of  the  house  of  Stuart,  was  not  too  confidently  relied  upon.  The 
states  of  Holkuid  were,  probablv,  entirely  cordial,  both  m  their  ex- 
pressions of  congratulation,  and  promises  of  support,  according  lo 
existing  engagements  to  that  effect,  as  guarantees  of  the  Hanoveriam 
succession.  From  the  king  of  Prussia,  and  various  other  princes  and 
states  of  Germany,  his  majesty  also  received  the  strongest  assurao* 
ces  of  support;  yet  so  littfe  are  these  courtesies  to  be  trusted,  tliai 
it  is  more  than  probable,  from  circumstances  since  come  to  Dght, 
that  at  this  very  moment,  with  regard  to  the  continental  stales  *m 
general,  he  had  more  enemies  than  friends. 

S.  His  entrance  into  his  new  dominions,  however,  September 
1,714,  was  hailed  in  a  manner  that  could  not  fail  to  be  extremely 
gratifying  to  the  king,  though  it  soon  became  manifest,  and  couiu  doi 
well  nave  been  otherwise,  that  there  were  many  secret  hearl-bunv 
ings  and  disappointed  hopes,  to  prevent  that  perfect  unanimity  which 
was  most  desirable  on  an  occasion  so  important    The  tones,  some 

,.  ^ J  by  the  fane  hunself.~'The 

whics  enjoyed  a  tnumph.  The  pretender's  friends  m  genemi  stooi^ 
confounded,  not  only  by  the  low  estate  of  his  cause,  but  by  the  pei^ 
l^exitT  of  their  own  feelings,  with  regard  to  his  more  direct  hcredi 
4ary  claims  to  the  crown.  In  tliis  dilemma,  it  is  not  to  be  wonder^ 
that  several  should  refuse  to  take  the  oa^  of  allegiance  and  ab^ 
tBtloii.   ScottandabOi  in  part  at  least,  bewailed  its  lo6thidepeiide^ 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


MODERN  BISTORT.  263 

bf  the  act  of  onioii,  which  some  were  ibrward  to  hare  diasolTed 
a^ain ;  and  the  pemm^  being  very  nTuneroos  in  Ireland,  rendered 
the  peace  of  that  kingdom  constantly  precarious. 

4.  The  person,  manners,  and  deportment  of  the  new  soTeresn, 
H^re  not  such  as  immediately  to  conciliate  his  British  sul^cts  ;  but 
he  was  bf  no  means  destitute  of  kingly  virtues  and  accomplishments 
of  a  more  solid  and  important  description.  Hayins  dehyered  the 
mlDisterial  eovemment  of  the  realm  into  the  hands  of  me  whigs,  it  was 
not  long  before  serious  proceedings  were  entered  into,  by  the  new 
;i']ininistration,  against  the  authors  and  advisers  of  the  late  peace  and 
treaty  of  Utrecht ;  and  articles  of  impeachment  for  high  treason  ei^ 
hibited  against  the  earl  of  Oxford,  viscount  Bolingbroke.the  duke  of 
Ormood.  earl  of  Strafford,  and  others.  The  di3ce  of  Ormond,  and 
lord  Bolmgbroke,  absconded ;  the  earl  of  Oxford,  with  greater  mag^ 
{ ,mimitj,  stood  upon  his  defence,  and  though  imprisoned  for  a  coiv- 
9iiJerabie  time,  was  finally  acquitted.  Under  a  pretence  of  tha 
I  hurch  being  in  danger,  which  seems  to  have  been  adopted  as  a  sort 
nf  watch-word  by  the  torv  party  and  Jacobites,  (for  so  the  adherents 
<>(  the  pretender  were  called,)  riots  and  tumults  took  place  in  many 
[uiris  of  the  kingdom ;  in  consequence  of  which,  the  king  was  em* 
I  owercd  by  parliament  09715.)  to  raise  fresh  forces,  and  tne  habeas 
ri'pitM  act  was  suspended,  tor  the  more  speedy  apprehension  and  d(»- 
t<£iUion  of  suspected  persons. 

5.  In  Scotland,  however,  notwithstanding  great  precautions  to  the 
<  ontrarr,  a  rebellion  actually  broke  out  in  the  month  of  August, 
KTlo.  headed  by  the  earl  of  Mar,  late  secretary  of  state  for  that 
i.uigdom;  and  in  September,  the  pretender^s  standard  was  erected 
IT  a  place  called  Brae  Mar,  tnough  the  pretender  himself  did  not  a»> 
m  o  in  Scotland  till  the  Decemter  following ;  before  which  time  a 
«  -\-t^re  action  had  taken  place  at  Dunblain,  between  the  contending 

n  flies,  commanded  on  the  fide  of  the  English  by  the  duke  of 

\r5vlc ;  and  on  the  side  of  the  Scotch  by  the  earl  of  Mar.    The 

'•re tender,  on  reaching  the  shores  of  Scotland,  was  received  with 

;  ».-^al  honours,  and  addresses  were  presented  to  hun  from  many  cof- 

jM>rate  bodies;  even  his  coronation  was  fixed  to  take  place  on  th« 

.  3d  day  of  January.    But  during  the  course  of  these  transactions, 

:.\n  chief  officers  of  his  anny.  as  soon  after  appeared,  were  but  too 

\%  ell  convinced  of  their  perfect  inability  to  terminate  the  contest 

-uccessfolly,  many  thinn  naving  fallen  out  to  the  disappointment  of 

Ti^ir  hopes;  particularly  the  death  of  Lewis  XIV.,  who,  notwitb- 

'  r.  loding  his  protestations  in  fiivour  of  the  house  of  Hanover,  had 

-« *c  retly  fiivoured  then*  cause.    The  English  army,  besides,  since  tho 

-4rtJe  of  Dunblain^  had  been  considerably  reinforced,  by  Dutch  as 

rn.'*  U  aa  English  troops.   This  being  the  case,  as  we  learn  from  an  ac- 

'  •  uot  given  by  the  earl  of  Mar  himself^  they  felt  compelled  to  abandon 

.•  i«5ir  enterprise  for  the  present;  and  in  order  to  check  the  pursuit 

rf  the  enemy,  eager  to  seize  the  person  of  the  pretender,  they  pe»> 

nAded  the  latter  to  leave  the  kmgdom  a^ain,  and  return  to  France  ; 

.  .<»  emtl  of  Mar  himself  accompanying  hmL    They  were  followed, 

'  tierwmids,  by  many  leaders  of  the  rebels,  who,  in  a  most  extraordW 

E^j^ry  muiner,  escaped  the  English  veasels  stationed  to  Intercept  their 

ge :  hat  some  of  those,  who  had  previously  fallen  mto  the 

\  or  the  English,  as  the  eari  of  Derwentwater,  and  others,  were 

~    'f  and  pleadincguilU,  executed.    Many  escaped  by  an  acA 


p-'xraiP  ''Thni  imti  &e  reSellion,  faiagreat  measore,  subdued: 

"  io  upoa  tM  sovereign,  and  a  day  01 


o0«nlatitory  addresses  poured  io  I 


yGoogk 


t64  MODERN  HBTCtflY. 

public  thanksgiTio^  was  appointed  to  be  obserred  throaghout  ttie 
ungdoBL 

6.  The  whigs,  howeTer,  apprebeoding  that  their  opponents,  in  a 
Dew  parliamenL  inight  regain  their  asceMancy,  and  be  able  to  cany 
into  execution  their  progects  against  the  existing  govenunent,  brought 
in  a  bilL  (since  caileo  the  septennial  bill,)  for  emarzing  the  continrh 
ance  of  parliament,  whereby  the  term  wias  extended  from  three  to 
$evm  years,  unless  sooner  dissolved  by  the  king,  and  to  begin  with 
the  parliament  then  chosen  and  assembled ;  a  most  important  meas- 
ure, and  accidentally  originating  with  a  party  more  friendly  in  repute 
to  tne  rights  and  liberty  of  the  people  than  the  step  itself  would 
seem  to  imply.    Abstracted  from  all  temporary  or  party  considera- 
tions, it  may  justly  be  regarded  as  a  very  delicate  and  important 
point  in  politics,  to  determine  either  a  tnaximum  or  minimum,  with 
regard  to  the  duration  of  such  elective  assemblies  as  the  English 
house  of  commons.    Frequent  elections  being  essentially  necessary 
to  preserve  the  people  from  any  gross  neglect  of  their  mterests  by 
their  representatives,  or  any  nnconstitutionai  encroachment  on  their 
liberty,  as  well  as  to  remedy  abuses ;  but  too  frequent  elections,  hav- 
ing evidently  the  ill  effect  of  keeping  up  party  divisions,  feuds,  and 
animosities,  interrupting  business,  and  lessenmg  the  confidence  of 
foreign  states  in  the  measures  of  government    Too  frequent  elec- 
tions, besides,   by  bringing  independent  candidates  so  much  the 
oOener  into  a  contest  wim  Uie  treasury,  (for  government  must  have, 
and  wiU  always  endeavour  to  exert,  a  powerful  influence,)  may  ii) 
time  deter  such  persons  from  a  coniSict  so  disadvantageous ;  uuIons 
in  short,  government  influence  in  elections  should  be  entirely  done 
away,  the  more  frequently  they  recur,  the  more  they  will  'haras* 
and  weaken  private  independence.    (See  Burke's  works.^    It  w<t« 
undoubtedly  a  bold  step  ior  any  parliament,  chosen  under  tne  popu- 
lar triennial  act  of  king  William^  to  enlarge  its  own  continuance ;  lior 
was  it  ill  urged  by  a  member  ol  the  house  of  peers,  as  an  argunnent 
against  the  bill,  that,  ^  if  the  existing  house  of  commons  continued 
themselves  beyond  the  time  for  which  they  were  chosen,  they  wecv 
no  more  the  reinesentatives  of  the  people,  but  a  house  of  their  own 
making.'^    The  whigs,  however,  had  this  excuse,  that  the  proposed 
measure  was  calculated  to  suppress  a  rebellion,  or  prevent  the  re- 
newal of  one ;  not  raised,  like  other  rebellions,  under  a  pretence  of 
liberty,  but,  in  their  eyes,  clearly  tending  towards  slavery,  in  the 
establishment  of  a  catholic  prince,  and  the  destruction  of  the  prot- 
estant  interests^  both  in  church  and  state.    It  was  well  that  thej  as- 
signed any  limit  to  their  continuance,  since  a  mere  repeal  of  the 
triennial  act  would  have  lefl  the  tenn  undefined.  The  bill  was  fin:)W 
ly  passed,  after  much  opposition  in  the  lower  house,  and  a  strong 
protest  on  the  part  of  many  lords  in  the  upper,  by  a  noaiority  in  the 
commons  of  264  to  121 ;  and  it  has  continued  the  law  of  paniameot 
ever  since. 

7.  In  the  year  1,717,  an  unpleasant  dispute  occmred,  aflfecting  the 
church,  and  which  seenos  to  have  terminated  the  sittings  of  coovo- 
cation.  Dr.  Hoadley,  bishop  of  Bangor,  gave  occasion  to  it,  by  ;i 
aermon  |H«ached  before  the  King,  Afs^ch  31,  on  "^The  Nature  of 
the  Kingdom  of  Christ,'^  and  by  a  nublication  entitled,  ^^a  Preserva- 
tive  against  the  Principles  and  the  Practices  of  the  Noo-joror^/' 
The  bishop  had  been  a  wann  friend  to  the  revolution,  and  nasny  o{ 
tiie  princi^es  he  asserted  were  undoubtedly  directed  feather  againtf 
^pety  than  oar  own  ertablishnMMtf;  while^  in  opposition  to  the  jvn 

Digitized  by  CjOOQIC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  fM 

itfrtm  pretence  of  the  tones,  he  declaimed  violeDtly  andiiBt  ererf 
abixse  of  aathorihr,  at  the  hazard  of  impairing  all  cbnrcn  discipline. 
derogatiDg  from  the  regal  sufkremacy  in  ^causes  ecclesiastical,^  and 
annnTling  the  force  of  all  civil  sanctions  whatsoever  in  matten  of 
n^iii^ion ;  on  these  gronnds  the  convocation  took  the  matter  up,  bat 
Without  much  effect  It  was  dissolved  in  the  midst  of  the  controvei^ 
\y,  nnd  tias  never  sat  to  do  business  since.  Those  who  chieflv  al» 
t:i<  ked  the  bishop  in  print,  were  Dr.  Snapc  of  Eton,  dean  Sherlock, 
Dr.  Cannon,  (who  undertook  to  vindicate  the  proceedings  of  convo- 
caitio,)  Dr.  Potter,  afterwards  archbishop  of  Cnsterbnry,  and  Mr. 
Wilt  lam  Law.  Perhaps  no  antagonist  entered  the  lists,  with  more 
ilecoram  of  manners,  or  integrity  of  disposition,  than  the  latter,  who, 
ID  several  letters  addressed  to  the  bisliop,  plainly  proved  that,  how- 
ever innocent  his  intentions  might  be,  his  arguments  and  expressions 
plainly  tended  to  the  subversion  of  all  churcti  authority,  and  the  en- 
coaragement  of  a  most  fatal  indifference  to  cverv  particular  form  of 
worship  and  belief.  Which,  considering  the  high  situation  he  held 
in  the  chuich,  and  the  duties  attached  to  that  station,  could  not  but 
:4ppear  in  tlie  light  of  an  abandonment  of  those  principles,  which 
4..ne  could  have  placed  him  there.    Such,  however,  was  the  Slate 

•  if  parties  at  the  time,  that  the  bishop  was  advanced  to  a  higher  poet 
ii  liie  church,  and  some  of  the  most  forward  of  his  opponents  dis- 
au«ed  from  tneir  employments  ahout  the  court. 

8.  In  1,718  George  the  tirst  became  a  party  to  the  celebrated 
^MuinaU  alliance,  formed  to  counteract  the  plans  and  projects  of  the 
>t>-anisb  minister  Aiberoni,  (Sect  1.  ^  8.)  who,  while  his  views  were 
''Uicdj  directed  towards  his  native  country,  Italy,  managed  to  involve 
ilm*>st  the  whole  of  Europe  in  contests  and  jealousies,  exceedingly 
•  rplexing,  and  inimical  to  the  pence  and  tranquillity  of  many  states. 
.  -'i-t'ant  as  Sweden  was,  geographically,  from  the  seat  and  object  of 

■  .«  manoeuvres,  yet,  in  oiSer  to  prevent  any  interruption  from  Ene- 
.*«<J,  he  had  nearly  instignted  the  celebrated  Ctiarles  Xll.  to  inva<M 

•  hitter  country,  for  the  purpose  of  restoring  the  pretender  to  the 

rune   of  his  ancestors.    His  agents  and  acxomplices,  however, 

•^•f  re  fortunately  detected  in  time  to  prevent  the  rupture  between 

If  two  courts.    George  L  was  no  favourite,  either  with  the  Swedish 

w,'  >narcb,  or  his  celebrated  competitor,  the  czar  of  Muscovy. 

IK  The  chief  object  of  the  Quadruple  aliiance,  as  has  been  before 

■  "ted,  was  to  reconcile  and  adjust  the  rival  claims  and  pretensions 
I  the  courts  of  Vienna  and  Madrid.    Aiberoni  had  endeavoure<], 

-•  .nng  the  war  between  the  emperor  and  the  Turks,  to  get  posses- 

.»  of  Sardinia,  Sicily,  and  other  places,  for  the  sons  of  the  queen 

j"  Spain,  a  princess  of  rarma,  his  native  country.    He  had  proposed, 

i  -t»ort,  to  recover  for  Spain  all  tliat  had  been  conceded  and  surren- 

n-d  Ixy  the  treaty  of  Utrecht    (Part  II.  Sect.  LXIV.)    The  inter* 

•  '»'oce  of  Englaml.  in  sending  a  fleet  to  the  Mediterranean,  to  sup* 

't  the  rights  of  tne  emperor,  according  to  treaty,  at  the  very  mo* 

•  it  when  the  Spanish  forces  were  prepared  to  invade  Sicily  and 

•  kingdom  of  Naoles,  exceedingly  exasperated  the  cardinal  nk^ 
•>r.  and  Induced  bhn  to  heap  reproaches  on  the  British  govern- 

•  •i.t  for  their  precipitate  proceedings,  pretending  that  the  SpanlarJi 
I  in  mrerj  mstance  manifested  a  iavoarable  disposition  tovnmli 

^tand  ;  though  nothing  was  more  notorious  Hun  that  her  me^ 

..tritp  had  been  scandalously  ill-treated  by  them,  and  her  minisM 

:  Madrid  overwhelmed  with  complaints  to  tfiat  effect    IW  latter, 

ijired,  slated  aficnmds  inihe  hoiM  of  €»iainoo%tha1  he  >taiHAfn»> 

2  34 

Digitized  by  CjOOQIC 


OLKJUtursja  nio±\jn,i. 


sented,  at  the  least,  fite-and-tfireDty  memorials  to  the  court  cf  Sp«2b 
won  me  subject,  mthout  redress ;  and  notwithstandmg  all  these  i» 
dignities,  and  to  evince  the  desire  of  his  government  not  too  precipW 
lately  to  commence  hostilities,  had  communicated  to  the  Spmsh  min- 
ftter  the  numbers  and  force  of  the  English  fleet  before  it  sailed,  m 
order  to  convince  him  of  its  superiority,  and  deter  him  £rom  tba 
measures  he  had  in  view.  The  defeat  oi  the  Spanish  fleet,  off  Sicily, 
by  admiral  Bvng,  August  1,716,  ruined  all  the  projects  of  Aiberoni; 
he  soon  afleriell  into  disgrace,  and  was  precii>itatedfrom  the  exalted 
station  he  had  attained  to  by  the  strength  of  his  genius;  which,  what- 
ever his  enemies  might  allege,  certainly  bespoke  a  keen  and  vigi- 
lant statesman,  and  an  able  mmister,  as  far  as  regarded  the  interests 
of  the  country  he  served,  both  foreign  and  domestic 

10.  Though  so  severe  an  action  had  taken  place  in  the  Mediter 
ranean,  between  the  English  and  Spanish  fleets  in  the  month  of 
August,  war  was  not  formally  declared  at  London  till  the  close  of 
the  year  1,718,  (Dec.  290  between  which  period  and  the  final  dis- 
grace and  retirement  of^  the  Spanish  minister,  he  had  attenopted 
two  measures  of  deep  revenge,  one  on  the  power  and  person  of^  iha 
duke  of  Orleans,  regent  of  Prance,  and  the  other  on  the  fjovern- 
ment  of  George  I.  of  England,  by  an  invasion  of  his  dominions  in 
favour  of  the  pretender,  and  under  the  direction  of  the  expatriated 
duke  of  Ormond.  It  is  remarkable  that  these  projects  were  severally 
detected  by  the  French  regent  and  British  monarch*  in  time  to  admit 
of  their  warning  each  other  of  the  danger  in  which  they  were  tc- 
Bpectively  placed,  and  of  ofl*ering  the  assistance  which  the  cases  re- 
quired. 

11.  The  war  so  suddenly  and  unexpectedly  excited  betivceu 
Great  Britain  and  Spain,  was  in  no  long  course  of  time  brought  to 
an  issue  very  honourable  and  glorious  to  tiie  former ;  admiral  byng, 
with  his  fleet  in  the  Mediterranean,  having  so  managed  matters  :b 
fully  to  accomplish  all  the  purposes  of  his  mission,  putting  the  env 
peror  into  possession  of  Sicily,  and  the  duke  of  Savoy  of^Sardinia, 
under  circumstances  of  peculiar  difiiculty  and  embarrassment^  owing 
lo  the  obstinacy,  backed  by  the  bravery  of  the  Spaniards,  uie  hin- 
drances arising  from  a  succession  of  governors  at  Naples,  and  the 
loss  of  time  ki  the  necessary  communications  with  his  own  court 
and  that  of  Vienna.  No  man,  perhaps,  ever  discharged  so  delicate 
and  arduous  a  commission,  with  more  applause  on  flie  part  of  hit 
own  country  and  her  allies,  or  with  fewer  complaints  and  less  obloouy 
oo  the  part  of  his  opponents.  The  latter  indeed,  in  this  case,  niliicr 
ioined  m  the  commendations  so  liberally  bestowed  on  him  by  his  em 
ployers,  at  the  termination  of  the  short  but  vigorous  contest  When 
ne  waited  on  the  king  at  Hanover,  his  majesty  is  said,  very  justly,  to 
hare  observed  to  him,  that  he  had  found  out  the  secret  of  obliging^ 
hk  enemies  as  well  as  his  friends ;  alluding  to  the  very  honourable 
terms  in  which  the  Spaniards  had  expressed  themselves  concemiiig 
him,  both  as  an  officer  and  negotiator.  He  was  most  deservedly  a^i- 
▼anced  to  the  peerage,  by  the  title  of  viscount  Torrington,  and  hn'^ 
o&er  appropriate  honours  bestowed  upon  him.  TowaStls  the  cloto 
c£  the  year  1,719,  the  kin^  of  Spain  acceded  to  the  terms  of  thv 
quadruple  alliance ;  tus  mmister,  on  the  urgent  and  joint  demand 
ef  the  king  of  England,  ttie  emperor,  and  regent  of  France,  having 
heen  previously  dismissed,  and  banished  the  kingdom  of  Spain. 

IS.  In  the  course  of  the  vear  1,719,  a  bill  was  brought  into  p«^ 
"  by  the  ministry,  for  liimtiDg  the  number  of  t£e  peen.   U 


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MODERN  HISTORY.  5HT 

orifhiaied  with  Lord  Sunderland,  who  is  said  to  have  had  in  view  lo 
restraia  the  power  of  the  prince  of  Wales,  whom  he  had  ofiended. 
when  he  should  succeed  to  the  throne.  Alter  much  dehate,  and  it  ia 
iuppofled  almost  entirely  through  the  uifluence  of  Sir  Kol^rt  Wal- 
poio,  It  was  rejected  by  a  large  majority,  269  to  177. 

13.  In  1,720  tl)e  lung  was  much  occupied  in  afibrding  protection 
anil  support  to  the  protcstant  interests  abroad,  and  in  endeaTOuring 
to  restore  peace  and  tranquillity  amongst  the  northern  stites.  Swe-. 
d«n,  Denmark,  Prussia,  and  Poland,  reaped  the  fruits  of  bis  media- 
tion ;  but  the  czar  resisted  his  proposal*,  and,  for  some  tune,  contfai- 
ued  to  act  against  Sweden,  in  defiance  of  the  combined  operations  ot 
tliat  country  and  England.  He  at  hist,  however,  consented  to  accept 
the  mediation  of  France,  and  peace  was  established  between  KuBSia 
and  Sweden,  by  the  treaty  of  Nystadt,  1,721. 

14.  Nothing  occurred  in  this  reign  more  disastrous  in  its  conf»* 
ou€Dce9,  or  more  strange  and  extravagant  in  its  origin  and  progreaSi 
uian  the  celebrated  6bum  iSm  scheme,  whereby,  though  immense  fof^ 
tuoes  were  rapidly  made  by  some,  many  irnli  vidua  Is  were  ruined, 
and  public  credit  alarmingly  shaken.  The  details  of  this  curious 
speculation  and  bubble  (as  it  has  been  but  too  justly  denominated,) 
it  would  be  exceedingly  uninteresting  to  enter  into,  in  a  work  like 
tiic  present,  and  they  are  easily  to  be  found  elsewhere  ;  but  such  an 
iostamce  of  public  infatuation,  illusion,  and  credulity,  was  only  to  b6 
matched  by  the  Mississippi  scheme,  projected  by  Law,  dunng  the 
regency  In  France,  which  had  a  similar  eiVect,  and  which  was  most 
probafafy  the  model  from  which  Sir  John  Blunt,  the  projector  of  the 
South  ^ea  scheme,  took  the  hint  The  French  system  has  been  sup- 
posed to  have  had  something  more  subsUinti:d  in  it,  with  respect  to 
the  exclusive  trade  to  Louisiana.  But  the  South  Sea  sciieme  had 
certainly  commercial  advantages  attached  to  it  The  two  schemes, 
it  most  he  admitted,  supply  the  most  useful  lesson  to  all  wise  states, 
not  to  tamper  with  the  public  credit,  or  countenance  such  suspicious 
prqjects;  for  though  both  these  adventures  set  out  with  very  plau- 
•»iblc  pretences  of  public  benefit,  and  a  certainty  of  relieving,  mther 
than  distressing,  the  credit  of  the  nation,  their  course  and  progress 
sooD  became  such  as  to  excite  the  most  lively  apprehensions  m  nil 
considerate  mlmls,  of  the  consequences  which  actually  ensued ;  es- 
peciallyin  England. 

15.  The  politics  of  Europe  were  in  a  very  perplexed  state,  to- 
wanfe  the  close  of  the  reign  of  George  I.,  owing  to  t^vo  treaties, 
*A  which  some  account  has  been  given  in  another  place,  but  which 
were  very  important  to  the  English  nation.  These  were  the  trea- 
u«^  of  Vienna  and  Hanover,  tiie  former  of  which  took  place  in 
April,  and  the  latter  in  September,  1,725.  By  the  former,  the  em* 
pr-ror  and  Spain  were  supposed  secretly  to  have  bound  themselvea 
to  procure  the  restitution  of  Gibraltar  and  Fort  Mahon,  to  the  latter 
|N>vrerj  to  aid  the  pretender,  and  to  further  the  interests  of  the  Os^ 
t'Effid  MSi  India  Company,  which  had  given  umbrage  to  England, 
iioUaod,  and  France.  By  the  latter  treaty,  England  was  able  lo 
?«?cure  on  her  side,  against  the  projects  of  Austria  and  Spain^  the 
kings  of  Pru«)aia  and  Sweden,  ana  the  states  of  Holland ;  but  as  thia 
Aid  was  Tery  slowly  and  reluctantly  promised,  and,  in  one  iostancef 
#o<xi  abandoned,  the  state  of  aflaiis  would  have  been  very  ahirming, 
bat  lor  the  encouragement  given  by  parliament,  which  was  so  effe^ 
foal,  that  though  coosideraUe  preparations  for  war  took  place  on  the 
part  of  almoat  all  the  oatiooi  coocexned,  articles  of  peafie^  tbnragli 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


i|»  MODERN  msTOHir. 

the  medlatioa  of  Frapce,  were  agreed  apon  fn  Maj,  1«727,  and  m^ 
oepted  by  the  imperial  court  and  Spain ;  by  these  the  cnarter  of  th* 
Ostend  company  was  suspended  for  a  certain  period,  and  the  siege 
o^  Gibraltar,  which  had  actually  commenced,  and  l)een  carried  on 
for  tour  months,  raised  and  al)anaoned. 

16.  George  I.  died  at  Osnaburgh,  on  his  way  to  bis  electoral  do- 
minions,  June  11, 1,727,  with  the  reputation  of  an  honest  and  generous 
prince.  He  was  brave  in  the  field,  and  wise  In  council ;  having  had 
many  arduous  negotiations  on  his  hands,  which  he  commonly  con« 
ducted  to  a  fiivourubi^issue ;  not  often,  however,  without  large  sub- 
sidies.  His  own  measures  were  generally  defensive  and  preventa- 
tive. He  was  fortunate  In  the  state  of  thin^  at  the  period  of  Queen 
Anne^s  death,  and  in  the  removal  of  Lewis  iCIV.,  and  Charies  ML  of 
Sweden,  both  of  whom  were  personally  unfriendly  to  him,  and  cer- 
tainly had  projects  on  foot  for  the  restoration  of  the  Stuart  ikmily. 
King  George  constantly  manifested  a  disposition  to  govern  according 
to  the  laks  and  constitution  of  the  kingdom.  And  it  has  been  observ- 
ed to  his  credit,  that  the  nation  not  only  improved  in  wealth  and 
credit  during  his  reign,  but  enjoyed  a  greater  decree  of  tranquillity 
M  home,  and  a  longer  duration  of  peace  abroad,  than  during  anv 
period  since  the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  At  the  time  of  his  death 
ne  was  in  the  sixty-eighth  year  of  his  age. 


SECTION  111. 

AUSTRIA  (AND  GERMANY)  FROM  THE  PEACE  OF  RASTADl, 
1,714,  TO  THE  PEACE  OP  AIX-LA-CHAPELLE,  1,748. 

1.  The  afi^rs  of  Austria,  as  incidentally  connected  with  those  of 
France.  Spain,  England,  Italy,  and  Prussia,  from  the  year  1,713  to 
1,738,  nave  been  already  treated  of  in  the  preceding  sections.  It 
may  be  necessary,  however,  to  take  a  brief  view  of  matters,  from  the 
commencement  of  the  reign  of  Charles  VI.,  to  the  death  of  that  moo^ 
arch ;  which  event,  as  we  shall  have  to  show,  greatly  disturbed  the 
whole  of  Europe,  and  occasioned  the  war  which  was  terminated  by 
the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  1,748. 

2.  Charles  VI.,  who  had  borne  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  successfcm 
war,  as  a  competitor  for  the  Spanish  throne,  (rart  II.  Sect.  LXIV.) 
became  emperor  in  the  year  1,711.  on  the  demise  of  his  eldei 
brother,  Joseph  I.  Though  he  baa  declined  becoming  a  parh^  to 
the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  in  1,713,  it  was  not  long  before  he  perceived 
his  error,  being  left  alone  to  support  an  expensive  war.  In  the  fol- 
lowing yeaTj  therefore,  he  received  the  proi>08als  made  to  him  by 
the  court  or  Versailles,  consented  to  the  opening  of  conferences,  in 
the  month  of  November,  1,713,  and,  in  the  March  following,  I  {7 14, 
signed  the  treaty  of  Rastadt,  by  which  he  obtained  possession  or  the 
Spanish  Netherlands,  (except  the  barrier  towns  ceded  to  Holland,) 
If  aples,  Sardinia,  Milan,  Frieourg,  and  Kehl. 

3.  But  he  was  very  soon  disturbed  in  a  part  of  these  acouiaitiona, 
^  the  restlessness  and  jealousy  of  Spain,  already  noticed.  Great  do- 
pe were  formed  against  his  Italian  territories:  Sardinia  actually 
ken  from  him,  in  1,717 ;  Sicily^  in  1,718,  ^d  further  encroachments 

pngected,  but  for  the  timely  mterposition  of  the  English*  imdet 
mkoinl  Byng,  In  the  Mediterranean,  (Sect  II.  §  9,  llT)  wlio  sooi 


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MODERN  HISTORY.  S69 

lir(ni|;bt  tnatten  to  a  iavourable  Issue  for  Austria,  with  infinite  cr^( 
iv>  himself,  both  as  an  officer  and  a  negotiator. 

4.  Spain  had  eagerly  caught  at  the  opportunity  wliich  presented 
iself  of  mailing  these  attaclts  upon  Austria,  while  the  latter  power 
V.  as  engajged  in  war  with  Turkey,  in  aid  of  the  Venetians.  The 
1  urks,  (instigated,  it  has  been  said,  by  the  Spanish  minister^  to 
engage  the  attention  of  Anstria.)  in  violation  of  the  treaty  of  Car- 
iowitz,  had  taken  the  Morea  from  the  Venetians,  before  Austria 
4Mme  to  their  aid,  in  the  year  1,716;  nor,  though  from  that  time 
•.'  powerfully  assisted,  were  they  able  to  recover  that  peninsula 

<  luirles  VL,  however,  was  not  long  at  variance  with  the  Porte  upon 
ilsi'i  occasion.  As  early  as  the  year  K718,  through  the  extraordinary 
«k:LI  and  valour  of  prince  Eueene,  tne  Austrian  commander,  things 
^^crc  brought  to  an  issue,  and  a  peace  concluded,  through  tiie  me- 

•  '.i.ttion  of  England  and  Holland,  at  Passarowitz,  by  which  the  Turki 
tvore  allowed  to  retain  the  Morea,  on  ceding  to  the  Venetians  some 
!.  tntier  towns  in  Albania  and  Dalmatia,  white  Austria  obtained  Bel' 
£:rjde,  the  Bannat  of  Temeswar  and  Wallachia,  as  far  as  the  Aluta  : 
^  le  was  also  able  to  establish  a  free  commerce  in  all  the  harbours  of 
t.it'  Black  Sea,  and  of  the  Danube,  as  well  as  with  the  Persians.  The 
.  iriy  termination  of  this  war,  together  with  the  successes  of  the 
ilngUsh  on  the  shores  of  Sicily,  checked  the  operations  of  the  Span- 
i  itm,  and  disposed  them  to  agree  to  the  terms  of  the  quadruple  al- 
ii.mcc-  Spain  and  Austria,  however,  were  not  effectually  reconciled 
till  ibe  year  1,725,  at  which  period  the  emperor  was  induced  to  re- 
U'  'jnce  his  pretensions  upon  Spain  and  the  Indies* 

5.  Charles  VI.  was  for  a  long  time  deeply  ocxupied  in  endeavour- 
•i)<  to  preserve  his  own  dominions  from  sucn  difiiculties  as  Spain  had 
»cc'fi  involved  in,  at  the  beginning  of  this  century,  owing  to  the  dis- 

f>'ited  succession  to  the  Spanish  throne,  on  the  demise  of  Charles  IL, 
;ir)d  in  which  he  had  himself  been  so  greatly  concerned.  He  proposr 

•  1,  for  this  end,  by  a  "  Praf^matic  Sanction,"  to  make  it  a  law,  that 
.!  he  should,  at  the  time  ol  his  death,  have  either  sons  or  daugh- 
.  -n*,  the  hereditary  dominions  and  crowns  belonging  to  the  house  ol 
A  •I'^trL],  should  remain  united.    In  failure  of  such  issue,  male  or  Ic- 

.  ilo,  the  daughters  of  his  deceased  brother,  Joseph,  were  to  succeed ; 

•  •..1  iC  they  died  without  heirs,  the  inheritance  was  to  pass  to  his  si^- 
'■nt^  and  their  descendants.  When  this  act  was  proposed,  at  the 
'.••t  of  Ratisbon,  it  was  violently  resisted  by  tlie  electors  of  Siixony 
.uii  Bavaria,  as  well  as  the  elector  Palatine,Dut  by  the  treaty  of  Vies 

.  u  1,731,  as  well  as  by  previous  negotiations  at  toe  different  courts  of 

; .  jrope,  almost  every  power,  except  France,  was  brought  to  consent 

•  t))e  proposed  regulations;  England  and  Holland,  in  particular, 

-  I  vizie  been  gained  over  by  tlie  emperor^s  agreement  to  suppress  the 

!.   w  East  India  Company  which  he  had  endeavoured  to  establish 

:  r  Jsteod.    The  guarantee  of  France  was  not  obtained  till  six  yeara 

M-r,  in  recompense  of  the  transfer  of  the  duchies  of  Lorraine  ana 

tf  to  the  latter  power,  on  the  demise  of  Staniskius.  kine  of  Poland, 

«  t.o  obtained  the  government  of  those  countries  by  the  treaty  ol 

.;.  Charles  VL  bad  scarcely  succeeded  in  his  great  object  of  the 
-  rocaiatk  sanction,  before  be  was  engaged  in  a  fresh  war  with  the 
i  i^LS,  in  virtue  or  a  treaty  concluded  with  Russia,  who  had  corn- 
coo  need  hostilities  against  the  Porte,  m  1,736.  The  war  on  the 
.>.*rt  o€  Austria,  however,  was  of  very  short  duration.  She  had 
•.?t  tbc  lappoit  of  her  famous  general,  prina^|:u|^q§4)(5gj  htr 


270  MODERN  HlS'iXiUi . 

•nnieAi  oa  the  present  occasion,  appear  to  have  been  ill  conducted 
Jealousies  and  disagreements  amongst  the  superior  officers,  and  a 
great  want  of  resources,  baffled  all  their  operations.  In  1,739,  the 
emperor  was  compelled  to  submit  to  the  terms  of  the  U'eaty  of 
Belgrade,  which  was  highly  advantageous  to  Turkey.  Austria 
surrendered  Servia,  with  the  fortresses  of  Belgrade  ana  Szabatch ; 
and  Austrian  Waliachia,  with  the  fortress  of  Orsova.  By  the  treaty 
of  Belgrade,  the  Porte  also  obtained  advantages  over  Russia ;  but  U 
is  BOW  Known,  that  this  convention  was  very  artfully  conducted  by 
an  aecnt  of  the  French  court,  who  was  instructed  not  only  to  prevent 
the  dismemberment  of  Turkey,  by  the  combined  forces  of  Austria 
and  Russia,  but  to  resist  tlie  aggrandizement  of  the  former,  and 
separate  her,  if  possible,  from  her  northern  ally. 

7.  In  the  year  immeaiately  following  tliat  in  which  the  treaty  of 
Belgrade  had  restored  harmony  between  the  two  courts  of  Vienna 
and  Constantinople,  so  much  to  the  advantage  of  the  latter,  Charlcfl 
VI.  died,  the  last  heir-male  of  the  Austrian  line  of  princes.  Notwith- 
tflanding  all  the  care  he  had  taken  to  secure  to  his  daughter  the 
entire  hereditary  dominions  of  his  family ;  and  thoueh  almost  the 
whole  of  Europe  had  guaranteed  the  indivisibility  of  his  dominions, 
according  to  his  wishes,  he  was  no  sooner  dead  than  numerous 
claims  were  set  up,  and  a  war  kindled,  which  may  be  said  to  have, 
in  its  progress,  involved  every  European  slate.  The  arcbduchess^ 
Maria  Theresa,  consort  of  Francis,  auke  of  Tuscany,  according  to 
the  terms  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  (which,  however,  had  been  ill 
drawn  up,)  succeeded,  on  the  death  of  her  father,  to  the  following 
kingdoms,  states,  and  territories:  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  Silesda 
and  Austrian  Suabia,  Upper  and  Lower  Austria,  Styria,Carinthia, 
Camiola,  Burgau,  Bris^au,  the  Low-Countries,  Friuli,  Tyrol,  ihe 
Mantuan,  and  the  Duchies  of  Milan,  Parma,  and  Placentia. 

8.  Unfortunately  for  the  archduchess,  Charles  VI.  had  left  his 
army  in  a  bad  condition,  his  finances  emoarrassed,  and,  at  the  time 
of  his  death,  a  scarcity  almost  approaching  to  famine,  prevailed  in 
many  parts  of  his  dominions.  All  these  circumstances  combined. 
were  calculated  to  raise  up  competitors  for  different  portions  of  hi* 
estates.  Nor  were  they  at  all  tardy  in  advancing  their  claims.  Tiic 
elector  of  Bavaria  pretended  to  be  the  proper  heir  to  the  kingdom 
of  Bohemia.  Augustus  II.,  elector  of  Saxony  and  king  of  Poland, 
naving  married  Uie  eldest  daughter  of  Joseph  1.,  elder  brother  of 
Charles  VI.,  claimed  the  whole  Austrian  succession.  The  king  of 
Spain  did  the  same,  though  upon  a  more  remote  title,  and  entirely 
tl)rough  females.  The  king  of  Sardinia  made  pretensions  to  the 
duchy  of  fililan,  and  Frederic  U.,  of  Prussia,  to  the  province  of  Sile« 
sia. 

9.  Many  of  these  several  claimants  had  formally  agreed  to  the 
terms  of  the  pra^atic  sanction,  and  even  at  Brst  professed  the  mo«t 
favourable  dispositions  towards  the  archduchess,  who  had  taken  quiet 
possession  of  all  that  had  descended  to  her ;  but  the  times,  and  the 
pecuUar  cuxjumstances  of  the  empire,  encouraged  them  to  break 
through  their  engagements ;  not,  however,  altogether  without  sonif 
Tiretence  of  honour  and  justice ;  as  was  the  case  with  France.  Tb 
kioe;  of  France  had,  as  well  as  the  kings  of  Poland  and  Spain,  piY- 
fended  tp  have  derived  a  right  from  two  princesses,  married  to  Le'- 
II XIII.  and  XIV.,  to  the  whole  succession ;  but  choosing,  rather  tlftn 
to  depend  upon  these  titles,  to  take  the  part  of  the  elector  of  Bar»* 
Bit,  he  kiftisted  that,  \n  his  guarantee  of  the  Pragm^(^^<^tk)n«  by  the 


MODERN  HISTORY.  t71 

clause  ^sint  pro^udicio  tertii^  he  was  fairly  led  at  liberty  to  espooai 
any  claims  toat  should  appear  to  him  more  just  than  those  of  tha 
arcbduches!,  queen  of  Hungary.  This  clause  had.  indeed,  been  in^ 
troduced  into  some  of  the  acts  of  guarantee,  thougn  not  into  alL 

10.  The  most  forward  and  active  of  the  quecn^  opponents  was  a 
prince  little  known  till  thcn^  Frederic  king  of  Prussia,  at  that  tima 
about  twenty-eight  years  of  age.  He  had  succeeded,  through  tha 
prodeoce  ot  his  father,  to  an  army  and  a  treasury  of  no  inconsider- 
able importance ;  both  of  which  he  had  himself  also  found  time  (o 
improye.  His  movements  were  sudden,  and  quite  unexpected  by 
tbe  court  of  Vienna ;  and  he  soon  made  known  what  his  demands 
were^  proposing  that  if  they  should  be  granted,  he  would  support 
Aostna  against  other  enemies,  and  assist  the  queen  in  placing  her 
husband  on  the  Imperial  throne.  He  pretended,  indeed,  at  first,  to 
be  ooly  desirous  ot  occupying  Silesia,  as  a  friend  to  the  queen;  but 
the  waak  was  soon  laid  aside,  and  his  fixed  determination  to  become 
master  of  Lower  Silesia  rendered  visible  to  all  the  world. 

11.  The  queen  would  consent  to  the  surrender  of  no  part  of  her 
inheritance,  though  possibly  her  refusal  in  this  instance,  occasioned 
the  alUance  soon  afterwards  formed  between  the  couit  of  Versailles 
and  Frederic,  from  which  she  suffered  so  much.  England,  It  is  said, 
counselled  submission  In  the  point  of  Silesia,  foreseeing  the  conse* 
quences ;  but  worse  consequences,  perluips,  were  to  be  apprehend- 
ed J,  had  she  complied.  It  would,  in  all  likelihood,  have  disposed 
others  to  urge  tlieir  claims  with  greater  importunity. 

12.  Aided  by  France  and  Saxony,  the  elector  of  Bavaria,  towards 
the  middle  of  the  year  1,741,  acquired  possession  of  the  kingdom  of 
Bohemia,  and  was  proclaimed  king,  and  inaugurated  with  great 
I'oleamJty;  and,  on  the  1 2th  of  February,  1,742,  he  had  the  imperial 
ifiirnitj  conferred  on  him  by  the  diet  ot  Frankfort,  under  the  title  of 
Ctiaries  VII.,  having  been  chosen,  however,  when  some  of  the  elec- 
tors were  disqualified  from  voting. 

13.  Never  was  there  a  greater  prospect  of  a  total  dismembermeni 
oi  the  Austrian  dominions  than  at  this  time.  Different  parts  wera 
regularly  assigned  to  the  several  claimants,  and  nothing  left  for  the 
<5aughter  of  Charles  VI.  but  the  kingdom  of  Hungary,  Sie  province 
of  Lower  Austria,  the  Belgian  states,  and  the  duchies  of  Carinthia, 
Styria,  and  Caraiola.  Precautions  had  even  been  taken  to  prevent 
her  deriving  any  aid  from  Russia,  by  exciting  Sweden  to  declare  wai 
against  the  latter  power.  But  the  spirit  ot  this  surprising  woman 
«« OS  Dot  to  be  broken  by  the  powerful  combination  against  her.  She 
li id,  at  the  very  commencement  of  her  reign^  in  a  singular  and  ex 
tnionliaary  manner,  and  with  consummate  wisdom,  particularly  by 
*  iking  the  ancient  oath  of  klo^  Andrew  IL,  attachecl  to  her  interests 
tb^  brave  Hungarians.  Repairing  to  them  with  her  infant  son,  she 
t  irew  herself  entirely  upon  their  protection,  and,  in  the  most  public 
tninner.  addressing  them  in  the  Latin  language,  at  a  special  assembly 
«  \  tbe  states,  presented  her  child  to  them  in  terms  the  most  pathetic 
Supported  bv  their  valour,  and  with  the  help  of  English  and  Dutch 
mooej,  she  Saffled  all  her  enemies,  and  finally  dissipated^  the  storm 
ttiut  so  rudely  threatened  her.  it  was  not,  indeed,  until  Walpole  was 
rf>xiiOTed  from  the  English  ministry  that  the  queen  received  any  ac- 
tive aasiftancc  from  the  king  of  England ;  but  afterwards,  both  id 
Kfcaoden  and  Italy,  he  was  a  powerful  ally.  She  also  derived  soma 
puccours  from  the  king  of  Sardinia,  Dot,  however,  very  creditably 
purchased  with  regard  to  Geno& 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


fo 


«7S  MODERN  HISTORY. 

14  Had  the  nnineraiB  powers  first  armed  aeainst  Maria  Theresft, 
or  intimidated  into  a  state  of  neutrality,  agreed  amongst  themselTes, 
it  would  hare  been  impossible  for  the  queen  to  have  withstood  their 
attacks ;  but,  fortunately  for  her,  many  stood  so  directly  in  a  state  of 
rivalship  towards  each  other,  and  France  was  such  an  object  of  sus 
picion  and  alarm  to  almost  all  tlie  other  confederates,  that  their  very 
nrst  movements  produced  jealousies  and  divisions  amongst  them ; 
and,  what  is  very  remarkable,  the  earliest  who  showed  a  dispoation 
to  treat  with  the  queen  was  the  king  of  Prussia,  in  consequence  of 
the  successes  of  the  elector  of  Bavaria  in  Bohemia. 

15.  The  interference  of  Encland,  in  behalf  of  the  queen,  did  at 
first,  indeed,  only  exasperate  I<  ranee,  and  the  other  allies  of  Charles 
VII..  and  excite  them  to  a  more  vigorous  opposition.  But  the  death 
of  tnc  emneror,  in  the  rear  1,745,  who  had  derived  no  happiness, 
but,  mdeed,  a  great  deal  of  misery,  from  his  short  exaltation,  and  his 
son's  prudent  and  wise  abandonment  of  such  high  dignities,  in  order 
to  secure  his  quiet  possession  of  his  paternal  dominions,  lefl  the 
queen  at  liberty  to  procure  for  her  husband,  Francis,  grand  duke  of 
Tuscany,  the  imperial  crown ;  his  election  to  which  took  place  In 
the  month  of  September  of  the  same  year ;  the  queen  agreeing  to 
admit  the  young  elector  of  Bavaria  to  the  full  possession  of  his  he- 
reditary dominions,  and  to  acknowledge  his  father,  Charles  VII.,  to 
have  been  duly  invested  with  the  imperial  dignity.  After  some 
signal  successes,  the  queen^s  great  adversary,  tne  King  of  Prussia, 
also  came  into  her  terms,  having  agreed,  in  a  treaty  concluded  at 
Dresden,  to  acknowledge  the  valimty  of  Francises  election,  on  being 
fut  in  possession  of  Silesia  and  the  county  of  Glatz,  the  chief  oljects 
ror  which  he  had  been  contending.  The  elector  Palatine  was  like- 
wise  included  in  this  treaty. 

16.  The  French  continued  the  war  in  the  Netherlands,  as  well 
as  in  Italy,  and  with  considerable  success ;  but  the  queen  l)eing  a 
good  deal  disembarrassed  by  the  peace  she  had  been  able  to  con- 
clude with  Prussia,  had  it  soon  in  her  power  to  recover  all  tlwt 
the  French  and  Spaniards  had  acquired  m  Italy,  while  (lie  French 
conquests  in  Flanders  and  Holland  led  to  the  rc-establisbment  of 
the  stadtholdership,  and  thereby  baffled  all  their  hopes  of  future 
advantages  in  those  parts.  The  interference  of  tlie  empress  of 
Russia,  subsidized  by  England,  and,  above  all,  the  peculiar  situation 
of  the  king  of  France,  whose  finances  were  almost  exhausted,  and 
who  had  suffered  severe  losses  by  sea^  tended  to  bring  matters  to  an 
issue.  A  congress  was  opened  at  Aix-la-^hapelle,  which,  though 
rather  slow  in  jts  operations,  at  last  terminated  in  a  peace,  concluded 
October  7,  1,748,  exactly  a  hundred  years  after  the  famous  treaty 
of  Westphalia,  which  served  for  a  basis  of  the  negotiations  entered  into 
upon  this  occasion.  By  this  convention,  as  in  most  other  instances  o 
the  same  nature,  there  was  so  general  a  restitution  of  conquests,  as 
plainly  to  mark  the  folly  and  injustice  of  having  continued  the  war 
^o  long.  During  this  contest,  in  the  year  1,743,  died  the  cardmal  de 
1^'leurv.  first  minister  of  France,  at  the  very  advanced  age  of  ninety. 
He  did  not  assume  the  reins  of  government  till  he  was  seveDt>;- 
three.  He  had  many  virtues,  but  was  much  more  admired  by  his 
countrymen  for  his  integrity  and  disinterestedness,  than  for  energy 
of  character,  or  public  spint 

17.  The  treaty  of  Aix-Ia-Chapelle  bringing  us,  as  nearly  as  can  be, 
to  the  piiddle  ot  the  eifbteenth  century,  it  may  be  welt  to  take  a 


y  Google 


MODERN  HISTORT.  273 

ftew  9f  EarCM  at  this  particular  period,  and  as  ^oonected  with 
this  cekbrated  treaty ;  but  this  must  do  reserred  for  a  future  section 


SECTION  IV. 

£5GLAlfD  FROM   THE  ACCESSION   OF  GEORGE  II.  TO  THE 
THRONE,  l,7f7,  TO  HIS  DEATH,  1,7«0. 

1.  The  accession  of  George  II.,  who  came  to  the  throne  1,727,  Id 
the  44th  jear  of  bis  age,  and  in  a  time  of  profound  peace,  was  not  aV 
tended  with  such  changes  as  manj  had  expected.  Even  the  minis- 
ter himself,  sir  Robert  Waipole^  is  said  to  have  been  surprised  at  the 
reception  ne  met  with  from  his  msgesty,  on  the  demise  of  the  late 
king,  and  at  the  continuance  of  the  power  in  bis  hands.  But  this  is 
now  known  to  have  been  owing  to  the  wise  and  prudent  care  of 
queen  Caroline,  who,  at  this  moment,  was  found  to  possess  an  infla 
ence  over  her  royal  consort,  which  had  been  by  many  little  suspect 
od.  but  which  her  extreme  good  sense,  and  discreet  conduct,  seemed 
ttilly  to  justii'y.  The  whirs  might  justly  be  considered  as  tlie  truest 
friends  of  the  house  of  Hanover  and  the  protestant  church ;  and 
their  continuance  in  power  at  the  commencement  of  a  new  reign, 
though  very  grating  to  the  adverse  party,  seemed  to  be  extremely 
Livourable  to  the  quiet  of  the  nation. 

2.  The  good-will  which  had  8prung  up,  and  been  encouraged  dop- 
ing the  regency,  between  the  rival  courts  of  V  ersailles  and  London. 
»«*s  not  materially  disturbed  during  the  whole  administnilion  or 
Walpole,  and  his  pacilic  contemporary,  carcliiial  Fleury ;  tlic  queen 
l>eing  abo  friendly  to  peace.  But  as  it  is  not  ea«(y  for  any  penceabb 
government  long  to  escape  the  encroachments  ol  other  siiUes,  Si>ain^ 
apparently  presuming  on  the  forbearaiico  or  apathy  of  the  British 
nimistry,  committed  great  depredations^  for  a  scries  of  years,  upon 
the  trade  of  Lngland  with  America  and  the  West-Indies,  committing 
uiany  acts  of  most  atrocious  cruelty,  in  addition  to  (heir  other  deeds 
«'f  iosiilt  and  plunder.  Some  step  were  at  length  taken  to  remedy 
tikcse  evils,  but  the  conduct  of  bpain  was  so  generally  resented  by 
Uie  nation,  us  to  render  even  the  convention,  by  which  the  disputes 
were  referred  to  arbitration,  extremely  unpopular.  It  being  thought* 
I  >  manv  of  all  descriptions,  not  only  Uiat  the  grievances  complained 
r\  bad  been  too  long  submitted  to  and  endured,  and  the  measures 
ii<lberto  taken  to  redress  them  been  too  t^ime  and  submissive,  but 
Tttat  nothing  less  than  a  war  could  restore  the  lost  consequence  of 
llje  state,  or  bring  such  offenders  to  reason. 

3.  The  Spaniards,  indeed,  had  defended  their  conduct  in  many 
meoiorials,  pretending  that  the  English  were  the  aggressors,  in  ca»- 
rying  on  a  cootrabana  and  unlawful  trade  with  their  colonies  ;  bat 
li'^  ttiJS  been  capable  of  proof  to  the  extent  the  Spaniards  pretend 
^.  which  was  certainly  not  the  ca^e,  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  they 
9afiered  themselves  to  be  hurried  into  most  unjustifiable  excesses  m 
Uieir  measures  of  reprisal,  and  exceedingly  iil-treated  both  the  me»» 
chants  and  sailors  of  England.  They  is^si^ted  upon  a  general  riglll 
of  aeaich,  on  the  open  seas,  luu}  conJiMimcd  the  ships  and  cargoeii 
upon  soch  frivolous  pretences  as  couM  hot  fail  to  be  extreme^  l» 

jurioot  and  oppressive,  and  (luite  rr  a/.«rv  to  existing  treatiesL    l|k 
^nt  imance,  a  whola  fleet  of  English  mc  r*.  liiDt^i^t,  at  the-isknd  of 

Digitize^^^OOgie 


174  MODERN  HISTORT. 

ToiittgM,  was  attacked  by  SpaniardSi  as  if  the  two  nattons  bad  been 
<t  open  war. 

4.  It  would  be  scarcely  possible,  perhaps,  to  ju^ify  entirely  the 
extraordinary  forbearance  of  the  British  goTerament,  for  nearly 
twenty  years,  during  which  not  only  these  indignities  had  been  a»- 
tinu&lly  repeated,  but  express  engagements,  and  promises  to  redress 
and  abstain  from  such  aggressions  in  future,  notoriously  violated 
This  had  been  remarkably  the  case  with  respect  to  the  stipolatiom 
of  the  treaty  of  Seville,  concluded  in  the  year  1,729.  There  were 
Tery  warm  debates  in  parliament  on  the  subject,  and  the  ministrj 
weie  hard  pressed  to  defend  themselves  from  the  charge  of  supioe- 
ness,  gross  mdifference  to  the  sufferings  of  the  merchants,  ana  tbo 
b(Hiour  of  the  crown,  and,  in  some  instances,  even  of  criminal  conniv- 
ance^ And,  indeed,  their  opponents  obtained,  at  length,  this  triumph 
eprer  them,  that  the  very  convention  which  was  to  be  the  preliminft- 
ry  of  a  perfect  adjustment  of  differences,  and  a  surety  for  the  indetiK 
nificatipn  of  the  merchants  for  all  their  losses,  was,  like  every  pre- 
ceding treaty  and  compact,  disregarded  by  Spain,  and  war  obliged 
to  be  declared  before  the  year  was  out,  to  compel  her  to  raort 
just  and  equitable  measures.  The  war,  however,  was  not  so  success- 
ful as  to  render  it  clear  that  the  pacific  and  wary' proceedings  of  the 
British  minister  were  otherwise  than  most  prudent  and  wise,  consid- 
ering the  general  circumstances  of  Europe.  ^  Omnia  prius  expe- 
riri  verbis  quam  armis  sapientem  decet,'^  is  a  maxim  which  haA 
been  applied  to  the  conduct  of  sir  Robert  Walpole*  by  an  authoi;, 
not  backward  to  admit  that,  on  some  points,  in  regard  to  continental 
politics,  the  pacific  system  was  carried  too  far.  The  period  during 
which  it  prevailed  will,  certainly,  for  ever  be  a  remarkable  era  in 
English  history,  especially  as  the  reigning  sovereign  was  notorious- 
ly a  soldier,  and  by  no  means  personally  disposed  to  adopt  so  inactive 
a  line  of  conduct 

6.  Though  the  people  had  been  clamorous  for  the  war  with 
Spaln^  they  were  soon  dissatisfied  with  the  conduct  of  it,  and  that  to 
so  great  a  degree,  as  to  compel  the  minister,  sir  Robert  Walpoie, 
though  with  considerable  reluctance,  to  resign  his  appointments ; 
which  took  place  in  February,  1,742;  the  approbation  of  his  sove- 
reign being  manifested  in  his  elevation  to  the  peerage,  by  the  title  of 
can  of  OSbrd.  He  w;is  succeeded  by  lord  Carteret  Sir  Robert 
Walpoie  had  been  an  able,  intelligent,  and  prudent  minister ;  a  con- 
stant lover  of  peace,  in  the  way  of  defence  and  prevention ;  awl 
upon  tliis  he  prided  himself :  he  was  of  the  whig  party,  which  ex- 
posed him  much  to  the  rancour,  not  only  of  those  whose  political 
opinions  were  different,  but  of  manif  disappointed  pjersons  who 
thought  with  him.  By  these  he  was  stigmatized  as  having  reduced 
corruption  to  a  system ;  but  by  others,  this  charge  was  as  confidently 
rebelled ;  nor  would  it  be  difficult  to  prove  that,  though  he  often  spoWb 
as  if  he  knew  every  man's  price*  he  governed,  not  by  corruptioDi 
but  by  party  attachments,  as  his  friends  and  admirers  have  alleged. 
Upqn  two  great  occasions  his  plans  were  thwarted  by  some  who 
Ijiyed  to  see  and  correct  their  errors,  as  was  the  case,  particularly^ 
with  BIr.  ntt.  m  regard  to  the  excise  bill,  first  proposed  to  the  housB 
of  commons  m  the  year  1,732.  There  was  never,  perhaps,  a  casB 
in  which  party,  faction,  and  isnorance  prevailed  more  over  trutlik 
and  justice,  and  prudquce.  The  bill  was  calculated  to  check  aotf 
control  the  most  gross  and  pernicious  frauds  upon  the  revenues ;  t» 
fi^v.oiir  and  encourage,  in  ev.ery  possibljS  manper,.  the  fpir  dealeib 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  TJh 

'inJ  throoi^h  him  the  public  in  general,)  and  by  the  savings  pit)- 
i:xed  in  the  treasury,  materially  to  lighten  the  public  burthens :  yet 
•iirb  a  clammir  was  raised  against  the  measure,  from  iU  first  sugget- 
t  a  as  to  oblige  the  minister  to  abandon  it 

b.  The  otlier  measure,  which  brought  ^reat  odium  on  this  abW 
niM^r  of  finance,  was  hjs  trespass  on  the  sinking  fund,  first  estab- 
l.vic.l  in  ],7t27,  ancl  which  he  made  no  scruple  to  alienate  for  public 
p.:[>u^  as  occasion  seemed  to  require.  The  very  name  of  thif 
1  .r.i  i§  DOt  equally  applicable  to  all  times.  At  first  it  arose  entlrelT 
Km  savings  and  its  oerpetual  or  uninterrupted  operation  under  such 

.:t  uiDstanc^  would  appear  to  have  been  an  Indispensable  part  of 
.:<  character.  It  had  been  calculated  as  proceeding  upon  the  basis 
«:  compound  interest;  while  new  loans  and  debts,  contracted  for 
pr*  fiog  emergencies,  were  held  to  burthen  the  public  in  the  way 
> .'  *nti>ie  interest  onlv.  But  in  the«e  days,  the  whole  state  of  the 
\  .^  «>>n  is  changed.    The  modem  sinking  fund  is  not  a  sinking  fund 

:  Miyhi^es  or  savings^  but  in  itself  a  borrowed  fund ;  of  great  power 
a'*!  (real  utility,  occasionally,  but  plainly  at  the  command  of  tlie 
y  'uc,  whenever  the  current  expenses  cannot  be  provided  for  at  a 
!  ^(09t;  and,  indeed,  oAen  bencticiaily  to  be  applied  to  such  pur* 
p*>  m  greater  or  less  proportions,  to  the  avoidance  of  many 
>•  \f^  charges  of  manjigement,  high  premiums,  and  new  taxes.  Th« 
>..  utitja  of  the  original  sinking  tund,  by  sir  Robert  Walpole,  how* 

•  "T.  bas  been  very  ably  detended  since,  though  opposed  and  rcisisW 
'  \\  tht"  time^  with  a  virulence  and  aniuiosity  exceedingly  diitreur 

'-^'  t .  ttwt  mioMter. 

T.  IV  n«*w  administration,  which  came  into  power  on  tlie  resi^- 
»     -n  if  \V:ilp<>le,  so  little  answered  the  expectations  of  tlieir 

•  .  -s  J(viate<l  »o  soon  from  tlie  principles  they  had  avowed,  while 
-  .>  M^i'ion,  aiid  sormed  so  mucii  more  (lisj>osed  to  e>4>oiiJie  the 
'  ■  -m  Htnover,  nt  the  expense,  and  to  the  los?,  of  llnghuid,  in 

•  -    -  •uti-hjies  aiid  foreign  wars,  than  to  attend  to  the  domestic 

•  ;i(.eM  ufifler  which  she  was  supposed  to  be  labouring,  that  tlicy 
•'•  le.  m  a  very  short  time,  quite  as  unnoiMilar  a;*  their  predeceik 

'  "v  afli  in  1,745,  tlie  very  year  in  whicfi  vVaiiKjle  died,  the  rehel- 

•  r   -ie  out  in  Scotland. 

.  'iiii«  attompt  against  tlie  hou<(e  of  Hanover*  undertaken  bv  tht 

.:  of  iIk'  >tuait  family,  in  person,  was,  undoubtedly,  an  il[-con> 

I  «^  it  wa9  ultimately  an  unsuccef^ful,  entcrpri*^e  ;  though  to 

'»    :  jIt 'O'ther  a  weak  one,  would  be  contrary  to  historical  truth. 

*•  rtiw«.K''mL»nL,  indeed,  had  all  the  app«»arance  of  the  most  ro- 

^  ij:iaiualir»n,  but  in  its  pro^re^s  it  became  so  forniiduhlc,  at 

..  to  ihnMt4*n  thp  rnpital  of  Knt^Ian^f,  and  the  protestant  sucret* 

•.  •.  n.>r  \\'A%  it  *«jlMlut'd  without  gn-at  eff«>rts  and  exertions  on  tli« 

!  ri '  t  U)»>  kjnt;\  turcr  s  ^^  unavailing  and  disheartening  at  tirst,  at 

i  .-*'^JrT  ilw  I"***!**  of  llie  ronte«<t  extremely  problematical.    It  was, 

••  .*  K  It  the  beginninj;,  di"»pi«4Hl  and  neglected,  by  the  lonis  q(  Che 

■•  <-i*fy.  Ml  the  alrn'oce  of  the  king,  who  wjis  then  at  Hanover,  so 

'  «.  Line  waft  given  for  such  an  acr^»s,ian  of  friemls  and  adherents  lo 

*-'>  cjHue  ol  tlie  preten<ler,  while  the  t^gli^h  army  was  left  without 

»•»  kWqisate  reinlbrcements,  that  th?  rebels  not  onlyjjot  poi^sessioQ 

«K  Nijibargb^  after  a  very  severe  hut  most  succe&<iul  action  with 

f>  (^iMb^  at  I're^ton  Pais*,  but  were  able  to  march,  mimoleste<L 

t-r  tjUj  England,  and  even  to  retreat.  In  the  face  of  a  powerful  amy, 

«^*jtr  cincimMtuticos  peculkirly  creditable  to  the  prowe«|  huBMUBit|:^ 

4i  flttlilaiy  akiU  of  the  3cottwi  comBMndei; 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


t76  MODERN  fflSTORY. 

9.  Had  the  young  prince  met  with  the  encouTagtmeDt  he  expect- 
ed on  his  march  to  the  south^  he  might  have  pofisesBed  himself  of  the 
English,  as  he  had  done  of  tne  Scotch,  capi&l ;  but  his  hopes  of  aid 
were,  considering  all  things,  strangely  and  cruelly  disappointed. 
Not  a  soul  joined  nim,  of  an^  importance,  though  he  bad  adyanced 
aearlT  to  the  very  centre  ot  the  kingdom ;  while  the  French  failed 
to  fulfil  their  engagement  of  inyading  the  southern  parts  of  the 
island,  in  order  to  divide  and  occupy  me  English  army,  so  that  his 
retreat  became  a  point  of  prudence  perfectly  inevitatne,  however 
mortifying  and  grating  to  the  gallant  spirit  of  Charles,  who  un- 
doubtedly manifested  a  strong  di^osition  to  proceed  against  all  obsta 
des. 

10.  The  conflict  between  the  two  nations,  on  this  occasion,  was 
greatly  affected  by  the  religious  tenets  and  principles  of  the  oppo9> 
mg  parties.  Had  Scotland  been  entirely  catholic,  the  hopes  of  tho 
Stuait  family  would  have  been  extremely  reasonable;  but  it  wa^ 
at  this  period,  divided  between  the  presbyterians  and  the  catholics ; 
the  Lowlanders  bemg  of  the  former  sect,  and  the  Hifblanders,  ^eo- 
eraUy  speaking,  of  the  latter.  The  presbyterians,  wno  had  gamed 
great  aavantages,  in  the  way  of  toleration,  by  the  revolution,  having 
become  whies  in  principle,  naturally  adhered  to  the  house  of  Han- 
over, while  Uie  catholic  Highlanders  were  quite  as  fully  and  as  natr 
orally  inclined  to  support  Oieir  native  prince.  Nothing  could  be 
wiser,  perhaps,  under  these  circumstances,  than  the  sending  a  prince 
of  the  blood  to  command  the  British  forces,  and,  as  it  happened,  no 
officer  of  the  British  army  could  be  more  popular  than  the  duke  oi 
Cumberland,  at  this  verv  period.  His  royal  highness  joined  the 
army  at  Edmburgh,  not  lone  afler  the  battle  of  Falkirk,  in  which 
the  English,  under  general  Hawley,  had  recently  sustained  a  check. 
The  duke,  indeed,  had  been  expressly  recalled  from  Flanders,  to 
suppress  the  rebellion,  which  was,  in  no  small  degree,  detrimental 
and  injurious  to  the  cause  of  the  allies. 

1 J  The  conduct  of  the  son  of  the  pretender  wns  certainly  that 
of  a  brave  but  inconsiderate  young  man.  Sanguine  in  his  expecia* 
tions.  beyond  what  any  circumstances  of  the  case  would  complclely 
iuBtify,  he,  in  more  instances  thnn  one,  committed  himself  too  far,  and 
at  the  very  last  exposed  himself  to  a  defeat,  which  might,  at  iea^t) 
have  been  suspended  or  mitigated,  if  not  totally  avoided.  He  madi; 
a  stand  against  the  king^s  forces  at  Culloden,  while  his  troops  wera 
in  a  bad  condition  for  fighting,  and  when  it  would  obviously  have 
been  better  policy  to  have  acted  on  the  defensive ;  to  have  retired 
before  his  adversary,  till  be  had  led  him  into  the  more  impFactk:;i- 
ble  parts  of  the  highlands,  where  all  his  military  means  would 
have  been  crippled,  and  a  retreat,  perhaps,  at  least,  have  been 
rendered  indispensably  necessary ;  but  by  risking  the  battle  of  Cullo- 
den.  (April  16, 1,746)  he  lost  every  thmg.  The  duke  of  Cumber^ 
lana  gained  a  most  decisive  victory ;  and  so  completely  subdued  the 
hopes  and  spirits  of  his  youn^  opponent,  that  be  never  afterwards 
j<wed  his  friends,  though  solicitecl,  and  indeed  engaged,  so  to  do;  but 
wandering  about  the  country  for  a  considerable  tmie,  with  a  price  of 
£30,000  set  on  his  head,  after  enduring  incredible  hardships  and 
difficulties,  embarked  for  France ;  and  thus  terminated  for  ever  the 
'^^gfes  of  that  exiled  and  deposed  family  to  recover  its  aactent 
dominiona.  The  very  remarkable  instances  of  attachment,  fidelity 
nd  pore  hospitality,'  by  which,  af)er  the  battle  of  Culloden,  the 
^^tbrtunate  fugitive  was  pmie^ed  from  the  hands  pf  his  punaciiy 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  m 

mirpfm  any  thing  of  the  kind  recorded  in  history,  and  reflect  indelihh 
credit  oo  the  high  and  disinterested  feelings  and  principles  of  those 
who  assisted  him  in  his  escape. 

l^.  The  most  melancholy  circumstance  attending  this  rash  un- 
dertaking, was  the  necessity  that  arose  for  making  examples  of  those 
who  liad  abetted  it,  in  order  more  securely  to  St  on  the  throne  of 
Great  Britain  the  reigning  family ;  who,  haying  acquired  that  right 
in  the  most  constitutional  manner,  could  not  be  dispossessed  of  it,  but 
by  an  unpardonable  yiolation  of  the  law.  Of  the  excesses  committed 
by  ^  fji^ltsh  troops  after  the  battle  of  Culloden,  it  is  to  be  hoped, 
as  uideed  it  has  been  asserted,  that  the  accounts  are  exaggerated 
bat  in  the  common  course  of  justice,  many  persons,  and  some  of  the 
highest  rank,  underwent  the  sentence  of  death  for  high  treason. 
whose  crime,  through  a  melancholy  infatuation,  must  in  their  own 
eyes  haye  appeared  the  yery  reyerse,  and  whose  loyalty  and  attach* 
ment,  under  oifierent  circumstances,  and  with  the  law  and  constitution 
on  their  side,  would  have  deserved  the  highest  praise.  Though 
many  of  the  adherents  of  the  pretender  sufiered,  many  of  them 
made  their  escape  beyond  sea,  and  arrived  safely  at  the  different 
ports  of  the  continent  No  attempts  have  since  been  made  by  any  of 
the  catholic  descendants  of  the  royal  family  of  Great  Britain  to  dis- 
turb theprotestant  succession  in  the  house  of  Brunswick. 

13.  Tnis  illustrious  house  sustained  a  verv  unexpected  and  mel- 
ancholy loss^  in  the  yesLT  1,750,  by  the  death  of  his  royal  highness 
the  pmce  ot  Wales,  father  of  his  late  majesty ;  whcs  in  consequence 
of  a  cold  caught  in  his  gardens  at  Kew,  died  of  a  pleuritic  disorder, 
on  tlie  twentieth  day  of  March,  in  the  forty-fiflh  year  of  his  age. 
He  was  a  prince  endowed  with  many  amiable  qualities :  a  munificent 
patron  of  the  arts,  a  friend  to  merit,'and  sincerely  attacned  to  the  in- 
terests of  Great  Britain. 

14.  In  the  course  of  the  year  1,751,  a  remarkable  act  was  passed 
in  parliament,  for  correcting  the  calendar,  according  to  the  Gregori- 
an computation.  It  was  enacted,  that  tlie  new  year  should  begin 
on  the  brst  of  January,  and  that  eleven  days  between  the  second  and 
Iborteenth  days  of  September,  1,752,  should  for  that  time  be  omitted, 
so  that  the  day  succeeding  the  second,  should  be  called  the  fourteenth 
of  that  month.  This  change  was  on  many  accounts  exceedingly  im- 
portant, but  to  persons  wholly  unacquaiittcd  with  astronomy,  it  ap- 
peared a  strangely  arbitrary  interference  with  the  currency  and  scl^ 
tied  distinctions  of  time. 

16.  Though  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  1,748,  may  be  said 
lo  haye  restored  peace  to  Europe,  the  English  and  French  caroe  to 
no  good  understanding  with  regard  to  their  remote  settlements. 
The  war  in  those  parts  involved  the  interests  of  the  natives  or  set- 
ters, as  well  as  of  the  two  courts,  and  scarcely  seems  to  have  fallen 
under  the  consideration  of  the  negotiating  ministers.  In  the  east  and 
tn  the  west  many  disputes  and  jealousies  were  raised,  which  though 
referred  to  special  commissioners  to  adjust,  in  no  long  course  of  time 
iovolyed  both  countries  in  a  fresh  war,  the  particulars  of  which  will 
\te  found  eUe  where ;  a  war  which  extended  to  all  parts  of  the  globOi 
and  continued  beyond  the  reign  of  George  II.,  who  died  suddenly 
At  Kensington,  in  1,760,  in  the  77tb  year  of  his  age,  and  34th  of  bM 
reign* 

16.  George  11.  ivaa  a  prince  of  high  integrity,  honour,  and  yd 
citr,  bi|t  Ota  warm  and  irritable  temper,  of  a  wariike  dteosiui 
npd  tbotxh  fcr  a  long  time'  vestnined  hj  bis  pacific  aMuater*  i 

An  Digitized  by  ^^OOgie 


278  MODERN  HISTORY 

Hobert  Walpole,  from  takine  any  active  part  in  the  dispates  of  Qm 
continent,  yet  constantly  incfined  to  do  so,  from  an  attachment,  rery 
natural,  though  unnopular  amongst  liis  British  subjects,  to  his  Ger- 
man dominions.  He  was  greatly  under  the  influence  of  his  queen, 
while  she  lived,  ^^  whose  mild,  prudent  and  conciliating  manners,^ 
to  use  the  woras  of  a  very  impartial  and  judicious  mographer. 
^were  more  congenial  to  the  cnaracter  of  the  English  nation.'^ 
Queen  Caroline  had  indeed  many  great  and  splendid  virtues ;  though 
of  most  amiable  and  domestic  habits,  she  was  well  versed  in  the 
politics  of  Europe,  and  had  considerable  literary  attainments,  which 
disposed  her  to  ne  a  friend  to  learned  persons^  particularly  to  many 
members  of  the  church,  of  which  several  striking  and  remarkabW 
instances  have  been  recorded.  It  is  sufficient  to  mention  llie  names 
of  Herrine,  Clarke,  Hoadley,  Butler,  Sherlock*  Hare,  Seeker,  anJ 
Pearce.  She  was  the  dauebter  of  John  Freaerick,  margrave  of 
Brandenbur^h  Anspach,  ana  was  bom  in  the  year  1,683.  She  was 
married  to  his  majesty  in  1,705,  and  had  issue  two  sons  and  five 
daughters.  Her  death,  which  occassioned  great  grief  to  her  royal 
consort  and  family,  took  place  on  the  20th  of  November,  l^iyj^ 
when  she  was  in  the  55th  year  of  her  age. 


SECTION  V. 

STATE  OF  EUROPE  AT  THE  CONCLUSION  OP  THE  PEACE 
OF  AIX-LA-CHAPEI.LE,  1,748. 

1.  By  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  the  house  of  Hanover  was 
effectually  established  on  the  throne  of  Great  Britain,  to  the  entiro 
exclusion  of  the  Stuart  family.  Though  the  peace  was  not  popular 
in  England,  and  she  was  supposed  by  many  to  have  made  too  great, 
and  in  some  instances  igncminious  concessions,  yet  it  wus  certainly 
fortunate  for  her  that  the  continental  powers  contined  (heir  views  to  a 
balance  which  did  not  extend  to  the  sea ;  and  thereby  left  in  hei 
hands  a  force,  beyond  ciilculation  superior  to  tliat  of  the  otlier 
countries  of  Europe,  and  amounting  almost  to  a  monopoly  of  com- 
merce, credit,  and  wealth,  so  as  to  render  her,  as  it  were,  tlie  chief 
accent  or  principal,  in  nil  political  movements,  for  the  time  to  come. 
Iter  prosperity,  indeed,  had  been  on  the  increase,  in  no  common  dc 
gree,  from  the  accession  of  the  Brunswick  lamily. 

2.  Ausbia  lost,  by  the  treaty  of  1,748.  Silesia  and  Glatz,  tl>e 
duchies  of  Parma,  rlacentia,  and  Gunstaila,  and  some  places  in 
the  Milanese :  but  she  succeeded,  and  chiefly  at  the  expense  of  her 
allies,  in  the  article  of  the  succession.  All  former  treaties  were 
formally  recognised,  which  involved  indeed  other  losses  to  the  en>- 
pire^  it  compared  with  the  time  of  Charles  V  ;  but  the  dominions 
of  tne  latter  were  certainly  too  extensive,  and  too  detached,  to  form 
a  great  and  stable  empire.  This,  mdeed,  may  be  said  to  have  been 
the  case  with  regard  even  to  the  reduced  domains  of  Charles  VL; 
bat.  bis  high-spirited  daughter,  Maria  Theresa,  was  to  the  last  indig* 
nant  at  the  losses  she  had  sustained.  She  corrected  the  error  into 
wUchshe  had  fallen  with  regard  to  Genoa,  and  which  occasioned 
great  commotions  there,  by  consenting  to  let  the  marquisate  of  Hoal 
fevert  to  that  republic,  which  had  teen  very  arbitrarily  given,  In 
the  course  of  the  war,  as  a  bribe  to  the  king  of  Sardinia,  and  made 
«  frM  port,  ta  the  evident.  disadyantafiQ  of  the  Genoesci  who  had 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODERN  mSTORT.  279 

oripnDy  purchased  it  for  a  raloable  consldeTRtloD,  under  the  guar 
antee  oTGreat  Britain. 

3.  Prossia  pined,  by  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Silesia,  and 
the  county  oi  Qiatz,  which  were  guaranteed  to  her  by  all  the  coo* 
tracting  powers;  and  by  this  accession  of  territory  she  was  raised 
into  tft^  condition  of  a  power  capable  of  entering  into  the  field  ot 
action,  as  a  rival  of  Austria ;  which  might  have  been  foreseeiu  when 
Leopold  erected  it  into  a  kiii^dom,  for  the  express  purpose  or  coun- 
terbalancing the  power  of  France.  As  it  was,  the  unity  of  the  en>- 
pire  seemed  to  be  dissolved,  and  a  door  set  open  to  future  revolutions 
10  the  Germanic  body.  The  character  and  subsequent  achievements 
df  Frederick  U.  contributed  greatly  to  the  aggrandizement  of  his  do- 
minions. He  was  active,  bold,  fond  of  glory,  and  indefatigable.  He 
was  brave  in  the  field,  and  wise  in  tlie  cabinet.  Desirous  of  shininf 
In  all  that  he  undertook,  he  was  indefatigable  in  keeping  his  arm' 
constantly  ready  for  all  emergencies,  and  in  repairing  the  damages  to 
whH:h  bis  dominions  had  been  subjected  by  his  ambition.  He  drew 
to  him  many  eminent  persons  of  all  countries,  of  whose  society  he 
pretended  to  be  fond ;  but  he  oftentimes  showed  himself  to  oe  a 
most  merciless  tyrant,  a  blunderer  in  political  economy,  and,  if  not 
quite  an  atheist,  very  lax  in  hia  principles  of  religion. 

4.  HoUand  lost  much  by  the  peace,  and  gained  nothing.  Some, 
Indeed,  doubted  whether  she  did  not  greatly  endanger  her  indepen- 
dence, bj  consenting  to  make  the  stadtholuei^hip  hereditary  in  tJie 
hoQSe  or  Orange,  and  that  in  favour  of  the  female  as  well  as  malo 
heirs  of  the  family :  but  others  conceived  that  this  approach  to  mo 
naichical  government  greatly  strengthened  the  republic ;  and  it  wovU) 
indeed  seem  that  it  had  declined  much  in  power  and  consequence 
from  the  very  period  when  that  office  was  abolished,  in  the  preced 
tn^  century.  One  precaution  was  adopted  with  regard  to  the  female 
heirs  to  the  Stadth eldership :  they  were  precluded  Irom  nuirrying  any 
kine^  or  elector  of  the  empire ;  a  precaution  wiiich  there  were,  in 
tlte  lustDry  of  Europe,  sulncient  reasons  to  ju^ilify. 

6.  Sfavi  obtained,  for  two  branches  of  her  rojal  family,  the  king- 
dom ot  Naples,  and  the  duchies  of  Parma,  Plncentia,  and  Guastalla 
the  latter  to  revert  to  Austria,  that  is,  Parma  and  Guastalla,  and  Pla- 
centia  to  Sardinia,  should  the  new  duke,  don  Philip,  die  without  issue, 
or  succeed  to  either  of  the  kingdoms  of  Spain  or  Naples.  But  the 
power  of  Spain  was  not  much  increased,  either  by  hmd  or  sea.  On 
the  latter,  indeed,  the  English  had  an  overwhelming  superiority : 
and,  on  land,  though  her  armies  were  brave,  they  were  genendly  ill 
coml acted,  and  her  government  too  bad  to  render  her  ro?:pcctable 
rn  the  eyes  of  Europe.  Ferdinand  VI.,  indeed,  the  successor  of 
I'hiiip,  who  came  to  tlie  throne  just  before  the  conclusion  of  the 
trvatj,  applied  himself,  with  no  small  degree  of  credit,  to  retrieve 
the  ci»racter  of  the  nation. 

G.  Austri:i,  by  seeking  an  alliance  with  Rusna^  bad  introduced  the 
Utter  power  into  the  soutlieni  states  of  Europe,  and  given  her  consid- 
erable weight  and  consequence,  as  a  counterbakmce  to  her  great 
rt  vaL,  France.  Scarcely  known  at  tke  commencement  of  the  century, 
the  inoTement  impressed  upon  this  mighty  empire  by  the  extraot^ 
(iixiary  genius  and  vigour  of  Peter  the  first,  had  carried  her  forwaid^ 
vrtth  a  rapid  progression ;  so  that,  by  the  middle  of  the  century,  aba 
mi^bt  jQStlT  be  regarded  as  amongst  the  most  considerable  powen  ol 
Kmrope  Her  armies  were,  perhaps,  more  than  semi-barbarous;  bol 
the  J  frere  braf  e^.  iodefatigable)  hprdyi  and  supported  b j  tho  tttt 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


280  MODERN  H1ST0R7 

^008  principle  of  predestioatioii;  the  foundation  ot  a  desparate 
kind  of  hardihood,  seldom  to  be  resisted.  Her  internal  resoarcet 
were  not  at  all  considerable,  but  they  were  daily  improving.  When 
Peter  the  first  came  to  the  crown,  her  revenues  amoidited  to  six 
millions  of  roubles;  in  1,748  they  were  nearly  quadrupled.  Thu9 
rapidly  advancinc,  with  one  arm  reaching  to  the  Baltic,  and  the 
other  to  the  BlacK  sea,  it  was  very  obvious  to  discern  that  when,  by 

Sood  management*  her  gigantic  body  should  be  duly  invigorated, 
bie  had  every  chance  of  becoming  a  most  formidable  power. 
Already  had  she  shown  herself  such,  to  a  great  degree,  in  the  influ- 
ence she  had  acquired  in  Sweden.  Denmark,  and  Poland ;  in  her 
eommercial  treaties  with  England,  her  alliance  with  Austria,  and  her 
wars  with  the  Turks.  Her  resources  and  means  of  improvement 
were  great ;  rivers  not  only  navigable  during  the  summer,  but  during 
the  winter  also,  affording,  by  means  of  sledges,  every  opportunity 
of  a  quick  and  easy  transport  of  all  sorts  of  commercial  |oods ;  the 
greater  part  of  her  southern  provinces  fertile,  and  requiring  little 
culture;  mines  of  gold,  iron,  and  copper;  great  quantities  of  timber, 
pitch,  tar,  and  hemp.  She  had  not  yet  learned  to  manufacture  her 
own  productions,  or  to  export  them  in  her  own  ships,  and  conse- 
quently to  make  tlie  most  of  them :  but  she  was  in  the  way  to  Icani 
such  arts,  and  when  once  attained,  she  had  the  fairest  prospects  of 
acquiring  a  decided  superiority,  not  only  in  the  Baltic,  and  White 
sea,  but  on  the  Black  sea  and  Caspian. 

7.  Turkey,  at  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  was  compar- 
atively a  gainer  by  the  wars  in  which  she  had  been  engaged.  She 
had  taken  the  Morea  from  the  Venetians,  recovered  from  Austria 
Belgrade,  Servia,  and  some  provinces  of  Transylvania  and  Wailachia, 
and  bad  hitherto  baffled  the  attempts  of  Russia,  to  get  absolute  pos- 
session of  the  Crimea,  and  of  the  mouths  of  the  Danube. 

8.  France  obtained  little  in  point  of  extent  by  the  treaty  of  Aix- 
la-Chapelle,  but  that  little  was  of  extreme  iraportance.  Tiie  poss«**- 
flion  ofLorraine,  in  addition  to  Alsace,  and  several  strong  ibrts  on  the 
Rhine,  strengthened  and  completed,  in  the  most  perfect  numner,  her 
eastern  frontier,  and  placed  her  in  a  most  comnuinding  attitude  willi 
regard  to  the  Uerman  states.  During  the  administration  of  cardinal 
Fleury,  which  lasted  till  the  year  1,743,  her  marine  had  been  do 
plorably  neglected,  while  the  English  had  been  able  to  enrich  them- 
selves at  the  expense  of  the  French,  particularly  by  intercepting 
many  valuable  convoys,  and  capturing  many  ships  of  her  reduced  nav^ . 

9.  An  author  of  reputation  has  proposed  to  throw  the  dlfiereht 
European  states,  at  the  conclusion  of  the  peace  of  1,748,  into  tlui 
four  foUowine  classes : — 

1.  Those  Uiat  having  armies,  fleets,  money,  and  territorial  resour- 
sea.  could  make  war  without  foreign  alliances.  Such  were  England 
•nd  France. 

2.  Those  that  with  considerable  and  powerful  armies,  were  de- 
pendent on  foreign  resources.    Austria,  Prussia,  and  Russia. 

3.  Those  that  could  not  engage  in  war,  but  in  league  with  othev 
states,  subsidized  by  them,  wad  always  regarded  in  the  light,  of  secr 
oodary  powers  by  the  large  ones.  Portugal,  Sardinia,  Sweden^ 
Demnark. 

4.  Such  as  were  interested  in  mamtaining  themselves  in  the  same 
condition,  and  free  from  the  encroachmjent  of  others.  Switzerland. 
CtoxHi,  Venk»,  and  the  Geiman  states.. 

Udiaiid,  Spain,  aod  Naples,  being  ossltted  in  tbs  above  accooDl 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  m 

Sijf ht  reiaonably  be  thrown  into  a  fifth  class,  as  coontries  generally 
so  connected  with  EoglaDd,  France,  and  Austria,  as  to  be  constantlT 
BTolred  in  eveiy  war  aifectiog  either  of  those  countries. 


SECTION  VL 
OF  THE  SEVEN  YEARS*  WAR,  1,776— 1,76«. 

1 .  Thopgh  for  some  short  time  aAer  the  conclusion  of  the  peace 
of  Aix-ria-ChapeUe,  in  1,748,  England  and  France  seemed  to  emoy, 
in  no  common  degree,  the  blessings  of  peace,  and  to  be  upon  a  ioot- 
mg  of  perfect  amity  with  each  other,  yet  it  would  appear  that  the 
%f^s  of  a  future  war  were  sown  in  tne  very  circumstances  of  that 
convention.  England  was  left  in  possession  of  such  a  preponderating 
li'rcc  at  sea,  while  the  French  marine,  through  the  parsimony  or  in- 
attention of  cardinal  Fieury,  had  fallen  into  so  low  a  state  of  depres- 
<^.<^,  that  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  that  all  who  were  interested  about 
thp  latter,  should  have  their  minds  filled  with  jealousy  and  resentment 
This  was  soon  manifested,  not  only  by  the  vigorous  attempts  made  at 
this  time  to  restore  the  marine  of  France,  but  in  the  projects  formed 
l-T  disponessing  the  English  of  their  principal  settlements  in  the  E^st 
u.dles  and  America ;  a  blow  which  might  have  been  far  more  fatal  to 
(he  English  nation,  than  any  leagues  or  confederacies  in  &vour  of  the 
pretender.  To  secure  the  co-operation  and  support  of  Spain  in  these 
.Ic^igns,  France  had  endeavoured,  in  the  vear  1,753,  to  draw  the  hit- 
K'r  into  9i  family  compact^  which,  though  afterwards  broujght  about, 
wds  at  this  time  successfully  frustrated,  bv  the  extraordinary  care 
and  vjcilance  of  the  British  minister  at  Madrid. 

2.  The  peace  established  in  Europe  b  1,748,  can  scarcely  be  said 
\o  haT«  erer  been  effectually  eztenaed  to  Asia  and  America.  The 
riKionests  on  each  side  mdeed  had  been  relinqnished  and  surrendered 
\>y  that  treaty,  but  in  a  most  negligent  manner  with  respect  to  limits 
.'Vl  boondaries;  and  in  each  of  those  distant  settlements,  France  at 
thit  time  happened  to  have  able  and  enterprising  servants,  who 
t/iooght  they  saw,  in  their  respective  government^  such  means  ol 
Aggrandizing  themselves  and  Itieir  country,  and  of  thwarting  the 
British  interest,  as  were  not  to  be  overlooked  or  neglected.  In  the 
KuU  Indies  very  extraordinary  attempts  were  made  to  reduce  the 
wliole  peninsula  of  India  Proper,  in  short,  the  whole  Mogul  empire, 
nntler  the  dominion  of  France*  by  an  artful  interterence  in  the  ap- 
:>>  mtment  of  the  governors  ot  kingdoms  and  provinces,  the  jSou^cm- 
\irt^ Sabob$.  and  Hcnahs,  The  power  of  the  mogul  had  been  irrevoca- 
:  ty  tihaken  by  Kouu-Khan,  in  1,738.  from  which  time  the  viceroys 

.ui  other  subordinate  governors  had  slighted  his  authority,  and,  m 

•  greater  or  less  degree,  become  independent   The  interference  of 

:.«>  French  was  calculated  to  throw  things  into  confusion,  by  dispos- 

^•"^io^  those  who  were  adverse  to  them  of  their  governments  and 

'  rritories,  and  thus  compelling  them,  as  it  were,  to  seek  succour  from 

.:A  English ;  which  ultimately  brought  the  two  rival  nations  of  £t^ 

[  /pe  into  a  state  of  hostility,  not  as  avowed  principals,  but  as  the 

i'jxiliaries  of  the  difierent  native  princes  or  nabobs.    In  no  Ions 

'  »\tr^  of  time,  thinm  took  a  turn  entirely  in  favour  of  the  EnglisE 

:  uJ  their  allies;  the  French  were  baffled  in  all  their  projects,  every 

>!  xe  they  possessed  taken  from  tliem,  a  suspension  of  arms  agreed 

jtostf  io  l,754«  and  the  French  governor,  Dupleix^the  ambitions  and 

An  9  36 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


282  MODERN  HISTORY. 

enterprising  author  and  fomenter  of  all  the  trouhles,  but  who  fcad 
been  ill-supported  by  his  government  at  home*  recalled  from  India 

3.  It  was  at  this  period  that  the' celebrated  Mr.  Cliye,  aAenrards 
lord  Clive,  first  distuguished  himseli^  who  had  not  only  discttnuncot 
enough  to  see  through  and  detect  all  the  artifices  and  d^-sipr.*  rf 
Dupleix,  but,  thoueh  not  brought  up  to  the  military  profession  '<wi 
displayed  such  skill  and  couragejn  conducting  the  operations  of  th% 
army,  as  speedily  established  us  lame,  and  laid  the  foundation  for  his 
future  elevation  and  glory. 

4.  In  America,  the  boundaries  of  the  ceded  provinces  not  having 
been  justly  defined  in  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  the  French  had 
formed  a  design  of  connectinj^,  by  a  chain  of  forts,  their  two  distant 
colonies  of  Canada  and  Louisiana,  and  to  confine  the  English  entirely 
within  that  tract  of  country  which  lies  between  the  Alleghany  anil 
Apalachian  mountains  and  the  sea.  No  part  of  this  design  could  bci 
carried  on  without  manifest  encroachment  on  territories  previously, 
either  bjj^  agreement,  settlement,  or  implication,  appropriated  to 

•    '    •  '^  ed,all  ■ 


othew!  Wliere  the  boundaries  were  not  precisely  defined,  ail  that  was 
not  English  or  French,  belonged  to  the  native  tribes,  and  the  only 
policy  that  the  European  colonists  had  to  observe,  was  to  conciliate 
the  friendship,  or  resist  the  attacks  of  these  ferocious  neighbours.  But 
the  scheme  the  French  had  in  agitation  threatened  to  be  extremely 
injurious  to  the  English  colonists;  giving  them,  in  case  of  war,  a  fron- 
tier of  fifteen  huncffed  miles  to  defend,  not  merely  aeainst  a  race  of 
savages,  as  heretofore,  but  against  savages  supported  by  disciplined 
troops,  and  conducted  by  French  officers. 

5.  It  was  not  possible  for  England  long  to  contemplate  these  ag- 
gressions and  projects  without  interfering;  but  her  means  of  resisting 
Uiem  were  not  equal  to  those  by  which  the  French  were  enabled  to 
carry  them  into  execution.  The  English  colonies  were  notoriously 
divided  by  distinct  views  and  interests ;  had  many  disagreements  and 
difierences  among  themselves,  which  seemed,  for  some  time  at  least, 
totally  to  ]^vent  their  acting  in  concert,  however  necessary  to 
their  best  interests.  The  French  depended  on  no  such  precarious 
support,  but  were  united  both  in  their  object  and  operations.  Ilos^ 
tihties,  however,  did  not  actually  commence  till  the  year  1,755,  from 
which  period  the  contest  in  North  America  was  carried  on  with 
various  success,  between  the  French  and  Enfilish,  severally  assisted 
by  different  tribes  of  Indians ;  in  the  course  ofwhich,  it  is  more  than 
probable^  that  sad  acts  of  cmelty  may  have  been  perpetrated,  and 
Doth  nations  have  been  to  blame  in  some  particulars ;  but  it  is  cer- 
tainly remarkable,  that  each  party  stands  charged  excUisiuckf  v?ith 
such  atrocities  by  the  historians  of  the  adverse  side  ;  and  wluie  the 
English  writers  attribute  the  whole  war  to  the  intrigaes  and  ei> 
croachments  of  the  French,  the  latter  as  confidently  ascribe  it  to  the 
cupidity  and  aggressions  of  the  English.  It  is  very  certain,  however, 
that,  before  the  war  actually  commenced,  the  French  court  made 
•uch  strong  but  insincere  professions  of  amity,  and  a  desire  of  neace, 
as  to  deceive  its  own  minister  at  the  court  of  St  Jameses,  M.  d« 
ifirepoix.  who  felt  himself  so  ill-treated  in  being  made  the  tool  of 
such  dupucity  and  dissimulation,  as  to  cause  him  to  repair  to  Pari&« 
to  remonstrate  with  the  administration  who  had  so  auoled  hint,  ll 
is  necessary  to  mention  these  things,  where  historical  truth  is  thf 
great  object  in  view. 

6.  At  the  commencement  of  this  contest  between  fr^rance  ani 
fcpftond^  the  former  seems  to  have  been  most  successful  on  laiW : 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODERN  HISTORi.  289 

bat  the  latter,  and  to  a  much  greater  degree,  at  sea.  Befora  the 
eod  of  the  first  year  of  the  war,  no  less  than  three  hundred  French 
merchant  vessels,  some  of  them  extremely  rich,  with  eight  thousand 
siiilors,  being  brought  into  the  English  ports ;  and  while  the  rate  of 
insurance  in  the  latter  country  continued  as  usual,  in  France  it 
quickly  rose  to  30  per  cent,  a  pretty  strong  indication  of  the  com* 
paratire  inlerlority  of  the  latter,  as  lar  as  regarded  her  marine,  and 
the  safety  of  her  navigation. 

7.  But  it  was  soon  found  expedient  by  one,  if  not  by  both  parties, 
to  divert  the  attention  from  colonial  to  continental  objects  ;  a  meas- 
ure which,  as  in  a  former  instance,  the  French  writers  ascribe 
eatirely  to  England,  and  the  Enj^lish  writers  as  confidently  to  France ; 
hut  it  is  suBiciently  clear  tliat  tlie  latter  first  entertained  views  upon 
the  electorate  of  Hanover,  which  gave  that  turn  to  the  war  in  gen- 
eral. Considering  what  had  passed  in  the  preceding  struggle  upou 
the  continent,  nothing  could  be  more  strange  than  the  conduct  of  the 
diiierent  states  of  Europe  on  this  particular  occasion.  Instead  of 
receiving  assistance  from  the  empress  queen^  whose  cause  England 
liad  so  long  and  so  maenanimouBly  supported,  and  who  was  bound 
by  treaty  to  contribute  her  aid  in  case  of  attack,,  Maria  Theresa 
evaded  the  applications  made  to  her  by  the  court  of  St.  James's, 
(perhaps  in  ratner  too  high  and  peremptory  a  tone,)  on  the  pretence 
that  the  war  between  France  ana  England  had  begun  in  America ; 
and  she  applied  herself  with  peculiar  assiduity  to  recover,  through 
the  aid  of  Russia,  the  provinces  of  Silesia  and  Glatz,  which  had  been 
ceded  to  the  Prussian  monarch. 

8.  It  has  been  conjectured  that  her  imperial  majesty  had  been 
greatly  offended  at  the  preliminaries  of  peace,  in  1,748,  having 
beeo  signed  by  England  without  her  approbation,  and  that  she  was 
capable  of  carrying  her  resentment  so  tar  as  voluntarily  to  throw 
herself  into  the  anns  of  France,  without  further  consideration ; 
while  the  French  king,  whose  strange  course  of  life  had  been  too 
npeiily  ridiculed  by  the  king  of  Prussia,  foolishly  suffered  himself  to 
lie  cajoled  into  an  alliance  with  Austria,  al\er  three  hundred  years  of 
watiare,  against  his  former  active  and  powerlul  ally ;  thereby  break 
in^  through  the  wise  system  of  Richelieu,  and  helping  to  raise  tlu 
very  power,  of  whose  greatness  France  had  the  most  reason  to  be 
j<^a(ous ;  but  Maria  Theresa,  and  her  minister,  prince  Kaunits^  to 

Srodoce  this  great  change  in  the  policy  of  France,  had  stoopecl  tc 
Attcr  and  conciliate  the  king^s  mistress,  the  marchioness  of  Pom- 
padour. 

9.  Fortunately  for  England,  however,  the  conduct  of  these  two 
courts  quickly  determined  the  king  of  Prussia  to  form  an  alliance 
with  the  elector  of  Hanover ;  to  stifle  and  forget  all  former  differ 
eiices  and  animosities,  and  peremptorily  to  resist  the  entrance  of  for^ 
cigQ  troops  into  Germany :  a  measure  which,  though  first  directed 
against  Russia,  subsidized  oy  England,  equally  apmied  to  France. 
Aa  «lliance^l)et^veen  the  kings  of  Ureat  Bntain  and  Prussia  had  long 
beeo  contemplated  by  some  of  the  ablest  statesmen  of  the  former 
country,  ^s  the  most  natural  and  wisest  connexion  that  could  be 
tbrmedf  to  counteract  the  projects  and  power  of  France.  Hitherto 
•troog  personal  jealousies  and  ill-wiU  on  the  part  of  the  two  sov^ 
relgDB  Dad  prevented  any  such  union,  Bud  now  it  was  brought  about 
by  accident;  much  more,  however,  to  the  advantage  of  Prussia  than 
of  Great  Britain.  It  haa  been  proposed  in  England,  to  subsidize 
Ham^  but  the  negotiations  of  the  iormer  with  tEe  king  of  PnisslLi 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


2d4  MODERN  HISTORY. 

whom  the  czarina  personally  disliked,  produced  a  cio«e  but  <&»»• 
pected  union  of  Russia,  Austria,  and  France ;  not  so  much  againrt 
England,  perhaps^  as  against  Prussia,  nor  yet  so  much  against  the 
kiogdora  of  Prussia  as  against  the  king  himself. 

10.  Such  was  the  commencement  of  what  has  been  termed  Urn 
aeven  years^  war.  It  seemed  soon  to  be  forsotten  that  it  was  origli>- 
ally  a  maritime  or  colonial  war.  The  whole  vengeance  of  Frsmos 
and  Austria,  in  1,757,  was  directed  against  the  king  of  Prussia,  and 
electorate  of  Hanover.  The  Prussian  monarch,  relying  on  his  well- 
organized  army  and  abundant  treasury,  despised  the  powerful  com- 
bination against  him,  and  commenced  the  war  in  a  most  imposing 
though  pi'ecipitate  manner,  by  dispossessing,  at  the  very  outset  tl^ 
kin^  of  Poland,  elector  of  Saxony,  in  alliance  with  Austria,  or  hb 
capital,  of  his  whole  army,jand  of  his  electoral  dominions,  in  a  way 
little  creditable  to  his  character,  notwithstanding  the  strong  political 
motives  alleged  in  his  subsequent  manifestoes.  The  situation  of 
France,  by  this  sudden  manoeuvre,  was  certainly  rendered  most  el^- 
traordinary.  At  the  commencement  of  the  former  war,  she  had 
done  her  utmost  to  dethrone  Augustus,  king  of  Poland,  in  favour  ot 
Stanislaus^  whose  daughter  had  married  the  French  king ;  and  she 
had  now  lust  as  strong  and  urgent  a  reason  to  assist  in  restoring  Au- 
gustus to  his  hereditary  dominions,  the  daughter  of  the  latter  beii^ 
married  to  the  dauphin,  and  the  life  of  the  dauphiness  having  been 
endangered  by  the  inteUigence  received  of  the  rigorous  treatment  of 
her  royal  parents. 

i  1 .  It  was  during  the  seven  years^  war,  that  Frederic  of  Prussia 
acquired  that  glory  in  the  iiela  which  has  rendered  his  reign  so 
conspicuous  and  remarkable.  The  intended  victim,  as  he  had  great 
reason  to  suppose,  of  an  overwhelming  confederacy  of  crowned 
heads,  he  lost  no  time  in  defending  himself  against  tli^lr  attacks,  by 
occupying  the  territories  of  those  who  threatened  hina,  so  suddenly 
and  arbitrarily  indeed,  with  regard  to  Saxony,  as  to  give  oflence  to 
the  greater  part  of  Europe;  but  generally  contending  with  surprising 
success  against  superior  armies«  though  incessantly  summoned  from  one 
field  of  Imttle  to  another,  by  tne  numerous  and  divided  attacks  of  his 
opponents :  nor  was  there  one  of  all  the  powers  that  menaced  him, 
whom  he  did  not  find  means  to  humble,  and  in  some  instances  punish 
most  severely,  at  first,  with  an  impetuosity  bordering  upon  rashness; 
afterwards,  by  more  wary  and  circumspect  proccedincs.  In  Silesia. 
Saxonv,  Brandenbourg,  Hanover,  and  Westphalia,  he  had  to  content! 
with  the  afinies  of  the  empire,  Austria,  Russia,  Sweden,  France,  and 
Saxon^^ :  200^00  men  are  supposed  to  have  fallen  annually  in  these 
campaigns.  Though  oflen  worsted,  (as  must  be  the  case,  where  no 
Consideration  of  superior  numbers  Is  allowed  to  operate  as  a  check,)  his 
great  genius  was  never  more  manifested,  than  in  the  quick  reparation 
of  such  reverses.  Oflen  did  his  situation  appear  perfectly  desperate, 
both  to  friends  and  enemies,  yet  as  oflen  md  he  suddenly  succeed  in 
»ome  new  effort,  and  in  extricating  himself  from  di»isters  which 
threatened  entirely  to  overwhelm  him ;  being  all  the  while  under 
the  ban  of  the  empire,  in  vu-tue  of  a  decree  of  tiie  auMc  cocmciL 
which  bound  every  German  circle,  in  obedience  'to  the  imperial 
orders,  to  assist  in  depriving  him  of  his  possessions,  dignities,  and 
prerogatives.  The  rapidity  of  his  motions  was  beyond  all  example  4 
neither  danger  nor  misfortune  could  dishearten  him :  and  had  his 
moderation  been  but  equal  to  his  courage,  had  he,  in  aU  cases,  been 
as  humane  as  he  was  brave,  his  military  character  would  hav* 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


IfODERN  fflSTORY.  f85 

dM  higher,  periiaps,  thaa  that  of  any  other  commaiider,  ancient  or 
ttoden. 

11  The  armj,  it  must  be  acknowledged,  for  some  time  afforded 
bat  little  aaustance  to,  if  it  did  not  actnallj  embarrass,  the  operation* 
gf  Frederic  A  formidable  force  of  38,000  Hanoverian,  Hessiani 
and  other  troops,  under  the  command  of  the  duke  of  Cumberlanc^ 
had,  in  a  most  extraordinary  manner,  been  reduced,  though  neith<^f 
katen  nor  actually  disarmed,  to  a  state  of  inactivity,  and  the  kine^g 
(jcrman  dominions  abandoned  to  the  enemy,  by  aconrention  the 
mi«t  sngular  upon  the  records  of  history ;  and  if  actually  necessary, 
<)nly  rendered  so  by  the  impolitic  movements  of  the  commander-in 
"-.lief,  who,  instead  of  endeavouring  to  join  the  Prussians,  afler  a 
4i  irp  contest,  in  which  the  French  bad  the  advantage,  retreated  in  a 
u.ually  different  direction,  merely  to  keep  up,  as  it  has  been  supposed, 
ri  communication  with  the  place  to  which  the  archives  and  moet 
VMhioble  efiiects  of  Hanover  had  been  removed. 

15.  Tills  convention,  indeed,  signed  at  Closter-seven,  September 
>\  1.757,  was  said  to  have  been  concluded  against  the  wishes  of  the 
rvd  commander  himself,  and  entirely  at  the  instance  and  requisitkxi 
»n  tlie  regency  of  Hanover.  Be  this,  however,  as  it  may,  it  w;is  mw 
!>]^tedlj  almost  fatal  to  the  king  of  Prussia,  and  exceedingly 
.//niliatmg  to  Elngland,  though  ultimately  attended  with  this  good 
rit'M  t^  that  it  seems  to  have  roused  and  stimulated  both  the  people 
-.id  government  to  greater  exertions.    Unfortunately  much  of  udf 

*  **y^  spirit  and  renewed  activity  was  wasted  in  fruitless  attempts  on 
.!  ^  coast  of  France,  which  cost  the  nation  much  money,  ami,  as  k 

:  .rrttMlout  contributed  little  or  nothing  to  her  glory  and  advantage  ^ 
(.i'  demolition  of  the  works  at  Cherburg,  and  capture  of  Belle  IsIqi 
l.T^I,  which  was  of  use  afterwards,  as  an  exchange  for  Minorca, 
•\  .^  ail  she  had  to  boast  of.  To  her  great  and  indefatigable  ally, 
••  king  of  Prussia,  these  expeditions  to  tlie  French  coast  could  m 
:■  ro  use,  except  in  diverting  a  part  at  least  of  the  French  forces^ 

•  :.rh  might  otherwise  have  been  opposed  to  him ;  but  they  had 
'  ur«>ly  this  effect,  and  though  that  great  minister.  Mr.  Pitt,  afte^ 
^^..rds  lord  Chatham,  appears  to  have  been  the  chief  promoter  of 
'.j'^^  measures,  in  opposition  to  many  members  of  the  British 

'.net,  the  policy  of  them,  even  had  Ihey  been  more  successful,  hae 

'^n  pretty  generally  Questioned.   Her  sokliers,  many  thought,  weoB 

incipolly  wanting  m  Germany,  the  grand  theatre  of  military  oper^ 

'   ris  to  strengthen  and  give  effect  to  me  judicious  and  bold  measuaei 

prince  Ferdinand,  who,  being,  by  the  advice,  it  Is  said,  of  tb» 

•  r^vlan  monarchy  on  the  retirement  of  the  duke  of  Cumberland. 
'I'ot  the  convention  spoken  of,  placed  at  the  head  of  the  aUied 
miv,  had  succeeded  in  conipelling  the  French  to  evacuate  Hanovei, 

^lunswlck,  and  Bremen.    EnglaM  indeed  had  been  liberal  mhev 

*  i'^idiesu  even  to  a  degree  that  some  thought  unwise  and  extrav» 
CJnt,  aoa  she  had  been  successful  in  America,  Asia,  Africa,  and  |ei^ 
I  mlly  on  the  ocean.  The  French  navy  indeed,  was  almost  annihila^ 
^i ;  and  her  cokmies,  both  in  the  east  and  weat,  had  fiiUen  a  prey  to 
Jie  Eof^Uah  armies ;  even  Canada,  the  source  and  focus,  as  it  were,  ol 
.\e  traoaathmtic  disputes  between  Eogiand  and  France«  was  coniileti^ 
It  subdued  by  the  armies  under  the  command  of  Woue,  TownioeBdi 
Hvocktoo,  Bfurray,  and  Amherst,  who  displayed  such  seal,  valovnw 
nd  abilities^  m  the  capture  of  the  towna  or  (Quebec  and  MootrogJi  at 
{jfve  oerer  oeen  exceeded 

14.  Thoogh  prince  Fexdinuid  had  drivwtiittFreiiditeQl^iC'iiM 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


£88  MODERN  HISTORY. 

hare  been  reaped  by  a  little  longer  continuance  of  the  irar ;  and  ti 
what  she  both  surrendered  and  retained,  an  ill  and  impolitic  aelco 
tton,  it  was  aQeged,  had  been  niade  of  posts  and  settlements.  The 
treaty  of  Hubertsburg,  by  which  the  war  was  terminated  between 
Austria  and  Prussia  m  the  same  year,  1,763,  restored  matters,  in  re- 
gard to  those  two  powers,  exactly  to  their  former  state,  after  bevoi 
roost  destructive  and  expensive  campaigns  !  Notlung  of  territory 
was  lost  and  nothing  gained  by  either  party.  England,  undoubtedly^ 
was  left  in  the  highest  state  of  prosperity  at  the  conclusion  of  these 
two  treaties.  Her  navy  unimpared,  or  rather  augmented  at  the  e*- 
pense  of  the  navy  of  France  ;  her  commerce  extending  from  one 
extremity  of  the  globe  to  the  other,  with  an  accession  of  Imjportant 
settlements  ceded  to  her  by  France  m  Asia,  Africa,  and  Amenca. 


SECTION  VU. 

FROM  THE  ACCESSION  OF  GEORGE  III.  1,760,  TO  THE  COM- 
MENCEMENT OF  THE  DISPUTES  WITH  AMERICA,  1,764, 

1.  Though  a  new  enemy,  for  a  very  short  time,  was  added  to  the 
fist  of  those  who  were  contending  with  England  and  her  allies, 
when  George  the  second  died,  by  the  accession  of  Spain  to  the 
family  compact^  and  continental  confederacy,  in  1,761,  yet  the  seven 
years^  war,  through  the  exhaustion  of  the  allies  of  Austria,  par- 
ticularly the  Saxons,  Poles,  and  French,  may  be  said  to  have  been 
drawing  to  a  conclusion,  when  George  111.  ascended  the  throne  of 
Great  Britam,  on  the  demise  of  his  grandfather,  October  25, 1,7G0. 
For  the  termination  of  that  warj  see  Sect  VI. 

S.  Much  notice  was  taken  of  a  passage  in  the  king's  first  speech 
to  his  parliament,  in  which  he  expressed  the  glory  he  felt  in  bavins 
been  bom  and  educated  in  Britain ;  and  thougn  some  have  pretended 
to  see  in  it,  a  reflection  on  his  royal  predecessors,  yet  it  was  surety 
wise  in  the  first  sovereign  of  the  house  of  Hanover,  who  stood  clear 
of  foreign  manners,  and  foreign  partialities,  so  to  bespeak  the  love 
and  attachment  of  his  subjects.  It  is  true,  indeed,  that  England  had 
prospered  in  no  common  degree  from  the  first  accession  of  that 
lUustfious  family,  but  it  cannot  be  denied,  that  a  distaste  of  ford 
mannen,  as  well  as  a  jealousy  of  foreign  partialities,  had  occasiona 
interrupted  the  proceedings  of  government,  and  were  at  all  evej 
cakulated  to  keep  up,  in  the  minds  of  the  disaffected,  a  remembrance 
of  the  breach  that  had  been  made  in  the  succession  to  the  throne. 
Fourteen  years  having  passed  since  any  attem(>t  had  been  made  to 
restore  the  Stuart  family,  and  the  condition  oi  that  family  havbg 
become  such,  as  to  render  any  further  endeavours  to  that  effect,  ex- 
tremely Improbable,  notiiing  more  seemed  wanting  to  remove  all 
remaintng  prejudices  against  the  firunswick  line  of  princes,  than 
l!hat  the  sovereign  should  be  a  native  df  the  land  he  ruled 

S.  In  addition  to  this  tie  upon  his  subjects,  every  thine  seemai  to 
oonapire,  as  far  as  regarded  the  character,  manners,  and  dispositio.* 
of  the  young  king,  to  secure  to  him  the  attachment  of  his  people ; 
«pd  ^0  gire  iiopea  of  a  quiet  and  tranquil  reign.  One  of  the  verf 
fitatacts  of  which  was  calculated  to  impress  the  idea  of  his  being  s 
ttoa  friend  to  the  Ub^rty  of  th^.  suloect,  by  renderiag  the  '  * 


wdtfiendeiu  of  the  crown.    Uls  migea^  was  married^  soon  after 
yiCftMiOD^  to  the  princes  Charlotte  of  Mecklenburgh  Strelit2,  w^ 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODEim  HISMX)KX. 

whom  be  was  crowned  at  WestnuDster,  on  the  S2d  day  of  ! 
ber,  J,761. 

4.  Howeyer  promising  the  appeanmces  hoth  of  external 

ternal  tranquiihty  might  be,  at  the  commencement  of  tl 

reign,  it  was  not  long  before  the  nation  became  agitated  h 

disputes  and  difiercnccs,  of  no  small  importance.    In  1 ,7G2, 

tji  u  arose,  which  though  it  led  to  rery  distressing  tamults,  t(! 

ed  in  the  relief  of  the  subject  from  an  arbitrary  process,  exc€ 

repngannt  to  the  spirit  of  the  coostrtution,  and  the  great  cbii 

Britiwi  liberty.    General  warrants,  and  the  seizure  of  privaio 

without  sdhcient  nocpssity,  the  legality  of  which  had  been  di 

in  the  case  of  Mr.  Wilkes,  member  for  Ailosbury,  during  wlii 

gentlemen  displayed  considerable  fortitude,  though  certain 

ereat  iailure  of  respect  towards  the  crown,  were  dcclnrec 

Olegal  by  a  solemn  decree  of  parliament,  1,705^  nor  has  uuy  : 

been  since  made  to  reinvest  the  government  witii  j»o  dang.'rc 

formidable  a  power.    The  question  of  general  warrants,  )k 

was  not  the  only  one  m  which  Mr.  Wilkes  appeared  as  the  cli 

of  the  people's  hberties.    Being  elected  for  .\li(!(llr<«'X,  ailer 

been  expelled  the  house,  he  claimed  his  seat,  in  iltfLncc  (^1  t 

olatioos  of  parliament,  hut  was  not  allowed  to  sit.    Ii\c  year 

wards,  he  was  permitted  again  to  enter  the  house  of  coniinoi 

in  this  instance  the  parliament  maintained  its  power  of  decl 

particular  individual  di^^qualitied,  against  the  decision  of  a  u 

of  electora;  a  curious  point  as  aQecling  the  constitution,  ; 

elective  franchise. 

5.  Though  the  courts  of  Vienna,  France,  and  Prussia,  hail  r 

be  tired  of  the  war,  in  which  they  bad  been  engaged  since  th 

KTdS,  it  is  certain  that  England  was  in  a  state  to  continue  it,  e.' 

iy  by  sea,  when  the  treaty  of  Paris,  or  Foutainel)lcriu,  was  cor. 

ra  1,763.    As  long  as  Mr.  Pitt  continued  a  member  of  odniir/n 

'lie  war  bad  been  carried  on  vigorously,  and  had  become  cxe 

ly  popplar,  so  that  on  the  resignation  of  that  great  minister,  in 

aJna  the  appointment  of  lonl  Bute,  whose  distrust  of  hi-*  own  5 

lo  continue  it,  disposed  him  to  listen  to  the  overlurrs  of  ] 

great  discontents  arose.    The  minister  was  suspected  of  harl 

1.1  \m  breast  the  most  despotic  principles,  and  ot'  having  ini* 

'Ii€  asune  into  the  mind  of  liis  sovereign,  ivhilc  yet  a  yeui 

was  sappocMKi  to  possess  too  exclusive  an  induence  in  that  q 

«J  thotigh,  in  private  liie,  a  most  respectable  nobleman,  ( 

^tortb  Qod  probity,  learning,  and  talents,  his  public  measure 

tltc  continual  tlieme  of  obloquy  and  abuse.     Had  Mr.  Tilt  C( 

ui  office^i  it  is  more  thcui  probable  that  the  allies  mi<;i)t  have 

^^Tieater  advantages  on  the  continent,  aiui  the  Spaniards  bei  i 

^-vcrely  punished  for  their  interference ;  so  that  the  pacii'.o 

i.PC«  Pi  the  new  minister,  drew  upon  him  the  displeasure,  ii  i 

r..  rntempt,  as  well  of  his  own  countrymen,  as  of  the  king  of 

itoo;  wno  in  bb  writings  has  inveighed  greatly  against  Uie  ] 

it^  influence  of  the  noble  eari  at  tlui  period,  in  tlie  cabinet  un 

ui»  of  Great  iiriUun. 

6.  The  riots  and  tomnlta  excited  by  the  proceedings  agnii 
Vilkes,  and  tho  extreme  unpopularity  of  lord  Bute,  couuii. 
■jnder  the  first  years  of  the  reign  of  George  UL  exceodin^lv 
-t,  and  lo  involve  his  majesty  in  many  unpleasant  difliculiie 
he  addresses,  petitions,  and  remonstrances,  which  flowed  i 
um^  ofittn  couched  in  each  language  as  it  was  impossible  nc 
Bh  37 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


9tiS  MODERN  HISTORY. 

■ent  and  ts  often  insinuating  what,  perbaps,  was  not  foonded  m 
iratn :  for  it  has  never  yet  been  clearly  ascertained  that  the  poUlk 
actually  suffered  from  any  improper  secret  influence,  or  tliat  tbt 
measures  of  lord  Bute,  wim  regard  to  the  peace  of  Paris,  all  thinp 
considered,  were  impolitic  or  unwise.  The  worst  feature  in  tha 
peace,  with  regard  to  England,  seems  to  have  been,  the  ^ure  to 
guard  again^  the  effects,  in  future,  of  the  fctmify  compacL  which 
was  left  in  full  force.  Mr.  Pitt  had  his  eye  constantly  upon  tnis.  am^ 
had  he  continued  in  power,  would,  no  doubt,  have  continued  tbt 
war  with  spint  and  perseverance :  this  great  minister  had  retired 
undis^raceJ;  he  received  a  pension  indeed  for  liimself.  and  a  peeF 
a^e  ror  his  lady.  His  politics,  to  the  day  of  his  death,  coDtiootJ 
widely  different  from  those  of  lord  Bute,  and  were  constantly  moct 
popular :  but  the  great  fault  of  the  latter  seems  to  have  been.  tlia& 
tie  engaged  in  public  business,  contrary  to  the  bent  of  his  own  dispo- 
iition,  and  was  too  sensible  of  his  unpopularity,  to  undertake  any 
measure  that  required  much  public  support.  All  he  did,  therefore. 
Memed  to  be  managed  in  the  way  of  private  influence,  cabal,  aoJ 
intrigue. 

7.  In  addition  to  the  addresses  and  remonstrances  alluded  to  io  tbt 
foregoing  section,  the  pojpular  fervour  and  agitation  received  coo<it> 
arable  encouragement  trom  the  letters  ot  an  anonymous  vmWr. 
never  yet  discovered, — a  writer  who  displayed  such  an  extraorJj- 
nary  knowledge  of  the  proceedings  of  the  court  and  cabinet,  aiki 
had  the  power  of  expressing  himself  in  a  style  so  Tigoroiis,  strikins. 
and  keenly  satirical,  as  to  demand  the  attention  of  nil  parties,  auJ 
confound  the  majority  of  those  whom  he  personally  attacked  bA 
the  extreme  seventy  of  a  concealed  and  unknown  accuser,  and  tlw 
l^ross  personalities  in  which  he  often  indulged,  not  sparing  ms\jc»tT 
iteelf,  threw  a  cloud  over  his  writings,  whicn  can  never  be  dKn 
away,  to  the  satisfaction  of  any  candid  or  liberal  mind.  Though  uj* 
DEiention  of  these  celebrated  letters  is  rather  anticipated  in  thi«  pb<e. 
as  they  did  not  publicly  appear  till  the  year  1,7GD,  yot.  as  they  f^^ 
ticularly  relate  to  the  foregoing  tmnsactions,  and  stiue  of  aflaina 
the  early  years  of  the  reign  of  George  III.,  and  long  preceded  tbi 
actual  commencement  of  the  war  with  America,  the  iin»t  author^  cl 
which  he  seemed  disposed  to  screen,  a  better  opportunity  of  iaCT" 
facing  the  subject  might  scarcely  be  found.  The  many  fruitles&,  t-J 
very  curious  attempts  that  have  been  made,  at  various  times,  to  iU^ 
cover  the  real  author,  have  contributed,  in  addition  to  the  extnonb- 
nary  character  of  the  work  itself^  and  tne  political  questions  discn.**- 
ed  n  it,  to  prevent  its  ever  sinking  into  oblivion.  The  letten  c( 
Amtii3>  Willi  ail  their  blemishes,  will  probably  never  fail  to  fioda 
place  in  the  libraries  of  the  British  scholar,  and  Briti^il  «^tatcsniia 

8.  In  the  prosecution  of  this  work,  it  should  also  be  noticed,  tlu!  i 
IP'eat  constitutional  point  came  under  discussion,  namely .  whetber, 
Ml  cases  of  libel,  the  jury  were  judges  of  the  kw,  as  well  as  ol  tW 
/acL  In  most  other  cases,  no  such  difiiculty  seemed  to  occur.  la 
cases  of  murder,  not  only  the  act  of  killing,  but  the  murderous  ta- 
lent, was  submitted  to  the  decision  of  the  jury ;  and  in  trials  tor  itkej 
af  every  description,  the  course  was  the  same.  Lord  Mmis6eld,  o 
Ibia  case,  insisted  that  the  jury  had  onlv  to  decide  on  the  fed  uf 
Mblication,  and  that  the  court  was  to  determine  uiion  the  bw  i^^ 
IbeL  This  has  generally  been  disputed  by  juries ;  and  the;  hare 
iniDd  ways  of  evading  the  difficulty,  by  either  themselves  rekmri 
lia  law  to  the  judge,  by  a  special  verdict,  or  by  proooundof  a  gea 

Digitized  by  CjOOQIC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  M 

ml  ac^ajftal.  Unfortunately,  libels  are  of  that  description  al  coi^ 
tfanlly  to  excite  those  jealousies  and  suflpiclcnis,  from  which  every 
court  of  justice  should  be  free.  They  affect,  also,  two  of  the  high- 
est privileges  of  Englishmen, — the  right  of  private  judgment,  and 
tiie  liberty  of  the  press.  In  the  case  of  Junius,  the  point  In  dispute 
was  bj  no  means  so  settled  as  to  obviate  future  differences., 

9.  The  year  1,764  is  memorable  for  the  commencement  of  the 
(fispule  between  Great  Britain  and  her  American  colonies ;  but  as 
tlie  bistorr  of  this  contest  involves  many  curious  questions  of  policy; 
u  its  results,  in  regard  not  only  to  England  and  America,  but  to  the 
world  in  general,  were  very  important ;  and  its  termination  led  to  a 
total  separation  of  the  colonies  from  the  mother  country,  thereby 
establishing  a  distinct  state  and  government  of  European  settlers  m 
the  western  hemisphere,  the  details  of  it  will  be  reserved  fbr  lOiDther 
tectioa 


SECTION  VIIL 

WSPtJTES  BETWTExV   GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  HER  AMERICAN 
COLONIES.     1,764—1,783. 

1.  The  seven  years'  war,  terminated  by  the  peace  of  Paris,  or  Fon- 
tainebleaoi  in  1,763,  had  been  begun  in  Jlmerica^  as  has  been  shown. 
(Sect  VI,)  Great  Britain,  at  considerable  expense  of  men  and 
ni<»cy,  had  resisted  the  encroachments  of  France  on  the  British 
cokitues.  and  thereby  afforded  to  the  Litter,  protection,  perhaps  h% 
J^'od  what  any  commercial  benefits,  under  the  colonial  system, 
<puld  be  said  fully  to  compensate.  A  question  therefore  'arosa, 
whether  the  colonies  might  not  be  called  upon  to  contribute,  by  di- 
'I^rt  taxation,  to  the  relief  of  the  general  expenses  and  burthens  ot 
the  mother  country.  The  national  debt,  it  was  argued  bv  the  Britiah 
l^oveminent,  was  the  debt  of  every  individual  in  the  whole  empire, 
whether  io  Asia,  America,  or  nearer  home. 

t.  The  question,  however,  was  no  sooner  started  than  dccideJ 
by  administration ;  chiefly  through  the  influence  and  on  the  Augge»> 
titn  of  Mr.  George  Grenville,  then  prime-minister,  who,  in  t*ie  very 
year  succeeding  the  peace  of  Paris,  procured  the  stamp-act  to  be 
,I^K«ed,  by  which  the  Americans  were  directly  subjected  to  a  tax 
imposed  by  the  British  parliament,  without  their  own  consent,  not 
J'nmediatety  applicable  to  their  own  wants  or  necessities,  and  contrary 
io  everf  former  mode  of  nising  money  for  such  purposes.  This 
was  certainly  sufficient  to  excite  alarm,  and  lead  to  questions  of  pol* 
*  J  and  prudence ;  of  power  and  riejht ;  of  legislation  and  reprcsen- 
^  lioD ;  never  yet  so  thoroughly  di^iCussed  or  investigated.  Hitherto^ 
Without  questioning  (he  power,  government  had  forborne  from 
niijg  them  as  a  matter  of  policy  and  propriety;  and  thus,  as  it 
" ««  well  said  at  the  time,  those  two  very  difhcult  points,  superiority 
t'  the  presiding  state,  ami  freedom  in  the  subordinate,  had  been  prac^ 
icaJJy  reconciled. 

S-  The  situation  of  America  rendered  these  questions  the  more 
ffiPortant  and  alarming  to  the  mother  country,  in  case  of  opposition, 
wH  having  been  originally  peopled  from  Europe,  in  a  great  measure* 
'V  refugees,  exiles,  and  persons  adverse  to  the  governments,  which 
ijey  had  \m^  both  m  church  and  state,  and  well  inclined,  probably,  li 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODHW  fflSTORY. 

ert  a  reptibiiUm  independence.  Their  legislatiTe  asBenibliefl  weve 
already  of  the  popnlar  cast,  and  their  feelings  and  spirits  accordant 
k  mast  also  be  admitted,  that  upon  the  very  ground  of  jpecuniair  or 
o(her  aids,  they  had  much  to  allege  in  respect  of  their  beneficial 
returns  to  England,  in  taking  her  manufactures,  and  having  assisted 
her  in  the  conquest  of  Canada.  Most  unfortunately,  the  very  grants 
which  had  been  made  by  their  assemblies,  in  aid  of  England,  durbg 
the  last  war,  were  alleged  as  an  argument  (a  most  irritating  «ne,  un- 
doubtedly,) of  their  ability  to  pay  any  imposts  the  parliameat  night 
ohoose  to  lay  ui>on  them. 

4.  As  the  ministry  had  decided  hastily  upon  the  general  question, 
they  seem  also  to  nave  suffered  themselves  to  be  precipitated  mw 
some  of  the  worst  measures  they  could  have  adopted  to  render  their 
novel  demands  palatable.  Their  very  first  tax,  imposed  by  the 
stamp  act  of  1,764,  though  simple  in  its  principle,  was  ill-suited  to 
tiie  ^lale  of  America.  The  mere  distribution  of  the  stamps,  through 
such  a  variety  of  different  states,  involved  in  it  a  thousand  dimculties; 
and  there  were  provisions  in  the  act  itself^  which  might,  if  at  ail 
abused  or  neglected,  have  subjected  the  people  to  unheard  of  vex;*' 
tions  and  oppressions.  It  is  scarcely,  therefoi'e,  to  be  wondered  that, 
en  its  first  promulgation  in  America,  the  act  should  have  been  re- 
ceived with  the  greatest  indignation,  and  even  with  defiance. 

5.  In  the  mean  time,  the  cause  of  the  Americans  was  espoused 
by  a  strong  party  at  bome^  a  party,  so  far  from  being  contemptible, 
as  to  include  some  of  the  first  persons  of  the  nation,  both  in  rank  and 
importance.  The  debates  in  both  houses  were  violent,  but  the  topia 
discussed,  in  every  point  of  view,  interesting.  The  friends  of  tiic 
Americans,  if  it  may  be  proper  now  to  call  them  so,  obtained  ami 
swayed,  for  a  very  short  period,  the  helm  of  government.  In  June, 
],765,  the  GrenviUe  admmistnition  was  dismissed,  and  a  new  one,  at 
the  head  of  which  was  placed  the  marquis  of  Rockingham,  came 
into  power,  through  the  mediation  of  the  duke  of  Cumberland 
They  continued  in  office,  however,  for  little  more  than  one  year: 
but  in  that  short  space  of  time,  the  stamp-act,  which  had  been  so  ill 
received  in  Amenca,  was  formally  rei)ealed. 

6.  But  the  erand  question  relating  to  the  rieht  of  taxation  was 
by  no  means  determmed  by  this  measure :  a  declaratory  act  was 
I)articularly  passed  at  the  same  lime,  for  maintaining  the  constitu 
tional  authonty  of  Great  Brilian,  in  "all  cases  whatsoever ;^' and 
though  there  was  certainly  no  design,  in  those  who  promoted  the 
repeal,  to  act  upon  this  authority,  by  establishing  any  other  tax  of 
a  similar  kind,  yet  the  colonists  were  prepared,  as  much  as  ever, 
to  dispute  the  principle,  as  far  as  it  regarded  taxation ;  and  their 
courage  and  confidence  at  this  time  stood  high^  in  consequence  of 
the  importance  which  had  been  given  to  them  m  the  last  war.  and 
their  emancipation  from  all  dread  of  the  French  and  Spaniards,  bj 
the  cession  of  Canada  and  the  Floridas.  In  the  colony  of  Virginia 
the  right  of  taxation  was  voted  to  rest  entirely  in  the  king,  or  hiB 
representative^  and  the  general  assembly  of  the  colony.  This  was, 
voidoubtedly.  the  usual  course  of  things ;  and  in  this  way  subsidies  tp 
a  considerable  amount  had  been  granted  to  the  crown.  This  prec^^ 
dent  was  soon  followed  by  others  of  the  legislative  bodies,  aod 
adopted  in  the  general  congress  of  New  York,  1,765. 

7.  It  was  not  pretended  that  the  Americans  paid  no  taxes;  but  a 
wmction  was  now  set  up,  which  there  had  been  no  occasion  to 
wast  upoQ  before.    To  external  taxation,  through  the  operatioo  ^ 

Digitized.by  VjOOQ  IC 


MODERN  HISTORY. 

laws  of  trade  and  naTigatioa^  enacted  in  the  mother  coantry,  they 
were  willing  to  yield  suomission ;  they  had  constantly  done  so,  nor 
were  they  now  disposed  to  resist  such  enactaicnts ;  but  all  inter- 
nal duties  for  raising  a  revenue,  or  supporting  establishments,  were 
held  to  be  very  dinerently  circumstanced.  Taxes  of  this  nature 
were  considered  as  being,  in  the  very  language  of  parliament  itself^ 
giftfj  and  ffrmxts.  None,  therefore,  it  was  urged,  could  give  the 
money  of  America  but  the  people  of  America  themselves.  If  they 
chose  to  make  such  grants,  they  might  receive  a  legislative  sanction,  as 
in  England ;  but  legislation  and  taxation  were  distinct  things.  Tax- 
ation, according  to  the  spirit  of  the  English  conslitution,  implying 
consent)  direct  or  by  representation,  could  not  otherwise  be  rendered 
either  legal  or  just.  Local  circumstances  would  render  the  repre- 
sentation of  America,  in  the  British  parliament,  impracticaole , 
and  a  supposed  virtual  representation  was  no  less  than  mockery. 
The  representatives  of  England,  in  taxing  others,  taxed  themselves 
also ;  but  this  could  not  be  the  case  in  regard  to  American  imposts. 

8.  Such  weie  some  of  the  strongest  reasons  urged  against  the 
measure  in  general;  but,  as  the  right  of  taxation  had  not  been  ex- 
pressly given  up  by  any  part  in  Enghind,  but  rather  in^^istcd  upon  in  the 
iioclaralory  act,  no  concession  short  of  this  seemed  likely  to  do  good. 
The  stamp-act  had  caused  an  irritation,  which  no  qualified  repeal 
couM  allay :  internal  taxation  was  not  only  resisted  as  an  encroachment 
on  established  rights  and  usages,  but,  in  resentment  of  such  wrongs, 
attempts  were  made  to  hinder  the  further  operation  even  of  exter- 
nal taxation.  Non-importation,  and  non-consumption  agreements 
were  soon  entered  into,  and  as.^ociations  formed  to  methodise  and 
consolidate  the  opposition  to  government  A  resolution  had  been 
passed  when  lord  r^orth  was  minister,  promising  to  desist  from  all 
taxation,  except  commercial  imposts,  whenever  any  one  of  the 
rolonial  assemblies  sbould  vote  a  reasonable  sum,  as  a  revenue,  to  be 
appropriated  bv  parliament;  but  this  had  no  good  effect. 

9.  m  so  emuarrassed  a  state  of  things,  it  is  not  very  surprising 
that  the  ministry  at  home  should  have  entertained  wrong  measures, 
and  laiscalculated  the  effects  of  the  plans  they  were  pursuing. 
The  truth  of  history  tends  to  show  that,  however  they  might  be 
embarrassed  by  an  active  opposition  in  parliament,  that  opposition 
fAiTly  forewarned  them  of  the  consequences  of  their  meditated  pro 

I  peelings  which  came  to  pass  exactly  as  they  had  been  foretold. 
But  auer  this  demand  had  once  provoked  the  question  of  right,  and 
that  qoestion  had  divided  the  people  of  both  countries  into  two  strong 
parties,  things  soon  fell  into  tnat  state,  in  which  it  became  impossible 
to  resstore  aSltirs  to  their  original  condition,  either  by  perseverance 
or  concession.  Every  effort  of  coercion  was  resented  as  an  illegal 
*>ocroachment ;  every  conciliatory  proposition  received  as  a  proof 
oi  alamn  and  timidity,  and  as  a  pledge  of  victory  and  success  to  fu 
Tare  opposition. 

to.  It  has  been  questioned  whether  independence  was  not  in  the 
▼ievr  of  the  Americans  from  the  very  first  stirring  of  the  question, 
or  eTen  previously :  but  had  this  been  the  case,  tney  would  have 
been  more  prepared ;  their  addresses  to  the  king  and  parliament,  on 
Tarious  occasions,  after  the  commencement  of  the  dispute,  most  have 
been  fitUacious  to  the  highest  pitch  of  dissimulation,  if  they  had  dc- 
termiiied  against  all  compromise  from  the  very  beginning ;  but,  wt- 
ieed«  the  remonstrances  and  complaints  of  General  Washington,  oa 
gi#  iU  state  of  his  army,  and  total  want  of  many  essential  reqiu«te% 
B  b  ? 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


fM  MODERN  HISTORY. 

«D  firet  taking  the  command,  seem  clearly  to  prove  that  thej  \ 
inren  to  assert  their  iodependepce  by  the  course  of  things;  a  larn 
portion  of  their  fellow-subjects  and  countrymen  on  both  sides  of  the 
Atlantic,  judged  them  to  be  oppressed,  and  thus  gave  a  character  (o 
their  opposition  which  could  not  very  creditably  be  forfeited*  Upon 
the  whole  it  may  be  considered  probable  that  some  of  the  most 
prominent  and  active  leaden  of  the  revolution  had  very  early  con- 
ceived the  design  of  establishing  the  independence  of  their  country  ; 
but  that  the  mass  of  the  people  in  the  colonies,  had  no  such  inten- 
tion until  after  their  first  successes. 

11.  Hostilities  did  not  actually  commence  till  the  year  1,775,  ten 
▼ears  from  the  first  passing  of  the  stamp-act.  In  a  snort  time  after 
the  passing  of  that  act,  it  was  repealea,  as  has  been  stated ;  but  in 
1,767  the  project  of  taxing  America  was  revived  by  Mr.  Charles 
Townshend,  and  from  that  period  to  the  commencement  of  the  war, 
both  countries,  were  in  a  state  of  the  greatest  agitation.  Debates 
ran  high  at  home,  and  in  America  their  gravest  proceedings  were  ac- 
companied with  such  threats  of  defiance,  and  such  indignant  resent- 
ment of  all  innovations,  as  almost  necessarily  to  bring  them  under  the 
•trong  hand  of  power.  But  government  underrated  their  means  of 
resistance;,  when  brought  into  a  state  of  union,  bj  the  congress, 
their  force  was  no  longer  to  be  desoised ;  all  temporizing  expedients 
were  at  an  end,  a  circumstance  iU  understood  oy  the  ministry  at 
home,  who  lost  much  time  in  endeavouring  to  retrieve  matters,  by 
fruitless  atteinpts,  sometimes  in  the  way  of  conciliation,  ana  at 
others,  of  inemcient  resistance.  Thus,  when  in  1,770  many  com- 
mercial duties  were  taken  off,  which  the  mother  country  had  aa  un- 
doubted right  to  impose,  the  concession  was  ill  received,  in  con$^ 
quence  of  the  single  exception  of  tea,  which  was  continued  in  order 
to  assert  the  rights  and  supremacv  of  Great  Britain ;  but  this  was 
done  in  a  manner  too  imperious,  and  without  sufhcient  force  to  subdue 
the  resentment  it  was  calculated  to  excite,  at  such  a  moment  At 
the  very  breaking  out  of  the  war,  ministers  appear  to  have  been  by 
far  too  confident  of  speedily  suppressing  so  formidable  an  insurrec- 
tion ;  an  insurrection  which  had  had  time  allowed  it  to  orgstniZM 
itself,  and  which  had  drawn  upon  it  the  attention  of  the  whole  civ- 
ilized world. 

13.  The  war  may  be  said  to  have  actually  commenced  only  oo 
the  14th  of  April,  1,775,  though  some  English  regiments  had  been 
tent  to  Boston  so  early  as  the  year  1.768.  In  an  anhir  at  Lexington, 
amounting  to  no  more  than  a  skirmish,  the  English  were  completely 
worsted,  a  circumstance  calculated  to  give  spirits  to  the  Americans, 
M.  a  most  awful  and  momentous  period.  General  Washington,  who 
had  distinguished  himself  in  the  war  against  tlie  French,  and  bore  a 
most  irreproachable  character,  was  appointed  to  take  the  command 
of  the  American  army ;  a  post  of  the  utmost  responsibility^  and  to- 
quirins^lents,  temper,  and  discretion,  of  no  common  description. 

13.  The  sword  being  drawn,  and  no  hopes  remaining  of  an  amica- 
ble adjustment  of  differences  between  the  crown  and  its  transatlantic 
subjects,  now  in  a  state  of  open  revolt ;  and  the  success  of  the  first 
bofltilities  having  animated  the  military  ardour  of  the  Americans^ 
Ihey  proceeded,  by  a  solenm  declaration  of  tlie  general  congress  at 
Philadelphia,  July  4, 1,776,  to  declare  the  thirteen  provinces  inde- 
Dendent ;  by  which  act  America  may  be  said  to  have  been  divided 
firom  the  mother  country,  294  years  afler  the  discovery  of  that  couti* 
try  bj  Columbus ;  166  trom  the  first  settlement  of  Virginia;  and  Itf 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  t» 

ttom  the  settlement  of  Pljrmouth  in  Massachusetts  Bay.    The  Amei 
lean  Congress  exercised  its  important  functions  with  great  enerrj 
and  dignity,  and  the  campaign  of  1,776  turned  out  favourably  for  tEs 
Americans,  and  highly  to  uie  credit  of  their  very  able  and  brave 
commander. 

1 4.  Whether  it  were  owing  to  the  low  opinion  entertained  by  (tie 
government  at  home,  of  the  resistance  likely  to  be  ofifered  by  the 
Americans,  or  to  a  dislike  of  the  cause  in  which  they  were  engaged 
on  the  part  of  the  British  commanders,  it  is  exceedingly  certain,  tnat 
the  Elnglish  army  did  not  obtain  the  advantages  it  was  supposed  k 
might  luive  done,  or  proceed  as  if  it  were  able  speedily  to  crush  the 
mbcllion  that  had  been  raised.  The  American  troops  were  every 
day  improving,  and  every  day  deriving  encouragement,  either  from 
unexpected  successes,  or  the  inactivity  of  the  armies  opposed  to 
them.  On  the  other  hand,  the  English  were  either  indulging  in 
pleasoie,  when  they  should  have  been  in  action,  or  dishcartenea  by 
sadden  surprises  or  repulses,  which  redounded  greatly  to  the  credk 
of  their  less  disciplined,  and  less  organized  opponents.  In  a  short 
time,  however,  the  war  became  more  complicated,  and  opened  a 
^enc,  which  not  only  involved  the  continent  of  Europe  in  the  coiv- 
fact  of  the  day,  but  probably  led  to  changes  and  convulsions,  as  e>- 
iraordiaary  and  as  extensive  as  ever  the  world  experienced. 

15.  In  the  month  of  November,  1,776,  the  celebrated  Dr.  Franklin 
and  Silas  Deane  had  been  despatched  by  congress,  to  solicit,  at  the 
court  of  Versailles,  the  aid  and  assistance  of  French  troops.  Accord- 
ing to  the  former  course  of  things,  nothing  could  be  more  strange 
iii;ai  such  an  application,  at  such  a  court ;  an  application  from  rebel- 
lious subjects,  from  the  assertors  of  republican  independence,  to  a 
court  celebrated  for  the  most  refined  despotism,  and  ruling  a  people, 
heretofore  the  grossest  admirers  and  flatterers  of  regal  power ;  an 
application  from  penonsof  the  simplest  habits;  frugal,  temperate, 
mdustrious,  and  little  advanced  in  civilization,  to  a  court  immersed  in 
pleasure,  ^y,  and  dissipated,  profligate  and  corrupt,  civilized  to  the 
hirliest  pitch  of  couitfy  rennement,  of  polishecf  manners,  and  of 
splendid  luxury :  lastly,  an  application  from  a  people  who  had  cap- 
ned  their  dissent  from  the  church  of  Rome  farther  than  any  protes- 
i  mts  in  Europe,  to  a  court  still  subject  to  the  papal  see,  a  cherished 
branch  of  the  catholic  church. 

16.  Extraordinary,  however,  ki  all  respects,  as  this  American  mis- 
sion seems  to  have  been,  it  met  with  a  cordial  and  favourable  recep- 
fton«  Even  the  queen  of  France  was  found  to  espouse  the  cause  of 
the  revolted  subjects  of  Great  Britain,  little  foreseeing  the  handle 
•he  was  giving  to  many  keen  observers  of  her  own  courtly  extrava- 
gance and  thoughtless  dissipation.  The  die  was  soon  cast ;  a  formal 
treaty  was  entered  into,  acKnowlcdging  the  independency  of  Amer* 
»i:;i ;  succour  and  support  to  a  large  extent  promised,  and  officers  ap- 
p<>infed  te  conduct  the  French  forces,  likely,  it  would  seem,  above 
mU  others,  to  imbibe  the  spirit  of  freedom,  which  animated  the 
Americans,  and  to  espouse  their  cause  upon  principle.  They  were 
uil  noble,  indeed  ;  but  in  America  they  were  sure  to  be  taught  how 
vuId  were  such  distinctions,  if  not  supported  by  public  opinion. 

17.  The  English  government  was  not  formerly  apprised  of  this 
onexpected  alliance,  till  the  year  1,778,  when  it  received  a  very 
corioQi  and  bsnlting  notification  of  it  from  the  French  ambassadoc 
It  does  not  appear  tpat  the  aid  thus  obtained  by  the  American  mis- 
tiOQf  was  altogether  grateful  to  the  Americans  themselves,  though  it 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


t96  MODERN  HISTORY. 

had  the  fall  effect  of  raising  up  new  and  powerful  enemiefl  apmir 
the  mother  country,  and  invoking  Europe  in  their  cause ;  foi, 
through  the  French  influence,  in  the  year  1,779,  Spain  joined  the 
confederacy  against  England,  and,  in  1,780,  Holland.  In  the  mean 
while  commissioners  had  been  sent  from  England  to  America,  to 
treat  for  peace,  but  the  Americans,  insisting  on  the  previous  ao- 
knowledgment  of  their  independency,  rendered  their  attempts  frail* 
less. 

18.  Whatever  loss  of  fame,  reputatioo,  and  territory  Great  Britain 
incurred  in  America,  her  arms  never  shone  with  greater  lustre  than 
on  some  occasions  in  which  she  was  engaged  during  this  war.  with 
tl)e  confederate  powers  of  Europe ;  in  Asia  particularly,  she  was 
acquiring  an  empire  ten  times  greater  in  wealth  and  population,  than 
all  she  had  to  lose  in  the  west :  but  of  all  her  achievements  at  this 
period,  none,  perhaps,  was  so  conspicuous,  none  so  glorious,  as  tb« 
defence  of  Gibraltar  under  General  Elliot,  afterwards  lord  Heath- 
tie  Id,  against  the  combined  forces  of  Spain  and  France.  The  prei>»- 
nations  made  to  recover  tbat  important  fortress  for  Spain,  exceeoed 
every  thing  before  kjaown.  The  ultunate  success  of  the  attempt 
was  calculated  upon  as  so  certain,  that  some  of  the  French  princes 
of  the  blood,  repaired  to  the  Spanish  camp  merely  to  witness  its  sur- 
render. But  the  heroism  of  the  troops  in  garrison  baffled  all  their 
designs,  and  the  timely  arrival  of  the  British  fleet  completed  th« 
triumph,  in  October,  1,782.    The  siege  (begun  in  1,779)  wasentire- 

a  abandoned,  with  the  loss  of  all  the  Spanish  floating  batteries  and 
e  defeat  of  the  combined  fleets  of  France  and  Spain,  by  lord  Howe. 
This  action  took  place  on  the  20th  of  October ;  in  the  followins 
month  provisional  articles  of  peace  were  signed  at  Pans,  by  British 
and  American  commissioners,  and  early  in  the  ensuing  year  a  treaty 
•OQcluded  at  Versailles,  between  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Spain, 
lo  which,  in  February,  Holland  also  acceded. 

19.  Towards  the  close  of  the  war,  many  important  discussions  fc 
parliament  took  place  on  the  American  aflairs,  in  which  it  was 
round,  that  those  who  had  most  espoused  her  cause,  on  the  question 
of  internal  taxation,  and  most  objected  to  the  measures  of  administra- 
tion in  the  conduct  of  the  war,  difl*ered,  at  the  ias^  from  each  other. 
00  the  question  of  American  independence ;  a  difference  rendereJ 
peculiarly  memorable,  as  being  the  subject  of  the  last  speech  and 
appearance  in  parliament  of  that  illustrious  statesman,  the  earl  ot 
Chatham.  On  April  7,  1,778,  though  labouring  under  a  severe  fit  of 
illness,  he  appeared  in  his  place,  in  the  house  of  lords,  and  delivered 
a  most  animated  and  energetic  speech,  in  which  he  strongly  protest- 
ed against  the  surrender  of  the  sovereignty  of  Great  Britam  over 
her  colonies ;  soon  after,  rising  to  reply  to  the  Duke  of  Richmond, 
he  fell  back  on  the  seat  in  a  tainting  fit,  and  m  a  few  days  expired, 
at  his  seat  in  Kent.  In  four  years  from  this  event,  Great  Britain  wai 
compelled,  to  yield  ipon  this  great  point,  and,  by  the  peace  of  V*er- 
saUies,  ratified  and  concluded  September  3, 1,783,  the  ihiriem  United 

olonies  of^mcrioa  7»ert  admiUed  tobt^  Free*  Somereien^  and  vtdqm^ 


y  Google 


MODERN  HISTORY.  »7 


SECTION  IX. 


niANCE,  FROM  THE  PEACE  OF  PARIS,  1,763,  TO  THE 
OPENING  OF  THE  ASSEMBLY  OF  THE  STATES  GKNERAV, 
1,789. 

1.  For  the  affairs  of  Fi-ance.  from  the  death  of  Lewh  XIV.,  to 
the  peace  of  Vienna,  1,738,  (see  Sect.  I.)    In  the  year  of  1,740, 
f>wing  to  the  death  of  the  emperor,  Charles  VI.,  Eurojie  ivas  again 
ajgitated,  and  France,  in  espousing  the  cause  of  the  elector  of  Bara- 
ria,  against  the  house  of  Austria,  became  involved  in  the  war,  which 
was  terminated  by  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  1,743,  (see  Sect 
111.)    From  tlie  conclusion  of  the  above  treaty,  to  the  commence- 
ment of  the  seven  years'  war,  she  enjoyed  a  state  of  external  peace 
and  tranquillity,    bat  though  this  short  interval  of  repose  from  war, 
nras  applied  to  the  improvement  of  the  kingdom,  in  no  common  dt 
gree,  both  in  the  capital  and  provinces^  by  the  establishment  of 
v:hool3  and  hospitals,  the  erection  of  public  edifices,  the  building  of 
Iiiidges,  digging  canals,  and  repairing  roads ;  in  the  cultivation  and 
irnprovemeut  of  many  arts,  the  extension  of  commerce,  and  encour- 
as;emcnt  of  manufactures;  of  silk,  of  porcelain,  and  tapestry,  in  per- 
^cula^;  yot  amidst  all  these  improvements  she  enjoyccJ  little  of  inter- 
nal tranquillity.     Religious  disputes  greatly  occupied  the  altentiou 
.»!*  all  ranks  ot  persons,  and  involved  the  clergy,  the  court,  the  par- 
j.aments,  and  the  people,  in  incessant  contests,  exceedingly  disgrace- 
t'li,  and,  considering  the  temper  ot*  the  times,  the  advancement  of 
Munian  knowledge,  and  the  progrovj  of  iclcius,  extremely  injudicious. 
2.  During  the  n^ign  of  Lewis  XIV'.,  a  fierce  contention  had  arisen 
•rctwecn  the  Jesuits  and  Jan^oni^t^',  on  certain  obscure   points  Uk 
ft  ecology,  which,  after  much  fruitless  argument,  much  rail  lerv  and 
-  Sose  on  both  sides,  through  the  inlluenoe  of  the  Jesuits  with  tlie 
king,  were  roterred  to  the  decision  of  the  Koman  pontiff.    One  hun- 
<ir.'il  and  otie  propositions,  out  of  one  hundred  and  three,  which  were 
«.iiJ  to  favour  the  Jansenist?,  in  a  book  written  by  the  Pore  (^^esnei, 
were,  in  the  year  1,713,  declared  by  the  holy  ollice  to  be  heretical, 
■a%d  consequently  condemned  in  fonn.*    The  interposition  of  his  ho 
iinofts  had  little  effect,  in  regard  to  the  restonition  of  peace  and  traiv 
q  liliity.    The  public  instrument,  by  which  the  sentence  was  passed 
'  «t)  the  Janseni^t  party,  (in  the  language  of  llome  commonly  call^ 
•  he    bull  *'  Uni^enitiu^'^^  from  the  tirst  word  with  which  it  begins,) 
•'  -»K:ame  the  signal  for  fresh  animosities,  murmurs,  and  complaint*. 
'I'lie  people,  the  parliament,  many  prelates,  and  others  of  the  clerey, 
violently  exclaimed  a^^ainst  it,  ;is  an  intVingcment  of  the  rights  of  tM 
r>;ilUcan  church,  contrary  to  ihe  laws,  and  a  violation  of  the  freedom 
r  opinion  in  matters  ot  religion.    But  the  king,  acting  under  tha 
».'*rae  iniluencc  as  had  induced  him  to  forward  the  appeal,  ordered  il 
-.    »  be  received,  and  in  a  short  time  ailerwards  died.    The  regent 
i  -ake  of  Orleans  found  means  to  keep  things  tolerably  quiet  duriog 

*  Th«  kin^^i  confeiior,  the  P.  le  TtUier,  happened  to  h^re  told  tbi 

-£  iMMg  that  this  book  contained  more  than  a  hwidrtd  eenturabU  proposUion*^ 

2   o  sAve  the  credit  of  the  confessor,  the  pope  condemned  a  hundred  and 

_  ^  -^  and  stated  the  above  reason  for  what  be  bad  done,  in  «^jin  tarau^ 

^.^   di*  Frtnch  ambasiador  at  Rome. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


29S  MODERN  fflSl'ORT. 

hk  administration  of  affairs,  nor  did  the  flame  burst  out  again  till  tike 
Tear  K750,  when,  through  the  bigotry  of  the  then  archbishop  of 
raris,  tne  clergy  were  encouraged  to  refuse  extreme  unction  to  all 
who  should  not  produce  confessional  notes,  signed  by  persons  who 
sdhered  to  the  bull. 

%.  It  is  easy  to  guess  the  confusion  and  deep  distress,  indeed, 
f^ch  so  singular  and  Intolerant  a  measure  was  likely  to  produce^ 
The  ca*ise  of  the  recusants  and  people  in  general,  was,  upon  thh 
occasion,  stronglv  supported  by  the  parliament  of  raris^  and  other 
parliaments ;  and  as  m  the  preceding  struggles  the  Janseoists  had 
been  thrown  into  prison,  in  this  the  magistrates  nrade  no  scruple  o 
committing  all  who  rei'used  to  administer  the  sacrament  to  persons  in 
their  last  moments.    The  Jesuits  had  again  recourse  to  the  kine. 

4.  The  common  course  of  proceeding,  in  all  disputes  and  con- 
tentions between  the  king  and  his  parliaments,  had  hitherto  boma 
the  stamp  of  the  most  perfect  despotism.  However  bold,  or  how- 
ever respectful  the  remonstrances  might  be  on  the  part  of  the  lat- 
ter, they  were  not  allowed  to  have  the  least  effect  against  the  de- 
^rmination  of  the  court,  if  these  judicial  bodies  became  too  n> 
mictory,  banishment  ensued  of  course,  and  not  the  slightest  regard 
was  paid  to  any  arguments  they  might  allege,  nor  any  resistance 
they  might  offer,  in  support  of  the  liberties  oi  their  fellow  subjectF^ 

&.  Things  came  to  tiic  usual  crisis  on  the  present  occasion.  All 
the  chambers  of  parliament  refused  to  register  the  letters  patent  by 
Which  they  were  commanded  to  suspend  the  prosecutions  relative 
to  the  refusal  of  the  sacraments.  In  the  year  1,753,  they  were 
banished,  and  much  inconvenience  arose  from  the  uiterruption  of 
business,  and  suspension  of  justice;  while  the  clergy,  attached  to 
the  bull,  made  great  boast  of  the  victory  they  had  obtained,  and 
endeavoured  continually  to  strengthen  themselves  more  and  mort) 

X'nst  their  adversaries.  The  king  often  wavered,  but  was  as 
a  brought  back  by  the  interposition  of  the  pope  and  obstinate 
perseverance  of  the  Jesuits;  in  1,754,  however,  seizing  the  opportu- 
nity of  the  birth  of  a  second  son  to  the  dauphin,  (tlie  duke  of  Bei^ 
ry,  afterwards  Lewis  XVI.,)  he  recalled  the  parliament,  but  witb- 
out  effecting  peace.  The  membci"s  had  been  received  at  Paris 
with  loud  acclamations,  and  every  demonstration  of  joy ;  their 
conduct  had  rendered  them  popular  to  an  extraordinary  degree,  fo 
that  when  commanded  afresh  to  register  the  king^s  edict*.  Ifiey 
again  refused.  This  hold  act  of  disobedience  subjected  them  to 
the  last  extremity  of  kingly  authority.  The  sovereign  repaired 
himself  to  the  hall  of  parliament,  November,  1,756,  and  in  a  W  (f 
justice  (the  term  by  which  such  assemblies  were  peculiarly  desig- 
nated,) linally  ordered  them  to  register  the  edicts  in  his  name,  whiciJ 
they  could  no  longer,  as  the  constitution  then  stood,  refuse,  l^hiny, 
however,  resigned  their  appointments,  and  much  dbcon lent  pre vaile^i 
amongst  the  people.  It  should  be  observed,  that  by  this  time  ihu 
depositaries  of  the  laws  and  advocates  had  begun  to  depart  from 
their  usual  routine  of  technical  formalities,  and,  animated  by  the  ex- 
amples set  them,  to  enter  largely  into  the  general  questions  of  law 
ancf  liberty,  rights  and  obligations,  duty  and  privilege  ;  they  began, 
in  short,  systematically  to  take  the  part  of  the  oppressed ;  they  werit 
prepared,  not  only  to  remonstrate,  hut  to  argue,  debate,  and  openly 
to  protest  against  the  violation  of  the  rights  of  the  people. 
u  X*^^  hand  of  a  fanatic,  in  the  year  1,757,  appeared  to  havi 
tfaft  eoect  of  altering  the  kfng's  mind  once  more.    As  bis  mqjedQr 

Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


MODERN  U1S1X)RY.  »9 

was  stepping  into  his  carriage,  he  was  stabbed  by  an  assassb  of 
the  name  of  Damiens^  his  object  bcixig,  according  to  his  own  confe^- 
Mon,  not  to  kiH,  bat  to  alarm  his  majesty,  with  a  Tiew  of  producing 
«ome  change  in  the  king'^s  sentiments,  that  might  dispose  him  to  ex>- 
joia  the  administration  of  the  sacraments  to  dying  persons,  without 
the  confessional  notes  insisted  upon ;  but  little  reliance  is  to  oe  placed 
OQ  aoy  declarations  of  this  nature,  hi  this  instance  the^  seemed 
not  to  agree  with  the  conduct  of  the  assassin.  That  Lewis  acted  as 
be  did  soon  afterwards,  with  regard  to  the  points  b  dispute,  in  conM 
Qucnc^  of  this  attempt  on  his  life,  is  bv  no  means  certain ;  but  in  a 
'nort  t^e  mutters  were  accommodatea  with  the  parliament,  and  the 
archbishop  of  Paris,  the  chief  fomenter  of  the  disturbances  on  the 
part  of  the  clergy,  banished. 

7.  it  mav  not  be  unrcnsonable,  perhaps,  to  date  the  commence 
m^nt  of  the  revolution  that  broke  out  nearly  thirty  years  after 
wanls,  from  this  period.  Scarcely  any  thing  could  have  contributed 
more  to  encourage  the  revolutionary  principles  already  at  work, 
({Mil  disputes  which  indicated  such  inveterate  superstition  and  bif 
<Mry ;  such  determined  oppo!f:ition  to  all  freedom  of  thought ;  such 
sf>ulil8try  and  intii^ue ;  such  submission  to  the  court  of  Home;  such 
<*'>ntempt  of  the  public  opinion,  as  expressed,  for  want  of  any  better 
ct'usUiuli^d  organ,  in  the  remonstrances  of  the  French  parliament ; 
Bucli  a  dispotsition  on  the  part  of  the  court  and  clergy  to  uphold  the 
arlutniry  powers  of  the  sovereign,  and  this  at  a  moment  when  the 
pnvate  life  of  the  monarch  himself  was  in  the  highest  degree  profli- 
f!dte  and  abandoned,  and  the  whole  system  of  government  a  system 
01  venality,  favouritism,  and  public  plunder.  'I'hese  imprudent  and 
unwise  proceeding?,  at  such  a  time,  gnve  a  handle  to  the  philosophers, 
or  litenui,  of  tiie  dny,  to  take  the  reform  of  matters  hilo  their  own 
hitul-*^  and  l>y  suppKing  them  with  such  ample  materials  Ibr  the 
« tercise  of  iheir  wils,  as  well  as  their  coun>e;o,  laid  the  foundatioD 
^Jpa  revolution  which  (so  extensive  were  the  abuses  of  government  J 
•imost  nece'S'iiirily  threw  every  thing  into  confusion,  and  in  the  ena 
lir  outstep jxnl  the  bounds  of  all  sober  and  discreet  reform.  Hred  up 
l>v  the  JcsuiLs  themselves,  and  instructed  in  all  the  branches  o' 
HMfMiy  and  polite  knowledge,  they  were  amply  prepared  to  expose 
l.'ie  weakness  or  wickodnev*  of  their  mns(cri»,  when  nnre  the  veil 
t, at  shroud.- d  their  deceptions  was  by  any  accident  removed.  They 
tl'od  ready  to  avail  themselves  of  any  circumstances  that  might 
t'i'd  to  n  ii<ler  manifest  tlie  pride  ancl  obstinacy,  hypocrisy  and 
<ieceil,  of  iui  overbearing  sect,  who  by  their  influence  with  the  king, 
c*i<;ht  at  any  time  trample  upon  the  liberties  of  the  people. 

H.  Tho-^e'pliilosophen!.  (lor  so  they  have  been  with  too  little  d^ 
cnmio<itii)a  calli d,)  thus  nJsed  in  the  estimation  of  an  oppressed 
p<^opie  mto  the  rank  of  champions  of  public  fi-eedom,  were  unforti>- 
nitely,  but  probably  through  the  artful  designs  of  their  instructerS| 
biile  acquainteil  with  the  true  principles  ot  religion,  however  &f 
oJliar  Ihey  might  be  with  its  abuses.  In  directing  their  attacks^ 
Un?refore,  against  the  Jesuits,  they  were  rather  anxioiis  that  their 
^liafts  should  reach  all  the  regular  clerey,  or  monastic  orders  io 
^"(leni;  nor  were  they  at  ail  careful  how  much  religion  itself 
Qi:gbt  eufibr  in  the  overdiirow  of  its  ministers.  The  enemies  of  the 
Je%uiti  in  China,  Portugal,  Spain,  and  America,  had  been  \ht 
Dominicans  ami  Cordeliers.  It  %vas  the  aim  of  the  philosophers,  te 
crushing  the  Jesuits,  to  crush  their  rivals  also;  they  were  thei*' 
ibre  at  eeYere  ajgainat  the  Doimnicaiia  as.a^uost  the  JeeuMii  Ik* 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


300  MODERN  HISTORY. 

parliftment  only  attacked  the  latter.  Howerer  attached  Lewis  XY. 
miffht  be  to  the  Jesuits,  as  the  defenders  of  the  catholic  religion, 
and  kingly  authority,  he  appears  to  have  entertained  a  jealousy 
of  them,  as  censors  of  his  immoral  course  of  life,  and  as  more  at- 
tached to  his  son  the  dauphin  than  to  himself  He  therefore  bo- 
came  indifferent  to  the  attacks  making  upon  them ;  while  his  nus- 
tress,  the  marchioness  of  Pompadour,  and  his  minister,  the  duke  de 
Choiscul,  in  order  to  keep  the  king  wholly  in  their  own  powen  were 
ready  to  take  part  against  the  dauphin,  the  queen,  the  roval  fafliilj) 
and  the  Jesuits  themselves,  of  whom  they  were,  for  the  reasons 
above  stated,  justly  suspicious.  The  duke  de  Choiseul  himself,  in- 
deed, is  said  to  have  given  the  following  account  of  his  enmity  to  tbft 
order ;  that  being  on  an  embassy  at  Rome,  the  general  of  the  order 
frankly  told  him,  that  he  knew,  before  he  came,  every  thing  that 
he  had  said  about  the  society  at  Paris,  and  so  convinced  him  that 
what  he  said  was  true,  that  he  could  not  doubt  but  that,  through 
4ome  means  or  other,  tne^r  were  able  to  learn  all  that  passed,  not 
only  in  the  Cifbinets  of  princes,  but  the  interior  of  private  houses, 
and  that  so  dangerous  a  society  ought  not  to  subsist  It  is  proper  lo 
sCate  this,  in  order  to  exonerate  the  duke  from  any  suspicion  of 
having  sacrified  them  to  the  philosophers,  whose  irreligious  princi* 
pies  he  is  known  latterly  not  to  have  approved. 

9.  hi  the  year  1,759  the  Jesuits  had  beeu  expelled  from  Portugal, 
on  a  charge  of  countenancing  an  attack  on  tlie  king's  life.  Under 
these  circumstances,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  enemies  of  the  order 
at  Paris  should  attempt  to  fix  on  them  the  charge  of  the  late  attack 
on  Lewis  XV.,  and  to  attribute  to  them  regicide  principles.  Doinkm 
himself  seemed  to  have  taken  pains  to  leave  the  matter  in  extreme 
doubt.  They  already  were  sufficiently  branded  in  the  eyes  of  tlio 
public,  as  the  friends  and  assertors  of  arbitrary  power,  and  enemie* 
to  liberty.  To  relieve  the  sovereigns  of  Europe  from  the  thraldom 
of  a  sect  so  powerful,  so  artful  and  dangerous,  became  a  principle  of 
action,  which  the  public  were  well  enough  disposed  to  countenance, 
and  an  onportunity  only  was  wanting  to  accomplish  their  ruin. 

10.  T.iiis  opportunity  the  Jesuits  themselves  provided  for  ihcir 
enemies.  Having  endeavoured  to  escape  from  a  demand  made  cu 
them  in  consequence  of  some  mercantile  proceedings,  in  which  cno 
of  their  society  was  deeply  involved,  the  tribunals  to  which  lU 
case  was  referred,  having  a  handle  given  them  by  the  pleading* 
of  the  Jesuits,  very  properly  required  to  see  the  articles  of  Iheir 
haetitution,  hitherto,  that  is.  tor  more  than  two  centuries,  kept  *«- 
cret  from  all  the  world.  The  times  were  well  fitted  for  such  .i 
dfecovery.  All  men  of  wit  and  understanding,  however  unpriucfc- 
pled  themselves,  were  well  prepared  to  detect  and  expose  the  vm 
oerable  parts  of  their  great  charter  or  instttute,  (for  so  it  wa* 
called)  and  to  lay  open  to  the  world  at  large  the  peculiar  arts  ard 
aontrivances,  by  which  they  were  systematically  instructed  lo  ac- 
oalre  an  absolute  dominion  over  tlie  minds  and  consciences  of  me  u. 
"Die  mysterious  volume  was  ibund  to  contain  sufficient  to  convict 
them  of  such  bad  principles,  with  regard  both  to  civil  goverooieni 
and  morality,  thatj  though  the  king  hesitated  at  first  to  pass  sen- 
leoce  on  them,  bemg  almost  as  much  afraid  of  their  rivals  and  op- 
ponents, the  Jansenlsts,  the  parliament,  and  the  philosophers,  a&  of 
ihemselves;  yet,  at  length,  August  6, 1,762.  he  was  prevailed  upoc 
tp  issue  a  decree,  by  which  they  were  secularized,  and  their  posses- 
-2'^-^  ordered  to  be  sold*,  whica  was  speedUy,  and  with  yery  fkn 

Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  301 

exceptions,  carried  into  execution  in  all  parts  of  the  kiogdoia. 
Efforts  Indeed  were  made  to  save  them,  as  being  essentially  necefls^ 
ry  to  combat  the  attacks  of  the  new  philosophy,  and  to  check  th« 
proeress  of  deism  and  atheism ;  as  heretofore  tney  had  interposed  to 
coniound  schismatics  and  heretics ;  both  the  altar  and  the  throne,  it 
was  alleged,  needed  their  services  now  more  than  ever;  but  all 
these  movements  io  their  favour  were  in  vain.  Tiie  duke  de 
Choiseal  and  the  marchioness  of  Pompadour  had  the  influence  to 
procure  an  edict  from  the  king  for  the  actual  abolition  of  the  onler 
m  France,  which  was  issued  in  November,  1,764,  and  other  court? 
of  Europe  judg*?d  it  wise  to  take  the  same  steps.  Spain  and  Portu 
?al  having  at  this  time  ministers,  whose  principles  and  politics  much 
resembled  those  of  the  duke  de  Choiseui;  the  count  d'AranJa,  aud 
tlw  marquis  de  Pombal ;  the  Jesuits  were  expelled  from  Spair 
\aples,  and  Sicily,  from  Mexico,  Peru,  and  Paraguay,  in  the  coun&c 
ul'  one  and  the  same  year,  1 ,767. 

11.  The  frite  of  the  Jesuits  was  no  sooner  decided,  than  the  par- 
n.iments,  elated  by  the  downfal  of  their  great  opponents,  began  to  at- 
t'Ck  the  arbitrary  power  of  the  kii)^.  The  prolligate  life  of  the 
latter  had  withdrawn  him  too  much  from  the  cares  of  government, 
3:k1  opened  the  door  to  abuses  in  almost  every  department  of  admin- 
Hration ;  but  while  the  parliaments  were  thus  engaged,  some  very 
<;vtnordinary  procevses  at  law,  particularly  the  c;ise  of  the  Colat 
Uinily  at  Thoulouse,  of  Labarre  at  Abbeville,  and  of  the  celebrated 
/-'%,  commander  in  India,  in  which  shocking  instances  of  fanaticism 
.'.iiiJ  oppression  occurred,  turned  the  eyes  of  the  philosophers,  with 
Voltaire  at  their  head,  to  the  defects  of  the  French  jurisprudence^  and 
'  \ciiQi[  a  strong  feeling  against  both  the  la-si:s  of  France,  and  the 
iil:iijni*trators  ot  thi.-m. 

11  The  nation  had  sustained  a  considerable  loss  In  the  death  of 
i!»*"  ddiiphin,  who,  though  a  favourer  of  the  Jesuits  to  a  certain  ex 
••  at,  exiiibited  a  chaniclcr  so  dillerent  from  that  of  his  father  in 
m  u\y  moit  cs.'^ential  poinls,  as  to  render  him  very  justly  popular:  hit 
highness  died  at  the  age  of  36,  in  the  Tear  1,76j  j  his  wile,  a  prin- 
<"<'>s  of  the  house  of  Saxony,  surviving  him  only  hlieen  months.  In 
UTO,  through  the  agency  of  the  duke  de  Clu)iseul,  a  new  eonue*- 
i'»r»  took  place  between  the  courts  of  Vienna  and  Vcrsaillos,  by  the 
niirriage  of  the  young  dauphin,  ai'tervvards  Lewis  XV L,  with  the 
itughter  of  the  empress  dowager,  the  archduchess  Marie  Antoi- 
'  't*»;  an  union  attended  with  such  costly  and  splendid  ibstivities  at 
iV'  time,  as  must  excite,  in  every  senbible  mind,  the  njost  awful  re- 
l»'  V  iioUi  on  ViiQ  dismal  cvenls  which  are  now  known  to  have  cloudwl 
»-•»  latter  days. 

13.  The  miirriagc  of  the  dauphin  took  place  at  a  time  when  the 
<-:'i.rences  between  the  king  and  his  parliament  had  arisen  to  thr 
civatest  height.  In  the  couree  of  the  yeara  1,770  and  lj77l,  the 
uir^  be  hi  several  beds  of  justice,  but  wiliiout  at  all  subduing  th« 
spirit  which  had  been  ral'^d  against  his  edicts,  and  wliich  the  mini»- 
IT,  in  opposition  to  the  chancellor,  is  supposea  to  have  encouraged  , 
a  new  porliament,  and  six  councils,  oo  the  suggestion  of  the  laXteiy 
«^»^rc  proposed  to  be  constituted,  to  supply  the  place  of  the  refracted 
ly  members,  who  were  banished ;  but  thb  measure  was  oppoiedi 
Dot  only  by  the  regular  parliaments,  but  by  the  princes  of  the  bloody 
a»d  teveraL  eyeo  of  the  very  persons  nominated  to  form  and  preaidt 
b  tim  Mw  aaaeiiiblies.  Several  proviocial  parliameDtJ^  at  wdH  m 
Cc 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


302  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Ihat  of  Paris,  were  suppressed,  and  as  many  as  seven  hundred  noLgm 
Irates  exiled  or  confined. 

14.  The  year  1,774  tertftmated  the  life  and  reign  of  Lewis  XV.  j 
ke  died  in  the  65th  year  of  his  age,  having  reigned  58.  The  latter 
part  of  his  life  was  highly  disgraceful  in  a  private  point  of  view,  and 
utterly  feeble  in  a  public  one ;  nor  was  his  death  at  all  regretted 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson  Lewis  XV^L,  who  had  lost  an 
elder  brother  in  the  year  1,761,  his  father  in  1,765,  and  his  mother 
in  1,767;  strange  mortality  in  one  family,  and  too  much  resembling 
the  losses  in  that  of  Lewis  XIV.,  (see  Sect.  I.,)  then  imputed  lu 
poison;  a  char^«  revived  upon  this  occasion,  tut  probably  entirely 
without  founda  ion. 

15.  At  the  verv  commencement  of  his  reign,  but  not  without  sonw 
•acrifice  of  his  private  feelings  and  opinions,  Lewis  XVI.  complied 
with  the  general  wisii  of  having  the  old  parliaments  restored,  aiul 
ttie  new  councils  formed  by  the  chancellor  Maupeou,  dissolved ;  a 
measure  which  seemed  to  difllise  an  aflmost  universal  ioy  throughout 
the  capital  and  j>rovinces.  The  king  had  taken  into  his  ^service  two 
ministers  of  a  disposition  favourable  to  the  wishes  of  the  people  ; 
the  veneral%le  cotint  de  Maurcpas,  and  M.  Target  In  conjunction 
with  these  minij«ters,  Lewis  was  u^idoubtedly  disposed  to  reform 
abuses,  and  promote  the  happiness  of  his  people ;  but  unfortunatoly 
the  state  of  Trance,  if  not  of  the  world  in  general,  precluded  all 
hope  of  any  gradual  and  temperate  change. 

16.  The  American  contest  had  commenced ;  a  dcclartvion  of  rigbls 
ftad  appeared  there,  exceedingly  well  calculated  to  open  the  tyts 
>f  those  who  had  not  yet  seen,  and  to  enconrajje  the  revolutionary 
novements  of  those  who  liad  been  able  to  detect,  and  were  prepartMl 
o expose. the  great  abuses  subsi;;tin«j  in  the  French  government;  al- 
'eady  had  the  philosophei's  successtully  attacked  the  Jesuits;  aimc-i 
ome  severe  blows  at  the  monastic  orders  in  general,  as  well  as  at  tl.r 

»  ourt  of  Rome,  which  had  supported  and  abetted  tliem  in  every  :ii 
uimpt  to  uphold  the  papal  and  royal  authority ,  and  to  stitle  the  c(-m 
jiiaints  of  the  people.  The  tyranny  thus  in\ei^hed  agahist  and  :\>- 
tricked,  had  incited  an  opposition,  much  more  likely  to  pronij  lo 
licentiousness  than  a^'sist  the  cause  of  real  and  genuine  liberty.  The 
errors  of  Catholicism,  upheld  by  a  bigoted  and  infatuated  clergy,  at 
variance  with  the 'only  apsemblies  in  the  nation  capal  le  of  any'cn- 
stitutional  remonstraiioc,  however  ineffectual,  naturally  hurried  the 
wits  and  freethinkers  of  that  lively  nation  into  extremes  which  every 
sober  minded  man  could  not  fail  to  lament;  in  a  very  short  course  of 
time,  from  railing  at  the  regular  clergy,  they  proceeded  to  mil  at 
religion,  and  even  atheism  was  propagated  in  a  way  that  bespoke  a 
dreadful  disregard  of  all  principles  of  religion,  common  honesty,  and 
honour  in  works  purporting  lo  have  been  written  by  very  respect 
able  persons,  deceased^  wlio  had  holden,  when  alive,  opinions diiumel- 
rically  opposite  to  those  that  were  thus  stamped  with  their  namei. 
These  were  among  some  of  the  most  dreadi'ul  forerunners  of  a  rev- 
olution, which,  had  it  been  properly  managed,  had  it  fallen  into  the 
hands  of  persons  better  prepared  to  act  upon  the  true  princinles  of 
religion  and  ordeily  government,  considering  the  progress  of  knowl- 
edge and  the  powerful  Impulse  which  the  human  mind  had  received^ 
was  not  unseasonable  in  point  of  time  and  circumstances. 

17.  It  would  be  absurd,  however,  to  deny  the  abilities  of  many  of 
the  peraons  who  now  stood  forward  to  stem  the  torrent  of  abases, 
wA  viiuiirate  the  rights  of  the  people ;  several  of  them  had  wit, 

Digitized  by  V^OOQlC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  3(0 

Mod  \emmg^  and  science,  at  command,  to  the  higliest  degree ;  some 
cf  them  had  a  lively  sense  of  liberty,  but  they  had  been  ill-taoght 
on  the  8ubjt!Cts  of  religion  and  morality  ;  they  had  read  Locke,  with- 
out imbibing  Locke'*3  best  principles ;  thoy  had  confounded  the 
nbases  of  Christianity  with  Christianity  itself ;  thoy  were  witty  and 
io<;pnion5,  but  not  comparable  in  wisdom  and  conduct  with  their  con- 
temporaries in  Scotland,  or  in  England;  the  latter  were  the  truest 
friends  to  liberty,  the  best  philosophers,  and  the  best  politicians,  as 
iheir  writings  show.    The  celebrated  Kncychipipdia,  woich  first  ap- 

P«ired  in  1,751,  had  supplied  an  opportunity  lor  all  the  literati  of 
ranee  to  express  their  most  private  sonlinicntH  on  government, 
|>oliiical  economy,  and  the  management  of  tiie  finances.  Amongst 
ihvit  the  economists  bore  a  conspicuous  part;  their  whole  system, 
when  rightly  understood,  being  one  of  lilx^rty,  whether  it  regarde 
pprsonal  rights,  the  free  application  of  industry,  or  the  exportation 
I'J  com.  The  author  to  the  Introduction  to  the  Encyclopaedia,  M. 
d'Alembert,  was  a  man  of  consi<ierable  talents,  but  a  deist  in  principle ; 
his  coadjutor,  Diderot,  an  atheist. 

18.  The  ministry  of  Turgot,  while  it  lasted,  was  rather  calculated 
to  give  encouragement  to  the  French  rcformoiN  ;  his  own  views 
were  undoubtedly  liberal  and  patriotic,  and  he  had  a  mister  sincere- 
ly disposed,  in  all  likelihood,  to  further  any  practicable  plan  of 
M'fomi,  but  the  course  o(  tlie  minister  was  too  precipitate ;  his  viewa 
^'xlended  to  too  mruiy  objects  and  were  such  as  athnilted  not  of  any 
''[X'edy  accom»>li>bment ;  they  were  too  miglity  for  the  grasp  of  any 
*:ie  man;  they  only  excited  the  animosity  of  the  privileged  orders, 
.iivJ  drove  tliem  into  measures  of  defenco,  more  calculated  to  work 
t.'Mir  own  overthrow  than  conciliate  their  enoriiies.  The  advocates 
ol'  ancient  abuses  and  unreasonable  customs,  tlu»y  treated  llu?ir  op- 
ponents with  an  ill-judged  contempt,  and  by  reni^ting  all  amelioration 
"fthe  present  order  of  things,  laid  the  foun  !;ili')n  lor  a  thousand 
I'nnraclicable  systems  and  extravagant  tiicories  new  constitutions 
a!»'i  <^liomos  of  government,  which  being  S4»\«'i:illy  proposed,  tried, 
m\  n*jected,  in  rapid  succession,  at  last  involved  every  thing  in  coiv 
iJ^ion,  anarchy,  and  ruin. 

VX  While  the  seed-*  of  revolution,  if  not  of  republicanism,  plen 
lif'illy  ^wn,  were  beginning  to  germinate  in  F  rjnre,  in  America  the 
p  «M)ie  were  already  acting  upon  tlie  very  piinciple  of  resistance  tc 
^'I  alleged  tyranny.  It  required  only  to  bring  the  two  countries,  by 
'"in?  means  or  other,  into  contact,  to  spread  the  contagion,  and 
r  .voltilionize  both  nations  as  the  diiVerent  ciroum^-lancos  and  charac- 
t'Ts  of  the  ppoplc  should  severally  determiiu*.  At  the  beginning  of 
•  i«»  year  1,77*],  a  formal  alliance  was  negotiated  between  the  court 
'^r  VVrsaiUes  and  the  revolutionnry  guvoninient  of  Americji;  but 
•14  before  th.it,  in  the  year  1,774,  t!ie  American  declaration  of 
J  .:tit.s  on  whicli  thoir  opposition  to  the  En-^li^ih  government  rented. 
^^  IS  received  in  Kninre,  as  a  kind  of  pnirlical  application  of  the 
'■|'*t"»ri:tical  schemes  of  the  French  philosophei's,  and  might  reasona 

y  have  alann?d  all  the  courts  cf  Eurojw ;  tijouj^h  tne  contrary 
w..<  I  he  f.jct.  France  and  Spain  sent  help,  an.  1  Pm-'^m  approved  th# 
\merican  proceedini's.  not  so  much  out  of  hicndsliip  towards  (he 
Americans,  as  of  blind  hostility  to  Great  Britiin.  Tiie  king  of  France 
i^  said  to  li.ive  foreseen  the  ill  consequences  of  such  a  war,  but  Id 
bavc  weakly  given  way  to  contrary  advice. 

^.  The  speeches  of  opposition,  in  the  mean  time,  m  the  twa£Df» 
iah  boQtts  of  parliament,  greatly  iot^n^ted  the  pcopk  oo  tho  cflott 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


304  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Bent ;  the  crowned  heads^  Indeed,  took  little  notice  of  the  wanuog 
whilst  the  subjects  were  hstening  attentively  to  the  lessons  ofliber^ 
promulgated  by  Chatham^  Fox^  and  Burke,  Unfortunately,  the  court 
of  Versailles,  at  this  very  time,  with  the  exception  of  the  king,  who 
was  inclined  to  economy,  fell  into  the  utmost  extravagancies  of 
luxury^  gaycty,  and  dissipation ;  drew  largely,  and  without  any  con- 
tideratioo,  on  the  public  treasury,  though  tne  finances  were  in  a 
most  depressed  state;  invented  all  kinds  of  novelties,  and  seemed 
bent  upon  exchangiog  the  forms  and  etiquette  of  a  couit  for  tritling, 
though  expensive  amusements,  not  omittbg  such  as  promoted  and 
encouraeed  the  spirit  of  gambling. 

21.  While  these  things  were  going  on  at  court,  and  too  much 
countenanced,  it  is  to  be  feared,  by  the  queen,  she  received  a  vi>it 
from  her  eccentric  brother,  the  emperor  Joseph  the  second,  which 
had,  or  apj^eared  to  have,  an  extraordinary  eftect  on  tlie  Parisians 
being  so  timed  as  to  full  in  with  the  new  notions  that  had  k'et) 
adopted,  of  manly  simplicity,  and  a  republican  severity  of  manner? 
The  incognito  he  preserved,  he  carried  so  far  as  to  dismiss,  in  a  very 
striking  manner,  all  the  glare  and  pomp  of  royalty ;  tlic  franknc'^ 
of  his  manners,  unostentatious  and  frugal  mode  of  lite,  led  the  Frenrh 
more  particularly  to  notice,  and  to  condemn  more  severely,  ihe 
thoughtless  luxary  and  dissipation  of  their  own  court  ami  princes. 

22.  The  king  had  a  hard  and  cruel  task  upon  his  hands ;  he  fuL:..i 
it  impossible  to  check  a  course  of  extravagance  and  levity  in  In 
own  family,  which  he  could  not,  and,  in  fact,  did  not  ;ippro\e  ;  in  i.i- 
choice  of  ministers,  he  was  sure  to  olfcnd  one  pnrty  or  llio  olh'  r  . 
thus,  when  in  1,776,  on  the  dismission  of  M.  Tuixot,'lie  lir?!  app'int- 
ed  the  celebrated  M.  Keeker,  of  Geneva,  to  the  high  otike  of  si.- 
pieme  director  of  the  tinanccs,  the  privileged  orcici'S  took  th*^ 
alarm ;  they  thought  they  saw  in  the  citizen  of  a  republic,  an«l  :\ 
protestant,  a  decided  friend  to  the  liberal  ideas  lliat  were  allont  l  • 
their  prejudice,  and  the  enemy  and  corrector  of  all  abuses  of  po^^t  <• 
and  place.  When,  on  the  removal  of  M*  Keeker,  ihe  manag«'nuT,; 
of  the  finances  was  delivered  into  other  hands,  the  ])eople  compli- 
ed that  their  friend  and  favourite  had  been  sacrificed,  to  intrigue::;  1 
cabal,  and  that  he  had  been  checked  and  supplanted,  at  a  monv'!ii 
when  he  was  chalking  out  a  system  of  reform,  highly  bcnelickd  t«> 
the  state,  and  favourable  to  their  best  interests. 

23.  In  l,783j  M.  de  Calonne  undertook  to  restore  order  to  t)  ♦• 
finances,  and  his  measures  were  exactly  such  as  were  calculated  i'» 
oring  matters  to  a  crisis,  and  hasten  the  revolution  which  had  iov  n 
long  time  been  impending.  Inclined  to  favour  the  luxury  and  pr('«'- 
i^aUty  of  the  court,  and  at  the  same  time  to  provide  for  the  dchci«  •.  - 
ties  in  the  revenue,  he  boldly  attacked  the  privileged  order?,  l> 
proposing,  ,is  the  best  impost  he  could  devise,  a  general  land  tti  \ 
airly  ad^ted,  and  from  which  there  should  he  tu)  exemption.  I'o 
carry  this  great  point  into  execution,  being  no  favourite  with  tl:e 
parliament,  he  recommended  the  convocation  of  the  assembly  of  tluj 
iioTABUs;  (a  name  given  to  a  former  meeting  of  select  and  distin- 
guished pePBons,  m  the  year  1,626.)  To  this  advice  the  king  assent- 
ed, doubtless  with  the  best  intentions,  though  many  about  the  court 
pretended,  even  at  Ijiat  time,  to  foresee  in  this  measure  the  downed 
of  the  monarchy,  and  the  ruin  of  the  xnipister  who  had  proposed  it 
The  king  gave  his  consent,  December  1,786,  and  in  February  1,787 
tUs  extraordinary  assembly  met.  The  minister  had  undoubtedly  act* 
•d  coDStitutiooairy  in  calling  it,  however  rashly  i^  regard  to  km  owa 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


la 


MODERN  HISTORY.  au 

interests,  and  the  king;  has  been  supposed  to  have  imbibed  from  hie 
ialhcr  a  strong  inclination  to  consult  such  public  and  national  cooncHa^ 
lo  this  instance,  however,  both  the  crown  and  the  minister  were  de- 
ceived; the  latter,  who  expected  to  be  allowed  to  lay  his  plans 
before  them  in  the  way  of  commands  to  be  obeyed,  was  soon  dis- 
placed^ on  the  remonstrances  and  demand  of  the  very  assembly  he 
h.id  ventuied  to  call  together;  and  though  it  did  some  good  in  the 
nay  of  regulation  and  reform,  during  the  short  period  of  its  sitting^ 
nhich  was  only  till  the  'J5th  of  31ay,  1,787,  it  w;is  fiir  from  answer- 
ing the  purposes  for  which  it  had  been  convoked.  The  members  of 
.u  however,  had  acqnlred  inlorniation  hitherto  withheld  from  the 
p'iblic,and  imbibed  prim  i  pled  hi  end  ly  to  liberty. 

"il.  On  the  di>mi''''iou  of  M.  de  Calonne,  his  successor,  the 
nrclihLshop  of  Thoulouse,  by  an  arbitrary  and  inconsiderate  be 
iiiiviour,  mvolvad  liis  sovereign  in  another  unpleasant  contest  with 
itie  parliament,  wiio,  in  a  moment  of  iiTitation,  called  lor  a  meet- 
ing of  the  states-general.  The  credit  and  power  of  the  parliaments 
hid  hitherto  been  chiefly  owing  to  the  disuse  of  these  national 
councils,  so  that  if  it  had  been  proposed  with  any  sincere  desire  of 
n»dre>3iog  grievances,  and  resisting  oppression,  the  members  with 
whoiD  it  originated  would  have  deserved  tlie  credit  of  patriotism ; 
h'lt  probably  they  were  swayed  by  motives  less  pure.  The  klng« 
!.»^wcver.  consented  to  their  convocation  in  1,792,  but  in  the  mean 
lime  had  m<my  unpleasiint  altercations  witli  the  parliament,  and 
««n  one  occasion  was  treated  with  so  little  ceremony,  or  rather  such 
ici dignity,  as  it  was  tliought,  by  the  due  d'Orleans,  as  to  occasion  his 
baai-shment. 

25.  The  minister,  m  order  to  break  or  reduce  the  power  of  par- 
liament^ thus  openly  at  variance  with  him,  and  to  get  rid  of  the 
younger  members,  whose  refractory  spirit  was  but  too  apparent, 
pTLJected  llie  appointment  of  a  cottr  plcniere^  consisting  of  persons 
«>•  iK'Cted  by  the  king  from  the  principal  nobility,  professions  and 
•^  *\ccTH  of  state.     The  court  was  formed,  and  sat  long  enough  to 
*2:iforce  the  ministerial  decrees,  but  amidst  snch  murmurine  and 
•.<»?ilWion,  such  violent  remonstrances  and  objections,  attended  with 
(Hipolar  commotions  in  the  capital  and  provinces,  that  in  a  short 
ly.nc  the  scheme  was  abandoned,  and  the  minister  announced  to  the 
p-iMic  the  king's  intention  of  convoking  the  states-general  in  the 
>»ar  ensuing;  he  was  ihcn  dismissed  from  his  high  office,  and,  to 
iiui  great  joy  of  the  parliament  and  people,  M.  Nccker  was  recalled. 
2u.  The  royal  word  had  been  pledge  for  the  summoning  the 
«t:ites-general  in  l,7<i'J;  and  it  was  soon  found  to  be  a  promise, 
u  hjch,  though  the  chief  management  of  the  finances  had  passea 
r.'.o  otiier  and  more  popular  hands,  could  not  easily  be  abandoned. 
T  aey  bad  not  been  assembled  since  the  year  1,614,  and  difficulties 
tiierefore  %vere  started  as  to  the  best  mode  of  arranging  them  ;  the 
kinf^  even  condescended  to  refer  the  matter  to  the  decision  of  aU 
Uie  corporate  and  learned  bodies  of  the  realm ;  an  extraordinary  step 
to  take,  hut  favoured  by  the  minister,  who  had  it  in  view  to  give  con- 
«M'quence  to  the  third  estate,  or  commonalty,  in  order  to  counter* 
tjiidvoce  the  too  great  influence  of  the  privileged  orders. 

jf7.  Thi?  popular  design  of  the  minister,  besides  alarming  the 
rJcr]gy  and  nobility,  did  not  meet  with  the  readv  concurrence  ni 
tUe  parliament;  and  it  Wiis  even  proposed,  by  M.  d'li^prcsmesnili 
a  member  who  had  incurred  both  banishment  and  imprisonment  in 
the  course  of  his  opposition  lo  the  court*  to  adopt  at  once  the  phio  o^ 
Cc2  39 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


SOS  MODERN  HISTORY. 


1«614;  a  proposal  to  which  the  parliament  acceded ;  but  it  had  tbe 
enect  of  rendering  them  immediately  as  unpopular  as  the  piiTi- 
leeed  orders.  The  claims  of  toe  third  estate  met  with  the  support 
oTa  large  majority  of  the  people,  as  might  naturally  have  been 
expected  at  such  a  moment;  the  commons  of  1,788  were  very  dii- 
ferent  from  those  who  were  first  summoned  to  meet  in  1^2,  unoo 
apian  which  had  continued  to  1,614.  It  was  reasonable  to  adopt 
new  forms ;  and  it  was  therefore  strongly  insisted  that  they  ahouki, 
upon  this  occasion,  in  order  to  be  upon  a  par  with  the  other  orders, 
have  a  double  representation,  and  deliberate  together.  Had  the  plan 
of  the  states-general  of  1.614  been  adopted,  me  parliament  would 
have  appeared  there  witn  much  ereater  ecUU  than  in  any  new  ar- 
*angement;  this  may  account  for  the  part  they  took  upon  this  occa- 
tton.  They  entirely  expected,  in  demanding  the  convocation  of  th« 
states,  that  tliey  should  nave  the  chief  place  in  that  assembly,  aivl 
continue  to  enjoy  the  confidence  of  the  people. 

28.  Such  was  the  state  of  things  at  this  memorable  period;  an 
'm^tuation  the  roost  surprising  seemed  to  hurry  on  the  privilegeii 
orders  to  their  ruin  and  destruction,  and  with  them  the  monarchy. 
Instead  of  bending  in  any  manner  to  the  force  of  popular  opinion, 
or  acknowledging  the  justice  of  the  claims  made  on  them,  as  a  f»- 
voured  class,  they  more  strongly  than  ever  stood  upon  their  privi- 
leges, and  appeared  to  treat  with  contempt  that  powerful  and  dow 
enlightened  majority  that  was  opposed  to  them ;  tney  insisted  more 
than  ever  upon  their  feudal  rights,  after  the  whole  system  bad  been 
virtually  abolished.  Conduct  of  this  kind  could  not  fail  to  stimulate 
the  ether  party  to  deeds  of  violence  and  retaliation,  in  which  the 
authority  of  the  established  laws  and  customs  came  sooq  to  be  to- 
tally disregarded,  and  every  thing  seemed  to  tend  to  rain  and  dev- 
astation ;  when  the  election  of  the  states-general  was  appointed  to 
take  place,  both  sides  exerted  themselves  with  the  utmost  zeal  and 
anxiety,  but  the  result  was  found  to  be  highly  favourable  to  tlie 
democratic  party. 

29.  Great  changes  had  already  taken  place  in  the  character  and 
manners  of  the  Parisians.  Since  the  American  war,  a  strong  dispo- 
sition had  been  shown  to  imitate  the  English,  in  dress,  maooen, 
amusements,  and  freedom  of  speech ;  the  respect  which  had  fonne> 
ly  prevailed  for  high  birth  and  rank  was  every  day  diminiibinc ; 
persons  of  all  classes  were  beginning  to  be  raised  to  situations  of  dis- 
tinction and  confidence;  and  some  of  the  great  themselves,  instead 
of  maintaining  the  distance  preserved  by  meir  ancestors,  made  ap- 
proaches towards  the  lower  ranks,  by  intermarriages,  and  the  open 
and  general  encouragement  of  Uterature,  trade,  commerce,  and 
agriculture ;  even  the  females  began  to  discuss  questions  of  state,  to 
express  a  lively  and  sentimental  concern  for  all  oppressed  persons  or 
nations,  and  to  wish  that  all  the  young  men  who  couW  speak  elo- 
quently upon  these  subjects  in  their  private  assemblies,  should  have, 
as  in  England,  a  field  opened  to  them  for  the  more  public  disphv  of 
Cheu*  talents  and  abilities.  It  is  not  to  be  wondered  that,  under  tnee« 
•ircumstances,  every  eye  should  be  fixed  on  the  meeting  of  that 
creat  national  council,  whose  powers  had  not  been  called  into  action 
nr  the  lonf  space  of  nearly  two  centuries. 


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MODERN  HISTORY.  307 


SECTION  1. 

4USniIA,  FROM  THE  CONCLUSION  OF  THE  SEVEN  YEARS' 
WAR  TO  THE  DEATH  OF  MARIA  THERESA,  1,763— l,78(k 

1.  With  reran]  to  Austria,  the  seven  years'  war  terminated  witli 
the  peace  of  Hubertsbiirff,  which  was  signed  on  the  5th  of  Febru- 
nrv,  1,763,  (see  Sect.  VI.)  and  on  the  27th  of  May,  1,764,  as  the 
tniits  of  that  peace,  the  empress  was  gratified  with  the  election  of 
her  son  Joseph  to  the  dignity  of  king  of  the  Romans ;  a  point  of 
p'eat  importance  to  her,  considering  the  circumstances  that  had  re- 
tarded the  elevation  of  her  royal  consort  to  the  imperial  throne. 
The  election  was  most  opportune,  for  tlie  emperor  Francis  survived 
it  but  a  very  short  time,  being  struck  with  a  (it  of  apoplexy  in  the 
month  of  August  of  the  same  year,  while  attending  the  nuptials  of 
hi'' second  son  at  Inspruck,  in  the  Tyrol.  Francis  had  home  his  fac- 
ilities meekly,  resigning  to  his  imperial  consort  the  cares,  as  well  as 
the  state  and  parade  of  government,  which,  indeed,  more  regularly 
appertained  to  her  than  to  himself;  he  obviously  withdrew  from 
the  aathoritv  that  seemed  to  have  devolved  to  him ;  and  if  he  occu- 
pied himself  at  all  with  the  affairs  of  government,  it  was  rather  to 
*^pply  its  pecuniary  demands  from  his  Tuscan  treasury,  than  for  any 
f^lher  purposes ;  not  so  much  in  the  way  of  gain,  as  of  regular  busi- 
ness and  prudential  management  Of  the  high  esthnation  in  which 
he  was  held  by  the  empress  there  can  be  little  doubt ;  her  affection 
tor  him  had  a  romantic  cast,  and  seemed  founded  on  what  so  seldom 
<>crur5,  or  can  be  expected  to  occur  in  royal  marriages,  an  eariy» 
tiled,  and  solid  attachment. 

t  Her  majesty  employed  herself,  from  the  conclusion  of  the 
tTftUy  of  Hiibcrtsburg,  in  ameliorating  in  every  way  possible  the 
<'ftodilioD  of  her  countiy ;  in  founding  philosophical  academies,  re- 
finning  the  schools,  encouraging  by  premiums  the  msmafactures, 
ind  in  restraining  several  feudal  abuses :  she  had  the  opportunity 
afforded  her  of  contributing  to  the  introduction  of  the  variolous  inocu- 
iatioQ  into  her  dominions.  She  interfered,  and  in  a  very  judicious 
manner-  in  the  regulations  regarding  monasteries  and  nunneries,  abol- 
ished the  dangerous  privilege  of  asylum,  the  horrible  excesses  of 
the  inquisition,  and  tne  inhuman  judicial  process  of  torture.  She 
ils>  soppressed  the  society  of  Jesuits. 

3.  Cfonsidering  the  extreme  repugnance  Maria  Theresa  had 
'Sown  to  the  dismemberment  of  her  own  domains  on  the  oeath  of 
h«r fether,  it  must  seem  greatly  to  redound  to  her  discredit  that  she 
<*ntild  have  liecome  a  party  to  the  partition  of  Poland ;  but  it  may 
very  fairly  be  inferred  that  she  was  driven  into  it.  Being  unable  to 
itrve  the  cause  of  Saxony  she  had  no  other  alternative  against  the 
'-ombination  of  Russia,  Prussia,  and  the  Forte,  than  to  claim  a  part: 
though  it  ta  almost  proved  that  she  was  drawn  in  by  Prussia  to  par- 
Mke  of  the  plunder,  that  she  might  also  share  the  odium  excited  by 
it  After  tlic  partition  indeed  began  to  have  cfToct,  and  was  sanction- 
f*l  by  the  Politjh  delegates  nominated  for  that  purpose,  Maria 
Theresa  appears  to  have  had  noscniples  in  extending  her  encroach- 
ments, and  supporting  Prussia  in  the  same  attempts  to  such  a  degree 
«-veo  as  to  provoke  3ie  interposition  of  iiiissia.    it  was  not  till  the 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


308  MODERN  HISTORY. 

year  1,777  that  all  the  three  parties  were  satisfied,  and  brought  to 
an  agreement  in  regard  to  limits ;  the  portion  assigned  to  Aostria 
being  decidedly  the  greatest  in  extent,  in  the  same  year  the  eD>- 
press  queen,  by  a  convention,  signed  on  the  5th  day  of  Febroar?, 
obtained  possession  of  the  Buccovina^  ceded  to  her  by  the  Porte. 
Her  situation  was  at  this  period  particularly  flourishing,  her  amy 
numerous  and  well  disciplined,  her  finances  in  good  order,  and  ber 
alliance  with  France  cemented  by  many  marriages  with  the  BouH>on 
princes ;  but  after  the  partition  of  Poland,  and  the  connexion  the 
empress  queen  seemed  thus  to  have  formed  with  Russia  and  Prussia, 
an  anti-Austrian  party  sprang  up  at  the  court  of  Versailles,  nho 
persuaded  the  king  to  renew  his  connexions  with  Prussia,  in  order 
to  secure  some  check  against  the  augmentation  of  the  power  of 
Austria ;  this,  however,  was  done  without  violating  subsisting  trea- 
ties, or  breaking  friendship  with  Maria  Theresa.  Lewis  XV  L  wti' 
much  more  jealous  of  the  son  than  of  the  mother,  and  not  without 
reason ;  tlie  views  of  the  former  being  evidently  ambitious  and  en- 
croaching, and  highly  anti-galiican. 

4.  hi  December,  1,777,  on  the  death  of  the  elector  of  Bavaria, 
both  the  emperor  and  empress  queen  laid  claim  to  his  dominion?  ai 
fiefs  or  allodials,  properly  descending  or  revertbg  to  one  or  oth<  r 
of  them,  having  previously  taken  steps  to  arrange  matters  with  ti)elr 
more  immediate  competitor,  the  elector  Palatine ;  and  relyiu? 
strongly  on  the  supnort  of  France,  as  well  as  on  the  age  and  intirmh 
ties  of  the  king  ot  Prussia  :  but  the  latter  found  means  to  interpu«ki 
by  stimulaiing  the  duke  of  Deux  Fonts,  presumptive  heir  to  tiu 
elector  Palatine,  to  appeal  to  himself  and  the  king  of  France  againM 
the  dismemberment  of  tiie  Bavariim  territories,  referring,  in  contir 
mation  of  his  rights,  to  the  treaty  of  Pavia,  continued  by  tlie  Gokkn 
Bull,  and  the  treaty  of  Westphalia;  all  these  authorities  were  disput- 
ed on  the  part  of  the  emperor  and  empress,  who  insisted  on  Uv' 
validity  and  legality  of  the  arrangements  made  with  the  elector 
Palatine.  The  emperor  in  the  mean  while  oflered  to  submit  hi^ 
own  claims  to  the  judgment  of  the  diet,  and  to  mediate  between  l.ii 
mother  and  the  other  claimants :  preparations,  nevertheless,  miv 
made  for  deciding  the  matter  by  arms,  and  both  the  emperor  aixi 
king  of  Prussia  took  the  field  at  the  head  of  their  respective  forces ; 
but  the  empress  queen,  fearing  for  her  son,  made  many  overtures  of 
I)eace,  sought  the  mediation  ot  Russia  and  France,  and,  though  con- 
tinually thwarted  by  the  emperor,  who  was  inclined  to  war,  and  nu- 
willing  to  submit  to  the  dictates  of  foreign  powers,  succeeded  in  rj> 
storing  tranquillity,  by  the  treaty  of  Teschen,  1,779.  By  this  treaty 
many  arrangements  were  entered  into  to  satisfy  the  king  of  Prus?i^. 
the  elector  Palatine,  the  duke  of  Deux  Fonts,  and  the  elector  of 
Saxony.  And  Austria  acquired  territory,  though  of  no  great  extent 
very  important  in  point  of  situation.  She  obtained  firom  Bavaria  Vw 
cirde  of  Burghausen,  which  opened  a  passage  to  i^e  Tyrol,  and 
was  not  compelled  absolutely  to  renounce  any  of  her  claims,  though 
she  found  means  to  forego  with  credit  the  further  prosecution  of 
them. 

France  had  done  enough  during  these  disputes  about  Bavaria,  tr 
give  umbrage  to  the  court  of  Vienna;  she  had  8ecretlv^ opposed  the 
dismemberment  of  the  electorate,  she  had  not  supphea  the  succours 
she  was  required  to  do  according  to  the  treaty  of  Versailles,  and  she 
had  manifested  a  distrust  of  the  emperor,  bordering  upon  contempt 
This  conduct  bad  the  effect  of  throwing  the  latter  into  the  ams  ol 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  3(» 

England  and  Russia;  In  the  contest  with  America^  Joseph  espoused 

he  cause  of  England,  pronounced  it  to  be  the  cause  of  all  sovereigns^ 

:n(I  prohibited  all  intercourse  between  the  subjects  of  the  empire 

nd  the  reTolted  colonies.    With  regard  to  Russia  he  took  a  mora 

r.tive  part ;  be  visited  Catherine  on  her  celebrated  journey  to  the 

rimea,  and  at  Petersburg  ingratiated  himself  with  her  to  an  e»- 

r.iordinary  degree,  alienated  her  from  the  old  king  of  Prussia,  and  tn 

0  iWmz  procured  her  assistance  in  promoting  the  advancement  ol 

ii<  brother  the  archduke  Maximilian  to  the  coa<i|jutorship  of  Cologne 

i!i<l  Munster,  the  last  wish  of  Maria  Theresa,  who  haa  thus,  in  an 

vtraordinary  manner,  found  the  means  to  provide,  before  her  death, 

V  :iU  her  numerous  family.     But  her  end  was  approaching:  in 

N-nomber,  1,780,  she  was  seized  with  an  illness,  which  terminated 

:> '  existence ;  her  lost  days  were  passed  in  acts  ot  devotion  and  atterv* 

J-  to  her  son,  the  emperor,  ana  others  of  her  family,  particularly 

.\iUg  and  grand.    She  displayed  at  this  awful  moment  a  powerful 

:.].  a  warm  heart,  and  a  truly  christian  fortitude :  she  died  No- 

■  7f.er  CO,  1,780,  in  the  64th  year  of  her  age,  and  41st  of  her 

4n.     She  was  not  exempt  from  weaknesses,  but  her  virtues, 

u  public  and  private,  greatly  preponderated;  tne  former  were  oi 

•'  niost  splendid  cast,  the  latter  altogether  as  amiable.    Nine  out  of 

.  .!•  cri  children  survived  her. 

.  j-'ph.  who  succeeded  her;  Leopold,  ereat  duke  of  Tuscany; 
:  :.ii;mil,  governor  of  Austrian  Lombardy  and  duke  of  Modena 
.  r-vci'^iou;  Maximilian,  coadjutor  of  Cologne  and  Munster;  Mary 
i!.'j,  abl)ess  of  Prague;  Mary  Christina,  wife  of  Albert,  duke  of 
'  \  iiy ;  Muria  Elizabeth,  abbess  of  Inspruck ;  Maria  Amelia,  duchess 
:  I'.ii-ina;  Caroline,  queen  of  Naples;  Maria  Antoinetta,  queen  of 


SECTION  XI. 
.UGNS  OF  JOSEPH  U.,  LEOPOLD  IL,  &c.,  FROM  1,765  TO  1,800. 


1  Oir  the  demise  of  his  father,  Francis  I..  Joseph,  who  had  beeo 

!' '(ed  king  of  the  Romans  in  1,764,  ascended  the  imperial  throne^ 

ilie  a^e  of  twenty-four,  in  the  year  1,765,  his  mother  t>eing  still 

^i'^.    It  was  soon  apparent  that  he  projected  great  changes,  and 

'-'  n  Ibrmation  of  many  abuses,  but  in  pursuing  these  purposes  ha 

1^  undoubtedly  too  precipitate  and  too  adventurous ;  his  edoci^ 

'■'11  Ijud  not  been  such  as  to  fit  him  for  such  high  attempts.    It  was 

(•^J^ible  to  unite  in  the  way  he  proposed  such  scattered  domii^ 

>;  it  was  impo«^lble  to  carry  into  execution  ail  the  schemes  he 

-  i  invented  for  the  consolidation  and  improvement  of  the  empife 

.  ii)o  Belgic  provinces,  in  particular,  he  rendered  himself  extreme* 

>u:; popular  1}y  the  violence  of  his  proceedings,  but  this  was  act 

•  iiier  his  mother's  death ;  as  long  as  she  lived  she  sedulously  eiy- 

.avonred  to  restrain  the  impetuosity  and  warlike  disposition  of  her 

'\  apprehending  that  he  had  many  enemies  at  hand,  and  that  no^ 

M.ti^taoding  the  pretended  courtesy  of  the  king  of  Prussia,  maDV> 

<''^\  in  pnvate  interviews  as  well  as  public  negotiations,  he  could 

i'  tuivo  much  chance  of  success  in  copbg  with  so  able,  powerful, 

^1  experienced  an  opponent ;  in  this,  perhaps,  she  showed  warn 

"H',  though  it  has  been  doubted  whetner  she  did  not  too  much 

oQtnd  thfi  ardent  spirit  of  her  soo.    The  enq^reai  queen  dyiof  |ii 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


BIO  MODERN  HISTORY. 

the  year  1,780,  Joseph  was  lefl  to  the  pursuit  of  nis  own  whims  and 
projects,  in  many  instances  most  extravagant,  in  almost  all  oppreseive. 
For  though  there  was  an  appearance  of  nberahtj,  and  much  show  of 
good,  he  evidently  seemed  to  consult  nothing  but  his  ovm  arbitrary 
will. 

2.  Had  his  education  been  such  as  to  enable  him  to  form  a  right 
judgment  of  things,  had  not  his  genius  been  cramped,  and  his  rea- 
son perverted,  by  a  choice  of  tutors  and  preceptors  peculiaiiy  ill 
qualiiicd  to  fit  him  for  the  arduous  and  conspicuous  station  to  which 
tie  had  been  elevated  by  the  circumstances  of  his  birth  and  con- 
tiexious,  h^  might  certainly  have  done  ereat  ^ood,  and  actunlly 
iimeiio rated  the  condition  of  a  large  and  most  interesting  portion 
of  the  human  race,  for  his  manners  were  such  as  to  have  led  hiu\ 
to  a  just  knowledge  of  their  waats.  and  a  proper  sense  of  tlieir 
daims  upon  society.  He  travelled  through  Europe,  as  if  he  were 
bent  on  seeing  the  real  condition  of  his  feUow-creatures,  in  all  ranks 
sind  situations  of  lite ;  discarding  all  pomp  and  parade,  he  sought  thrj 
society  and  convereation  of  persons  far  below  him,  and  encoumgul 
e\'ery  one  to  give  him  information  upon  subjects  most  nearly  tonc.v 
ing  their  interests.  Since  Peter  I.  ol  Russia,  no  monarch  md  takes 
such  pains  to  procure  information,  and  survey  every  thing  with  1-.^ 
o^vn  eyes. 

3.  The  whole  extent  of  his  dominions  was  supposed  to  contr  n 
A  population  of  24,000,000,  distinguished  however  by  a  great  >;w 
riety  of  laws,  customs,  religious  opinions,  and  language;  tiie  lont. 
orders  subject  to  man3-  restrictions,  attaching  to  the  state  of  v;<- 
salage  in  which  they  were  istill  held  by  their  feudal  loixl  and  ?th 
periors.    The  Roman  catholic  religion  chiefly  prevailed ;  the  cJrp- 

fy  were  wealthy,  and  possessed  great  influence.  Maria  Thcr-v* 
ad  perceived  what  was  wrong,  and  had  shown  an  excellent  ('i^ 
position  to  amend  mattei-s,  but  had  partly  been  compelled  by  cir- 
cumstances, and  swayed  by  prudence,  to  proceed  moderately  i:'  -1 
Sradually.  Joseph  was  more  ini])etuous ;  he  was  so  eager  to  bnsiK 
own  all  distinctions,  that,  among  other  regulations,  he  insisutj 
on  having  but  one  language  for  the  whole  empire,  though  no  It^^ 
ttein  ten  principl  languages  were  spoken  at  that  time,  and  in 
common  use.  Within  the  confines  of  his  dominions,  all  his  oli.tr 
projects  were  of  the  same  description,  whether  eood  or  bad,  ex- 
ceedingly too  hasty;  he  broke  up  old  systems  before  he  wai»  well 
prepared  to  establish  new  ones,  and  in  the  interval,  neces^irlly 
occasioned  such  contusion,  disgust,  and  trouble,  as  to  hinder  everv 
good  effect,  and  thwart  his  own  purposes;  in  all  his  regulations  U-i 
leemed  bent  upon  upholding  his  own  imperial  power,  not  only  I  \ 
omitting  to  introduce  any  new  checks  upon  it,  but  even  aboIi?lu!<g 
old  ones ;  he  particularly  displeased  his  Hungarian  subjects,  thcMi 
fiiithfui  adherents  of  his  mother,  by  interfering  with  their  laws  aoJ 
Customs,  and  offending  some  of  their  fondest  prejudices. 

4.  Though  attached  to  the  Roman  catholic  religion,  he  showed 
great  disregard  of  the  papal  authority,  by  subjecting  the  mona*^ 
teries  to  episcopal  jurisdiction,  suppressing  many,  and  reducing  thi« 
numbers,  both  of  monks  and  nuns,  in  all  that  were  permitted  M 
continue,  with  great  want  of  feeling ;  he  omitted  to  make  any  prr* 
▼ision  for  those  who  were  discharged ;  he  broke  through  many  sur. 
peratitions,  not  rightly  judging  how  deeply  they  were  intcrwovefl| 
with  the  religious  feelings  of  the  people,  and  how  much  the  lattef 
therefore  were  likely  to  be  affected  by  such  violence  and  hast«; 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  311 

k  abolidied  the  privileges  of  primogeniture,  declared  mamafB 
(heretofore  reganded  as  a  sacrament)  to  be  onlj  a  civil  contract| 
BDil  reodered  bastards  capable  of  inheriting.  The  wisest  and  most 
truly  liberal  of  all  his  innovations  was  that  which,  by  a  public  edict, 
dated  October  31,  1,781,  established  a  general  toleration  for  ail  the 
**.kai.Wici,''  or  dissenters  from  the  Romish  religion.  This  and  other 
m^ibures  of  interference  with  ecclesiastical  matters  so  disturbed  and 
•Iirmed  pope  Pius  VI.,  as  to  Induce  him  to  take  a  journey  to  Vienna. 
p<rsfHially  to  remonstrate  with  the  emperor.  His  plan  was  opposed 
at  Home,  and  entirely  discouraged  by  the  Austrian  ministry ;  but  hia 
b.>liae«  persisted,  and,  after  a  visit  of  much  form  and  ceremony,  re 
t'lnod  in  at)out  a  month,  without  effecting  any  change  in  the  seuti- 
menis  or  proceedings  of  Joseph. 

5.  In  the  same  precipitate  manner,  as  in  other  instances,  he  sud- 
4nly  abolished  feudal  vassalage,  without  tmy  suitable  arrangements 
tor  tiie  relief  of  those  who  must  evidently  suffer  bv  such  an  impor* 
unt  change  of  tenure ;  and  while  he  prided  himself  upon  putting  an 
eiul  to  slavery,  he  subjected  the  emancipated  to  such  arbitrary  im 
pO'^ts  of  his  own  invention,  as  plainly  to  convince  them  that  tbey  had 
ri"i  in  reality  recovered  their  freedom.  To  countervail  these  errors 
n  legislation  and  government,  he  certainly  showed  great  merit  in 
I  !•  eacouragcment  he  gave  to  arts,  letters,  trade,  and  manufactures; 
li  founding  numerous  schools  and  universities,  puolic  libraries,  laboi^ 
«i  *ijcs  and  observatories,-  in  improving  the  public  roads,  making 
cuial!V,  and  establishing  free  ports.  In  1,784,  he  obtained  permission 
Uom  the  Porte  to  navigate  the  Turkish  seas,  which  seemed  to  afford 
cTcoDent  means  to  his  Hungarian  subjects,  who  were  otherwise  ill 
«.ijit(.'d  lor  trade,  to  carry  on  an  extensive  commerce  bv  way  of 
'--*'  Danube ;  war,  however,  soon  interrupted  this  accommodation ;  in 
<  w  ;7  it  came  to  an  end. 

0.  in  1,781,  Joseph,  having  concerted  his  plans  with  France,  who 
r^'ul  altered  hei  measures  towards  him,  probably  for  the  very  pur- 
f'o-/",  determined  to  break  through  the  barrier  treaty*  imposed 
'^MH  Austria  when  the  Netherlands  were  transferred  to  Charles  VI^ 
B:id  which,  though  undoubtedly  affording  security  to  Austria  itseli 
tz  iinst  (he  French,  must  be  allowed  to  have  constantly  carried  in 
".  «<*methiDg  galling  to  the  feelings  of  the  imperial  court,  as  entirelj 
i/  rated  bj  the  maritime  powers,  llie  fortihcations  of  the  barrier 
t  Hns  had  now  fallen  into  decay,  and  the  connexion  which  had 
t . :  .<ome  tioie  subsisted  between  the  courts  of  Vei^ailles  and  Vien- 
'>i.  scHemed  to  a  fiord  the  emperor  plausible  grounds  for  declining  to 
•y  for  the  military  protection  of  a  frontier  no  longer  likely  to  be 
•Virbed.  He  therefore  dirticted  all  the  fortifications  in  the  Nether 
ii  Siobe  done  away,  except  those  of  Luxanbur^h^  Chiend^  NcamMr^ 
*\  AntoBtrp;  while  the  Dutch,  who  had  been  uesired  to  withdraw 
>•  :r  garrisons,  as  no  longer  necessary,  or  eniitled  to  pay,  judged  U 
» i>e  lo  comply. 

7.  This  Tiolation  of  the  baitier  treatj,  complied  with  in  the  lail 
•^t.ince  80  easily  by  the  united  provmces,  was  quickly;  followed 
\  iresh  demancu  on  the  latter  power,  under  pretence  of  roor^  ao* 
finitely  adjusting  the  boundaries  of  the  Dotch  and  Austrian  Netl^ 
riijidsL  Ulie  cession  of  the  city  of  Maestricht  and  the  contig#^ 
^  district  of  Outer  Meuse  being  among  other  things  insisted 
f'oa    At  length,  however,  and  about  the  year  1|764»  these  dalae 


•  8m  Cost  ly.  16f»  U3»  IM^ 


y  Google 


sit  MODERN  HISTORY. 

all  teemed  to  merge  in  one  sweeping  demand,  to  have  the  full  and 
free  naTigatioD  of  the  river  Scheld,  for  the  purposes  of  establl«hi?^, 
in  faroar  of  his  Flemish  subjects,  a  direct  trade  ivith  the  East  W 
dies,  and  of  restoring  the  city  of  Antwerp,  once  the  emporium  v\ 
Europe,  to  its  proper  degree  of  splendour  and  importance ;  a  proj- 
ect, which,  if  it  could  have  been  accomplished  without  interfcrn; 
with  80  many  foreign  interests,  and  the  manifest  violatiOD of  «]> 
•isting  treaties,  may  be  said  to  have  reflected  no  disgrace  on  u.c 
|>olicy,  wisdom,  or  paternal  care  of  the  emperor :  but  it  was  iiDp> 
ftible  to  expect  that  such  changes  should  be  allowed  to  pro^u^ 
without  great  opposition.  It  was  soon  discovered  that  both  Frara 
and  Prussia  were  prepared  to  supnort  tiie  Dutch  against  him,  .<:  i 
though  the  empress  of  Russia  hadf  endeavoured  to  deter  the  b::^r 
from  aiding  the  Hollanders,  the  project  was  laid  aside,  and  Josei.*, 
Instead  of  his  views  on  the  Scheld,  resumed  some  of  his  former  ^e 
mands.  In  the  end,  however,  every  thing  was  compromiseil  >v 
money,  through  the  mediation  of  the  French  king,  or  rather  in  cio- 
formity  to  the  dictates  of  the  FVench  minister. 

8.  Another  object  which  the  emperor  attempted  almost  at  tN 
flame  time,  but  equally  without  eftect,  was  the  excliangeof  th 
Netherlanos  for  Bavaria.  He  had  taught  his  mother  to  covet  di 
latter  country,  and  its  acquisition  would  undoubtedly  have  nM-^ 
Bd  his  dominions  more  compact,  and  given  him  a  contioued  lii>  ^ 
territory,  from  the  frontier  of  Turkey  to  the  Meditemincan  •** 
while  it  mieht  have  relieved  him  from  the  churge  of  a  more  dl^'*■- 
portionof  his  dominions,  held  by  a  very  uncerlain  andtronbk'  :* 
lenarOb  Joseph  had  calculatedf  upon  overcoming  all  the  dir.  ■• 
ties  that  might  arise  from  forei«jn  powers;  had  secured  the  cr!*'*-' 
of  Russia,  and  even  negotiated  the  proposed  exchuDi^e  niuS  !* 
elector  of  fiavaiia,  (who,  if  it  took  place,  was  to  he  niatjc  krv  ■ 
Austrasia  or  Burgundy.)  But  Frederic  11.,  at  the  age  rl' *€»•.:  ^ 
four,  again  interposed :  and,  by  forming  with  the  sevcniJ  priixo  * 
states  of  the  empire  what  was  called  tlio  Germanic  union,  lor  iu> 
taining  the  integrity  and  indivisibility  of  the  Germanic  body  id:''' 
cral,  effectually  prevented  the  exchange  so  much  desired,  i* 
principal  parties  to  the  union,  which  was  settled  and  conlirroed, '  - 
1,785,  were,  besides  the  king  of  Prussia,  the  electors  ot*  Har.«  v 
Saxony,  and  Mentz,  the  margrave  ot  Anspach,  and  the  duk?  i' 
Deux  Fonts.  The  whole  scheme,  indeed,  was  found  to  be  50  ir- 
practicable,  that  the  emperor  and  elector  judged  it  prudent  to  ui^ 
that  any  convention  to'that  efliect  had  Uiken  place  between  thera 

9.  In  1,788,  Joseph  incurred  considerable  disgrace,  by  hi*  jt^j 

Tm  Turkey.    He  had  projected,  in  ccnijuncfion  with  the  en^j*  • 
Russia,  whom  he  had  flattered  by  a  visit  to  the  Crimea,  th:  ^ 
dtamemberment  of  that  empire ;  but  blunder  upon  blunder  di* 
hii  purposes,  and  he  retired  from  the  contest  blamed  by  all  p«<>   ^ 
Id  1,789,  however,  hostilities  were  renewed,  and  in  the  b.i.' . 
JRimnlkf  which  took  place  in  the  month  of  September,  the  cotu:  - 
ioices  of  Rusisia  and  Austria  gained  an  important  victory  owr 
Turks,  under  the  command  of  the  grand  vizir r.    The  capturr 
Belgrade  soon  after,  by  the  army  of  Loudon,  completed  *' 
triumphs ;  but  their  success  occasioned  jealousiesl  which  efii^*!' 
Interrapted  the  career  of  victory.    England)  Holland,  and  l^ru- 
benn  to  be  alarmed  at  the  increaaiog  power  of  Russia  and  Aurr:. 
■Dd,  bj  fomenting  the  troubles  in  the  r?etberiaiidS|  drew  the  i&^ 
Ikon  of  Joieph  from  hklniendad  eooroachmuits  oo  Turkey; 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  313 

10.  In  no  part  of  his  dominions  were  his  attcmnts  at  refonnatioa 
worse  received,  or  worse  managed^  than  in  the  Netlie  Hands.  Di- 
vided into  many  provinces,  and  each  province  governed  by  distinct 
biw3,  customs,  and  regulations;  some  secured  by  charter,  in  tb« 
enjoyment  of  impoi*tant  privileges  and  immunities,  nothing  could 
p«>*«4ihly  have  been  thought  of  more  vexntious  than  that  of  redu- 
cing them  all  under  one  system  of  administration,  commencing  witk 
the  sodden  and  violent  abolition  of  many  convents,  and  the  sup* 
prcssion  of  many  institutions,  forms,  and  ceremonies,  by  long  usage 
become  little  less  than  sacred  in  the  eyes  of  the  people.  The 
courts  of  law,  the  universities  and  schools,  were  subjected  to  sim- 
itar changes,  nor  did  the  imperml  decrees  spare  any  order  of  men, 
or  any  public  establishment,  however  respectable  in  other  respects, 
from  undergoing  this  severe  ordeal,  and  revolutionary  proces. 
Nothing  could  exceed  the  consternation  and  disgust  wsth  which  these 
new  regulations  were  received  by  all  ninks  of  pei'sons,  from  the 
lowest  to  the  highest ;  for  even  the  governors-general  sided  with 
the  refractory  pjirty,  and  were  averse  from  carrj'ing  into  execution 
a  system  so  exceedingly  repugnant  to  the  feelings  of  the  people  in 
general,  but  especially  of  the  principal  persons  amongst  the  cler- 
ih  laity,  and  magistrates.  Riots  and  disturbances  tooic  place,  as 
might  have  been  expected,  in  many  parts,  and  France  was  applied 
to  Jbr  assistance,  as  guarantee  of  their  liberties.  The  whole  au- 
thority of  eovemmeat  seemed  to  be  vested  in  the  minister  plenipo- 
teniiary  of  the  emperor,  count  Belgioso,  who  had  to  contend  alone 
against  the  formidable  opposition  that  had  sprung  up ;  for  not  onhf 
the  governors-general,  as  has  been  before  intimated,  were  on  the 
side  of  the  people,  but  even  the  imperial  minister,  prince  Kaunitz, 
who  greatly  disiipproved  the  violent  proceedings  of  his  masten 

11.  Joseph  at  tirst  assumed  an  appearance  ofrigonr  and  intlexibdi- 
ty,  in  the  pursuit  of  his  new  measures,  little  suitable  to  the  actual 
iitaatioa  of  affairs.  He  had  not  foreseen  so  formidable  a  resistance, 
aod  when  it  occurred,  he  depended  too  much  on  his  means  for  sup- 
pressing it;  embarrassed  as  he  was  at  the  time  by  the  war  with 
Turkey.  After  much  threatening,  therefore,  ami  strong  marks  of 
tlispleasore  against  tlic  Belgic  sUites,  lie  found  it  advisiiCle  to  com 
promise  matters,  for  a  time  at  least;  or  rather  to  offer  to  relinquish 
^  the  ofcgection.Uile  parts  of  his  new  system ;  to  rc-estahlish  the 
ancient  constitution,  contirm  the  celebrated  charter*  called  La  joy- 
^ut  £jaree,and  submit  to  have  the  case  referred  to  delegates  on  both 
*ides.  In  this,  however,  he  was  not  sincere,  and  his  duplicity  aad 
•irbitrary  disposition  becoming  every  day  more  miinlfest,  it  was 
t'npassibie  to  prevent  things  coming  to  extremity*  The  example 
''f  France  was  contagious ;  the  whole  population  beaime  divided 
«"to  two  parties  of  iKitriots  and  royalists,  and  the  former  were 
*^'i/D  found  to  be  the  strongest.    In  November,  1,789,  the  states  de 

•  iircd  their  independence,  in  consequence  of  a  meeting  held  at 
<iiient:  the  soldiery  began  to  take  part  with  the  people.  On  the 
-oih  of  December,  the  states  of  Brabant  assumed  the  sovereign  pow- 
er, in  which  they  were  soon  followed  by  the  states  of  the  other 
provinces ;  a  federal  union  was  formed,  under  the  title  of  the  United 
U^lgjc  States,  and  a  congress  of  deputies  to  administer  the  new  go^ 
vmmeoL  appointeil  to  assemble  on  the  Uth  of  January,  1,79a 

1^  Tons  were  the  low  countries  sacrificed  to  the  injudicions  and 
h'Jity  measures  of  the  emperor,  who  was  too  late  rendered  sensible 
wi  his  errors,  when  he  found  them  perfectly  irrepamlile,  either  hi 
Dd  40 

Digitized  by  CjOOQIC 


314  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Ami  way  of  coDciQatioD  or  force.  He  lived  to  flee  his  o£fen  ofpeeft 
and  reconciliatioQ  rejected  with  scorn  and  contempt,  while  be  totally 
6iled  in  his  endeavours  to  procure  the  aid  of  foreign  states  to  reduce 
his  revolted  subiects  to  obedience,  hi  other  parts  of  his  domiaione, 
purtifiularly  in  Hungary,  the  same  spirit  of  opposition  to  his  plans 
nad  been  excited,  and  kept  up  by  similar  measures  of  irritation  and 
defiance,  till  the  time  of  his  decease  drew  near.  He  would  tbcn 
willingly  have  retraced  his  steps,  and  did,  indeed,  take  some  mens* 
ures  to  conciliate  the  offended  Hungarians;  but  the  tenniDatioDofbb 
life  was  ^  approaching,  hastened  no  doubt  by  the  oppositioo  and 
ill  fortune  which  had  attended  almost  the  whole  of  his  political  career. 
He  had  weakened  his  constitution  in  all  probability  by  the  resiles 
life  he  had  led,  and  the  hardships  and  fatigues  to  which  he  had  ei- 
posed  himself  in  the  field ;  but  he  suffered  severelv  in  his  mlod  from 
the  course  things  had  taken  in  the  Netherlands,  and  though  be  exhib- 
ited in  his  last  moments  the  fortitude,  resignation,  and  composure 
of  a  true  christian,  yet  it  is  truly  melancholy  to  think  that  his  whok 
reign  was  passed  in  rendering  himself  and  others  wretched  He 
expired  on  the  SOth  of  February,  1,790,  in  the  forty-ninth  yearo) 
bis  age ;  and  leaving  no  issue,  was  succeeded  in  his  hereditary  di>- 
minions  by  his  brother  Leopold,  who  was  also  chosen  emperor  befora 
the  end  of  the  year  in  which  his  brother  died. 

13.  The  reign  of  the  emperor  Leopold  II.  was  very  short,  and 
hr  from  a  happy  one.  His  brother  had  left  his  domioioos  in  a 
wretched  state  of  discontent  and  confusion ;  diminished*  in  some 
most  important  instances,  and  pretty  generally  exposed  to  the  attacici 
of  formidable  and  designing  enemies.  Leopold  had  been  able  to  do 
some  good  amongst  ms  Tuscan  subjects  before  he  ascended  ih< 
royal  and  imperial  thrones,  but  his  genius  and  talents  were  jadgtf 
to  be  unequal  to  the  government  of  a  mighty  empire.  He  s^or 
gave  satisfaction  however,  to  the  aching  minds  of  his  new  suhjf ci^ 
by  restoring  to  many  their  ancient  privileges,  and  revoking  liie  b- 
judicious  and  irritating  innovations  oi  his  deceased  brother,  i^or  dai 
he  manage  his  foreign  negotiations  ill,  which,  had  they  failed,  niigl<t 
have  involved  him  in  inextricable  difiiculties.  By  flattering  the  Ex^f- 
tish,  and  appearing  to  enter  into  their  views  in  regard  to  Turkey 
aod  the  Netherlands,  he  deterred  the  king  of  Prussia  from  prosecut- 
ing his  designs  upon  Gallicia,  whidi  he  wished  to  procure  for  ri>- 
land,  in  exchange  for  Dantzic  and  Thorn.  Aflerwaras,  by  fomeDtin!: 
that  monarches  resentment  agabst  England,  who  appeared  to  have 
abandoned  him,  he  managed  to  form  a  union  with  the  very  coun 
which  at  the  commencement  of  his  reign  had  manifested  the  great 
Mt  symptoms  of  rivalry  and  opposition.  This  accommodation  vij: 
the  King  of  Prussia  greatly  facilitated  his  accession  to  the  imperU 
«rowD«which  was  conferred  upon  him,  October  9, 1,790. 

14.  By  very  firm,  but  conaliatory  behaviour  towards  the  Hurri 
garians,  who  seem  to  have  unbibed  at  this  time  many  of  the  demn 
cratic  principles  of  the  French,  he  not  only  effectually  bgratiatc  J 

\  of  the  kingdom,  but  regained  ti ' 


bimself  with  the  leading  persons 

affections  of  the  people  at  large,  which  had  been  saAly  alienat' 
through  his  brother's  unwise  interference  with  their  most  favoorui 
customs  and  established  rights. 

15.  Leopold  did  not  bo  easily  settle  his  disputes  with  the  Nethe 
lukb.  The  mediation  of  England,  Holland,  and  Prussia,  had  be-^^ 
<Aered^  but  he  rather  mchned  to  rely  on  his  own  strength,  and  h 
^MMauoDfl  with  France,  which  were  every  hour  becoming  mtc< 


yGoogk 


MODERN  HISTORT  91» 

mcertam  and  precarious.  He  had  reconne  therefore  to  force,  and 
succeeded  Indeed  in  re-establishing  the  imperial  authority,  but  total- 
tr  detached  from  any  cordial  returns  of  loyalty  on  the  part  of  tha 
Belgian^  which  became  but  too  apparent,  when  his  subsequent  di^ 
putes  with  the  reyolutionary  government  of  France  exposed  those 
parts  of  the  Austrian  dominions  to  fresh  troubles  and  disturbances. 

16.  Ihe  situation  of  the  emperor  Leopold,  it  must  be  granted, 
was  veiy  embarrassing  in  the  first  years  of  the  French  revolution 
The  constraint  nut  upon  the  royal  family  of  France,  to  which  he 
Mood  so  nearly  allied,  and  the  threats  denounced  so  openly  against 
the  queen  his  sister,  in  particular,  must  have  greatly  affected  his 
private  feelings,  while  many  of  the  German  states,  whose  rights, 
ecclesiastical  and  territorial,  guarantied  by  the  peace  of  West- 
phalia, had  been  invaded  in  Alsace,  Franchc  Compte,  and  Lorraine. 
hj  the  decree  of  the  national  assembly,  for  abolishing  the  feudal 
privileces,  publicly  called  upon  him  to  inter|K)se  in  their  behalf,  as 
Kead  of  the  empire ;  as  he  stood  bound  to  do  indeed  by  his  capitula* 
lioQ  with  the  diet,  on  receiving  the  imperial  crown.  In  regard  to 
the  roval  £unily  of  France,  l.is  first  plans,  in  conjunction  with  the 
ktog  of  Prussia,  were  clearly  injudicious,  and  injurious  to  the  cause 
he  took  in  hand.  The  French  revolutionists  were  not  in  a  state  to 
be  intimidated  by  angry  manifestoes  or  threats  of  foreign  interfe- 
rence. The  emperor  himself,  indeed,  did  often  appear  cautious  of 
embroiling  his  country  in  a  war  with  France,  but  was  at  lengjth  prob- 
ably provoked  into  it,  by  the  violence  of  tiic  Jacobinical  taction  at 
r.Lris,  rather  than  persuaded  by  the  representations  of  the  emigrant 
pnoces,  or  royal  family  at  Paris,  as  was  so  strongly  alleged.  Beyond 
the  alliance  with  Prussia,  however,  concluded  on  the  19th  of  Febni^ 
417,  1,792^  the  emperor  Leopold  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have  had 
Aoy  share  in  the  war  with  France ;  for,  on  the  27  th  of  that  very 
Tiontk  he  was  seized  with  an  illness,  which  in  three  days  temiinatea 
hH  Qie,  at  the  early  age  of  forty-four,  leaving  his  dominions  in  a 
ctite  of  more  serious  danger  than  when  he  began  his  reign. 

17.  The  emperor  Lieopold  was  succeeded  in  his  hereditary  states 
bv  liis  eldest  son  Francis,  bom  in  1,7G8,  who  became  emperor  in 
toe  July  following  his  father^s  death,  and  still  reigns.  This  mon- 
arch had  to  begin  those  hostilities  with  France  which  his  predecea> 
^-T  seems  to  have  contemplated  with  considerable  distrust,  and 
he  became  a  party  to  the  too  hasty  proceedings  of  his  Prussian  ally 
and  the  duke  of  Brunswick,  who  increased  the  irritation  and  pro- 
t<^ed  the  resistance  of  the  French,  by  menaces  extremely  im^o* 
l.tic«  considering  the  actual  state  of  things.  They  endeavoured,  tn- 
^'Ttdj  to  throw  the  blame  on  the  emigrant  princes,  who,  it  was 
alioged,  had  misled  them  by  false  representations  of  the  good  dispo* 
*i:ion  of  the  people  in  the  interior  of  France.  They  expected  to 
t^id  a  kuM  miijority  ready  to  co-operate  with  them  in  the  overthrow 
-f  the  mtiog  faction. 

18.  The  emperor  soon  found  himself  in  a  very  awkward  situa^ 
fion.  Instead  of  mvading  France  with  any  efiect.  he  hao  the  mor^ 
iificatioo  to  see  his  own  dominions  invaded  by  the  French,  under 
I  general  (Dumourier),  who  had  boasted  that  he  would  aubdoa 
^t'  Aostrian  Netheriands  before  the  end  of  tiie  year ;  an  engage* 
nent  idiich  he  in  a  great  measure  fulfilled,  through  tlie  disaffection 
/the  Bell  .  ?     .      6    -...      .    .. 

'oke. 

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316  MODERN  HISTORY 

month  of  November,  1,792.  all  salgection  to  the  inmerial  antborltj 
was  openly  renounced  in  tne  very  capital  of  the  Netherlands,  and 
the  French  allowed  to  enter  the  city  in  triumph.  While  these  things 
were  goinz  on  in  Flanders,  Germany  itself  was  invaded  by  the  FreDdt 
general,  Custine,  Mentz  taken,  and  heavy  contributions  levied  in  the 
towns  of  Worms  and  Frankfort  I 

19.  Early  in  the  vear  1,793,  the  Austrians  under  general  Ckir- 
fait  and  the  prince  of  Saxe  Coburg,  obtained  advantages  over  the 
French,  at  Aiz-4a-ChapeUe,  which  were  followed  by  the  capture 
of  the  towns  of  Valenciennes  and  Conde.  in  coi\junction  with  the 
British  army  under  the  command  of  the  auke  of  York*  A  sepant- 
don  of  the  two  armies  afterwards  took  place,  which  was  attende«i 
with  unpleasant  circumstances,  and  seems  to  have  happened  vert 
contrary  to  the  desire  and  wishes  of  the  Austrian  commaziders. 
The  troops  under  the  duke  laid  siege  to  Dunkirk,  but  were  unsuc- 
cessful in  their  attempts  against  the  place,  being  obliged  to  abandcn 
^he  undertaking  with  the  loss  of  the  greatest  part  of  their  axtillcn 
and  stores. 

20.  In  the  year  1,794,  the  allied  armies  again  acted  in  conjunctly  r, 
against  the  French  under  general  Pichegru,  the  emperor  hinr\si'  r 
having  joined  the  camp,  but  the  overwhelming  power  of  the  Freu»  . 
baffled  all  their  attem]^ ts  to  defend  the  Netherlands,  which  fell  t  rt- 
tirely  into  the  hands  ot  the  enemy.  i 

St.  The  share  which  the  emperor  Francis  II.  had  in  the  6d*«> 
dismemberment  of  Poland,  1,795,  will  be  shewn  m  the  history  ai 
(hat  unhappy  country.  The  king  of  Prussia  having  gained  gV^^:! 
advantages  by  this  transaction^  declined  any  longer  assbting  the  allit.^ : 
against  France,  and  in  open  violation  of  his  engagements  with  II:  :• 
Sand,  made  a. peace  with  the  French  government^  April  b^  1,793,  Ij, 
the  great  disgust  of  the  confederates. 

22.  The  contests  between  the  armies  of  Germany  and  Fraocr, 
in  the  years  1,796,  1,797,  were  carried  on  with  the  greatest  Tig«.:r. 
skill,  and  bravery,  on  the  Rhine,  in  Suabia,  in  the  Tyrol,  and  r 
Italy.  In  1,796,  tne  archduke  Charles,  brother  of  the  emperor^ 
acquired  great  glory  by  checking  the  progress  of  the  two  cofebrat- 
ed  French  generals,  Jourdan  and  Moreau:  and,  though  compelU^il 
to  retire  before  Buona[>arte,  in  1,797,  and  to  subscribe  to  the  peacoi 
of  Campo-Formio,  as  will  be  related  elsewhere,  his  credit  with  th*:i 
army  remained  undiminished*  and  his  reputation  as  a  i^eneral  onir.-^ 
paired.  On  the  renewal  of  the  war  in  1,799^  at  the  instigation  ^>:l 
the  Neapolitan  court,  the  Austrians  were  assisted  by  the  Russian^ 
md  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  tide  oFafikirs  seemenj 
to  be  turning  greatly  against  the  French,  when  a  new  revoluttoo  ii 
the  fluctuating  government  of  that  disturbed  people,  suddenly  cbaPi.^ 
ed  the  face  of  things,  as  will  be  shewn  in  our  continoatioQ  ot*  i;j<j 
history  of  France.  ! 

I 
SECTION  XIL 

FRANCE,  FROM  THE  OPENING  OF  THE  ASSEMBLY  OF  T« 
STATES-GENERAL,  1,789,  TO  THE  DEATHS  OF  THE  KIXJ 
AND  QUEEN,  1,793. 

1  The  states-general  met,  Mar  5, 1,789.  The  kiog^a  speech  bn 
been  much  admired,  as  the  address  of  an  upright,  huaoaDe^  «X3^ 

Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  317 

pjfrioUc  priDce,  to  a  respectable  assemblase  of  his  subjects,  by 
wiiose  political  and  legislative  exertions  he  lioped  to  improTe  the 
iVAle  of  the  Dntioo.  The  nobles  and  clergy  had  expressed  a  willing- 
ness to  forego  their  pecuniary  privileges,  but  there  were  othei 
grounds  upon  which  tney  seemea  likely  to  be  at  variance  with  the 
ihird  estate.  The  latter  were  for  obliterating  all  traces  of  distinc-* 
tion  in  their  legislative  capacity ;  while  the  former  were  so  ixnpru- 
(ient  as  to  take  some  steps,  not  only  indicative  of  an  invincible  attach- 
7}ent  to  such  distinctions,  but  bearingan  air  of  arrogance  and  defi- 
nice  in  them,  ill  suited  to  the  times.  The  very  costume  adopted  on 
ihe  occasion  was  calculated  to  render  the  representatives  of  the 
roainionalty  almost  ridiculous  in  the  eyes  of  their  countrymen. 
The  nobles  and  clergy  were  distinguished  by  robes  peculiarly  rich 
aii'J  brilliant ;  but  the  whole  of  tne  third  estate  were  directed  to 
appear  In  the  common  and  antiquated  black  dress  of  the  members  of 
the  law,  though  of  various  calhngs  ai)d  professions.  As  soon,  how 
erer,  as  the  commons  had  verified  their  powers  and  were  prepared 
lo  act,  without  waiting  for  the  concurrence  of  the  other  two  orders, 
r  was  proposed  by  a  M.  Le  Grand,  and  seconded  by  the  Abbe  Sieyes. 
v.)  call  their  meeting  the  ^*  JVational  Atsembly^'^  as  forming  a  national 
representation  one  and  indwisibU,  This  was  eagerly  adopted  by 
a  majority  of  the  members,  but  objected  to  by  the  king ;  at  length, 
however,  some  of  the  clergy  and  nobles  having  joined  the  third  estaie, 
■1)*^  king  himself  condescended  to  approve  and  sanction  the  union,  a 
tn  itter  of  great  triumph  to-  the  popular  party,  and  which,  in  fact, 
::)  ide  them  the  arbiters  of  the  destiny  of  France. 

2.  On  the  11th  of  July,  1,789,  the  king  thought  it  necessaiy  to 
•  iMiuasM.  Necker;  many  tumults  and  insurrections  were  the  con- 
sequence of  this  unpopular  proceeding;  the  Bastile  state  prison, 

•nre  crowded  with  tne  victims  of  arbitrary  power,  but  at  this  roo- 
rit^^tit,  and  under  the  mild  reign  of  Lewis  Xvl.,  almost  empty,  was 
U^iesed  by  the  mob,  taken,  and  razed  to  the  ground.  After  many 
tumults  of  this  kind,  the  king  judged  it  expedient  to  comply  with 
ine  wishes  of  his  people,  and  to  recall  the  discarded  minister;  he 
^Vii  also  induced  ny  circumstances,  to  yield  to  another  demand  of 
Jinre  importance,  namely,  the  dismissal  of  all  his  troops  from  the 
•^iwrons  of  Paris  and  Versailles,  in  the  meanwhile,  the  marquis  de 
t)  Fiiyette.  who  had  been  engaged  in  America,  and  there  imbibed  a 
<pirit  of  liberty,  was  fixed  upon  to  take  the  command  of  the  new 
ai.iitia  or  city  guand.  Alarmed  at  the  appearance  of  things  at  this 
'  riod,  many  nobles,  and  even  one  of  the  king^s  brothers,  lei\  the 
Hiti^Jom.  This  had  undoubtedly  a ^ad  effect;  it  not  only  left  the 
M.14  more  exposed  to  the  violence  of  faction,  but  seemed  to  betoken 
ft  (disregard  of  the  liberties  of  their  country,  and  a  settled  purpose  of 
i  i>  oking  foreipi  aid. 

^.  The  national  assembly  soon  divided  itself  into  two  partiei ; 
t'.e  omtocni/f,  or  such  as  not  only  favoured  royalty,  but  to  a  cer- 
!ua  extent,  the  privileged  orders,  nobles,  and  clergy;  and  the 
•>'/iocncU«,  or  advocates  of  freedom ;  tlie  sworn  enemies  of  all  op- 
nn^^sive  and  distinct  privileges;  they  were  also  distinguished  into 
r  'ytiiisd  and  patriots.  Among  the  former  we  may  reckon  the  modr 
enua^  whose  speeches  in  the  assembly  are  justly  to  be  admired, 
inr  their  extreme  good  sense  and  rational  political  Of  the  nobles, 
It  should  be  observed,  that  the  most  obnoxious  were  those  who 
had  purchased  their  nobility,  amounting  to  many  thousands.  Of 
U«  aacieoti  and  hereditary  nobtty  tl^re  were,  it  was  compial* 
Dd2 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


318  MODERN  HlSTORi. 

ed,  Dot  more  than  two  hundred  families  in  the  whole  Idofdoni 
when  the  revolution  began,  nor  were  their  privileges  and  ezem|v- 
tions  by  any  means  so  great  as  was  pretended.  It  was  soon  %en 
which  party  was  the  most  powerful ;  on  the  4th  of  August,  1,789« 
decree^  were  passed^  as  if  with  the  full  consent  of  the  whole  as- 
sembly, for  the  abolition  of  the  privileges  of  the  nobles  and  clergy, 
provinces  and  towns ;  while  persons  oi  every  rank  and  description 
were  pronounced  to  be  eligible  to  all  civil,  military,  and  ecclesi^ 
astical  appointments.  The  royal  family  were  exposed  to  hornbls 
insults  and  indignities  at  Versailles,  and  at  length  almost  forcibly 
conveved  to  Paris ;  in  consequence  of  which  removal,  the  assem- 
bly also  adjourned  its  sittings  to  the  capital,  a  fatal  step  to  tak«. 
as  it  could  not  but  expose  them  to  the  tyranny  of  a  faction,  and 
the  fury  of  the  Parisian  mob.  Among  the  measures  adopted  at 
Una  period,  the  mw*^  important  were  those  which  placed  all 
church  property  at  the  disposal  of  the  nation,  dissolved  all  monas- 
tic establishments,  feudal  privileges  and  rights,  and  suppressed  tha 
provincial  parliaments  and  assemblies,  by  artfully  dividing  the  king- 
dom into  83  departments,  the  work  of  the  Abbe  Sieves;  by  this  act 
the  very  name  of  province  was  obliterated  from  the  French  yocabu- 
lary^  and  with  it  all  pecular  rights,  laws,  and  jurisdictions ;  all  pro- 
vincial governors,  commandants,  sub-delegates,  presidents,  and  tiv 
bunals  of  election ;  mayors,  echevins,  lurats,  courts  of  aid^  chambers 
of  accounts,  &c.  Every  thing  was  at  this  time  transacted  m  the  way 
of  violence  and  destruction ;  every  law  voted  by  acclamation,  with 
little  patience  and  less  judgment ;  thus,  when  it  was  proposed  to 
abolish  all  titles  and  hereditary  distinctions,  armorial  bearings,  live- 
rieS|  &c.  the  democrats  would  scarcely  suffer  the  question  to  be  de- 
bated, and  it  was  carried  by  a  large  majority,  though  so  many  nem- 
befs  of  the  assembly  must  nave  l^en  deeply  affected  by  it. 

4.  The  national  assembly  was  slow  in  preparing  a  constitutioDal 
code,  particularly  in  deciding  upon  the  three  following  questions. 
Whether  such  assemblies  should  be  permanent  or  i)eriodical  ?  com- 
posed of  one  or  two  chambers  ?  and  whether  the  king^s  veto  should 
be  absolute  or  suspensive  ?  While  these  things  were  in  agitation,  the 
King  had  attemjited  to  rescue  himself  from  the  trammels  imposed 
upon  him,  by  a  timely  escape  from  Paris ;  but  he  H^as  stopped  on  his 
journey,  and  compelled  to  return.  At  length  the  assembfy  terminat- 
ed its  labours ;  a  constitutional  act  was  prepared  and  presented  to 
tAie  king,  of  which,  ailer  an  interval  of  ten  days,  he  declared  his  ac^ 
€eptance.  Had  he  been  free,  it  is  impossible  that  he  could  have 
given  his  sanction  to  a  measure  which  subjected  the  monarch  to  the 
will  of  a  domineering  assembly,  and  was  ill-calculated  to  repren  the 
efforts  and  designs  ofa  licentious  and  restless  faction.  The  assembly, 
however,  having  thus  completed  its  task,  was  dissolved  by  the  king 
en  the  36th  day  of  September.  l,791j  being  succeeded  by  another 
convention,  denominated  "  the  legislative  assembly,"  whose  dcliber^ 
(k)ns  were  confined  to  the  space  only  of  one  year:  none  of  the 
inemben  of  the  former  assembly  being  eligible  to  the  latter. 

6.  In  the  year  1,792,  Austria  and  Prussia,  to  consequence  of  r 
declaration  and  agreement  ^according  to  all  accounts .  unpmdent) 
determined  upon  at  Pilnitz,  m  the  preceding  Year,  began  to  inter- 
fere in  behalf  of  the  king  and  royal  family,  i)ut  se  far  from  alamv- 
Ing  the  revolutionary  part^  in  France,  their  interposition  seenned 
mv  to  have  the  effect  of  insti  jLting  it  to  acts  of  greater  violenco 
snfmore  determined  courage.    War  was  without  scruple  declared 

.  Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


MODERI^  HISTORY.  319 

i^ainst  the  kiog  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  in  the  month  of  April, 
ind  every  preparation  made  to  resist  all  counter  revolutionary 
projects.  Sweden  and  Russia  had  shewn  a  strong  disposition  also  to 
interfere;  but  the  assassination  of  the  Swedish  monarch,  Gustavus 
111.,  in  1,792,  and  the  distance  of  Russia  from  France,  prevented 
both  those  countries  engaging  in  actual  hostilities.  In  the  mean 
time,  Paris  became  a  scene  of  dreadful  confusion ;  everj  day  some 
new  faction  seemed  to  arise  to  baffle  the  attem[)ts  or  those  who 
hiid  yet  wisdom  or  temperance  enough  to  prevent  things  coming  to  an 
extremity.  The  legislature  was  at  the  mercy  of  the  Parisian  clubs. 
Jtvi  of  the  mobs,  too  freely  admitted  into  the  galleries  of  the  aasem- 
i)!y.  The  king  was  insulted  in  the  grossest  manner  for  having  ven- 
tured to  interpose  his  suspensive  negative  to  the  passing  oi  two 
^vere  decrees;  one  agamst  those  who  had  emigrated,  and  tlie 
'<ther  against  the  clergy  who  declined  taking  the  civic  oath.  M.  k- 
Hijette,  who  had  been  appointed  to  take  the  command  of  the  army, 
wrote  from  his  camp  to  acTmonish  the  national  representatives  to  res- 
cie  the  country  and  the  king  from  the  factious  designs  of  the  enrag- 
^ii  jacobins ;  but  in  vain ;  it  served  onlv  to  exasperate  still  more  the 
"Ui-royalists,  and  to  bring  fresh  troubles  on  the  royal  family.  Thtt 
^c-ign  of  the  factious  seems  to  have  been,  either  to  intimidate  the  king 
' )  a  degree  of  abject  submission,  or  to  provoke  him  to  act  against  the 
coitftitQtion  fai  a  manner  that  might  render  him  liable  to  the  ven- 
^'^ance  of  the  people.  The  march  of  the  Prussian  army,  and  a 
t>rcatening  manifesto  issued  by  its  commander,  the  duke  of  Bruns- 
'>  ick,  irritated  the  violent  party  into  a  frantic  determination  to  abolish 
''\vaity.  The  king  was  supposed,  or  represented,  to  be  confederate 
'^ith  the  enemy,  and  deeply  engaged  in  a  plot  with  his  emigrant 
I  ri  ihefB  and  relatives,  to  counteract  the  revolution. 

0.  A  dreadful  attack  was  made  on  the  palace  in  the  month  of 
August,  the  particulars  of  which  are  too  disgustine  to  dwell  upon; 

•  A  it  completed  the  triumph  of  the  demagogues ;  For  in  compelling 
:>  king^s  guards  to  act  on  their  defence,  uev  had  it  in  their  power 
'-  rharge  the  king  himself  with  having  made  war  upon  his  I^ople. 
V-thing  was  now  heard  but  the  cry  of  **  liberty  and  equality."  The 
"  <*hief  of  the  executive  powerJ'  as  they  chose  to  denominate  his  maj* 

•  ^'.y.  was  formally  suspended  from  his  functions,  and,  under  the  pre- 
'   ne  of  giiardianMp^  committed  with  his  queen  aiod  family  to  the 

■nple. 

7.  The  assembly  appeared  from  this  moment  to  be  as  much  In 
ii*  power  of  the  faction  as  the  king.  The  period  has  been  too 
^:ly  distinguished  by  the  appropriate  title  of  '^the  reign  of  terror." 
i  !«'  execrable  Robespierre  was  in  reality  at  the  head  of  affairs,  and 

•  ivould  be  impossible  adequately  to  describe  the  atrocities  of  hk 
''  rtile9»  career.  It  would  exceed  the  limits  of  this  work  to  enter 
I  into  particular  details.  La  Fayette  aUindoned  the  army,  ai 
Mvilling  to  serve  under  such  masters;  his  conduct  has  been  ar- 
iit^ned,  as  retlectuigat  once  upon  his  loyalty,  his  jKitriotism.  and 
^  courage;  it  was  thought  that  with  the  army  so  much  at  bii 
.-pnsal  as  it  seemed  to  be,  had  hb  principles  been  such  as  he  pre- 

r.'fed.  be  would  have  marched  back  to  Paris^  and  saved  his  couo 
\  And  his  king  from  the  ruin  with  which  they  were  threatened 
1  the  meanwhile  the  combined  troops  of  Austria  and  Prussia  were 
T'liroachine  the  frontiers;  difiEerences  subsisted  in  the  army;  nor 

in  geoenu  Dumourier,  who  had  succeeded  to  the  command  on 
m  ivdreiDent  of  La  Fayette,  generally  confided  id,  either  by  tb* 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


320  MODERN  HISTORY. 

anny  or  the  faction.  To'  lessen  the  namber  of  aristocrats,  nony 
suspected  of  belonging  to  that  party  were  hurried  to  prison,  where 
wiuout  scruple,  and  with  such  barbarity  as  is  not  to  be  paratteled 
in  the  recoras  of  history,  they  were  almost  all  assassinated,  to  the 
amount,  as  it  has  been  estimated,  of  not  less  than  five  thousand. 
This  happening  on  the  second  of  September,  all  who  were  con- 
cerned In  it,  as  principals  or  abettors,  were  denominated  Sepior 
brizert. 

8.  These  were  but  preludes  to  a  catastrophe,  if  possible,  stil 
more  shocking ;  a  murder  perpetrated  with  a  studied  delibenitio&« 
and  with  all  the  mockery  of  legal  forms  and  ceremonies.  However 
hastened  by  the  hostile  approach  of  the  confederate  powers,  and 
the  injudicious  threats  they  threw  out  in  case  any  violence  shooH 
he  ofiered  to  the  king^s  person,  nothing  could  possibly  excuse  lbs 
perversion  of  justice,  anu  ^ross  inhumanity  which  marked  the  triab 
of  the  king  and  queen;  nothing  exceed  the  melancholy  circumstan- 
ces of  their  imprisonment  and  execution!  On  the  11th  of  Decem- 
ber, 1,792,  the  king  appeared  before  the  convention,  to  hear  the 
charges  preferred  against  him.  "  You  are  accused,"  sakl  the 
president,  "  by  the  French  nation,  of  having  committed  a  multilude 
of  crimes,  for  the  purpose  of  re-establishing  your  tyranny  by  the 
destruction  of  liberty.^'  He  then  entered  into  a  few  particulars. 
The  king,  with  great  dignity,  replied,  ^  No  existing  laws  prohibit- 
ed me  from  doing  as  I  did;  i  had  no  wish  to  ii\iure  my  subjects,  no 
intention  of  shedding  their  blood«"  Further  accusations  wpk 
pressed  upon  him,  from  which  he  defended  himself  with  the  same 
timmess  and  simplicity  of  language,  the  same  coolness  and  intre- 
pidity of  mind.  He  declared  boldi^p,  that  his  conscience  ful^  ac- 
quitted him  of  the  things  laid  to  his  charge,  and  appealed  to  the 
whole  course  of  his  behaviour  and  carriage  towards  them  as  kin^, 
to  exonerate  himself  from  the  horrid  imputation  of  haying  been 
eager  and  ready  to  shed  the  blood  of  his  people.  This  charge,  in- 
deed, rested  solely  on  the  events  of  the  10th  of  August,  when  the 
rabble  broke  into  the  palace  of  the  Tuilleries,  and  not  only  men- 
aced the  hves  of  the  king  and  his  family,  but  are  allowed  to  have 
begun  the  sanguinary  part  of  the  conflict,  by  the  murder  of  five  of 
his  Swiss  guards.  It  was  not  till  after  tnis  event  that  the  rest  of 
these  faithful  adherents  fired  upon  the  aggressors^  and  drew  upon 
themselves  the  vengeance  that  terminated  so  fatally,  for  they  were 
all  destroyed. 

9.  It  having  been  resolved  that  the  judgment  and  decision  of  the 
case  should  rest  with  the  national  representatives,  the  convention 
met  on  the  15th  of  January,  1,793,  to  discuss  the  question  of  the 
king's  guilt,  upon  the  charges  so  loosely  and  so  maliciously  brought 
against  nim,  when  it  appeared  that  only  thirty-seven  were  disposed 
to  think  favourably  of  his  conduct.  Six  hundred  and  eighty'-threc 
members,  with  little  or  no  hesitation,  some,  indeed,  with  the  mo^t 
cruel  eagerness  and  exultation,  pronounced  him  guilty.  An  attempt 
was  made  to  procure  a  reference  of  this  matter  to  the  people ;  but 
it  was  over-ruled  by  a  majority  of  one  hundred  and  thirty-nine. 

10.  Having  determined  the  question  of  his  guilt,  that  of  his  pun- 
ishment became  the  next  subject  of  discussion.  It  was  proposed 
to  decide  between  detention,  banishment,  and  death.  After  a  de- 
bate, in  which  the  amiable  monarch  seemed  to  be  regarded  by  many 
as  despotism  personified,  no  less  than  three  hundred  and  sixty-cNie, 
OTy  according  to  some  accountB^  three  hundred  and  sixty-six  menberi. 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  ai 

roted  peremptorily  for  death ;  and  on  a  further  Question,  whether 
the  execution  of  the  sentence  should  be  suspended  or  take  place 
immediately,  the  votes  for  the  latter  amounted  to  three  hundred  and 
eighty  against  three  hundred  and  ten.  The  king  was  to  be  informed 
of  ihe  result  of  their  proceedings,  and  to  suffer  death  in  twenty-four 
hours  afterwards.  The  advoaites  for  the  king  were  allowed  to 
r<  liiress  the  assembly,  and  to  move  an  appeal  to  the  people,  but  with- 
oil  effect  On  the  motion  of  Robespierre,  the  decree  was  pro- 
nounced irrcvociible,  and  the  king^s  defender  debarred  from  any 
t'Jrther  hearing. 

11.  Go  the  ^Ist  of  January  his  majesty,  having  previously  taken 
leave  of  his  family,  and  performed  the  services  of  devotion,  was 
conveyed  to  the  phice  of  execution;  nothing  could  exceed  the 
pioiis  resignation  with  which  he  submitted  to  the  cruel  and  unjust 
><-iiteoce  which  doomed  him  to  death,  and  during  his  passage  to  tl^ 
s']U)re  of  the  revolution^  where  tlie  guillotine  was  erected,  he  be- 
tr.iyod  no  symptoms  of  tear  or  anger.  On  the  scaffold,  he  manifesi- 
f  J  a  strong  desire  to  address  the  crowd;  but  the  drums  were  made 
to  sonnd  louder,  and  he  was  rudely  bidden  to  be  silent ;  in  a  moment 
iuVjr,  his  head  was  severed  from  his  body,  and  shewn  to  the  people 
u^  ihe  head  of  a  tyrant  and  a  traitor! 

IL  History,  both  public  and  private,  has  borne  ample  testimony 
f"  the  falsehood  of  the  charges  brought  against  him ;  every  nation 
jji  Earope  concurred  in  condemning  3ie  conduct  of  the  French  regi- 
Mies;  and  though,  in  exciting  the  resentment  of  fresh  enemies, 
I.igluid  and  ijpain  piirlicuhiriy,  it  threatened  the  ruin  of  the  new 
r  inibiic ;  it  appeareJ  hy  no  means  to  have  satisticd  the  blood-thirsty 
>L'i/eaDce  ot  the  ruling  fiction.  The  democratic,  or  republican 
juiy,  had  long  been  split  into  two  divi5^ions,  and  their  opposition  to 

♦  :i«'h  other  seemeil  at  thi^  time  to  be  at  the  height.  Bris^ot,  who 
l.'a.lod  the  Girondists^  (so  called  from  the  ileparUncnt  of  GiroiuU^ 
^Wiicli  some  of  thai  side  represented,)  wa>j  still  alive  ;  Robespierre, 
3 'niton, and  i>Lirat,  directed  the  movements  of  the  opposite  iaclion; 
t  r  some  time  previously  called  the  Mountaifi^  from  the  elevated  uaU 
lti-*y  occupied  m  the  hail  of  the  convention. 

\S.  it  seemed  now  to  be  a  question  wluch  of  the^e  turbulent  pax^ 
ti  ->  should  obt'iin  the  ascendancy ;  and  a  contest  of  this  nature  was 
r-'t  iikelv  to  be  decided  without  a  much  larger  effusion  of  blood. 
*'riic  reign  of  terror''  still  continufe<i,  and  many  more  victinte  wece 
I'. -•  Pairing  lor  the  stroke  of  that  futal  instrument,  which  seemed  to 
ave  been  tiniely  invented  for  the  quick  and  incessant  course  of 

•  rupitation  and  destructi^m  now  adopted.  Had  any  thing  been  capa- 
io  of  producing  doine-^tio  union,  it  might  have  been  expected,  from 

<».''  tbrmidable  cunliuleracy  of  foreign  power?,  armed  again«t  tlie  na- 
t>  >t, ;  for,  in  addition  to  Austria  and  Frus^ia,  England,  Spain,  and 
l'«»rtugal,  were  at  open  war  with  France  ;  while  a  royalist  party  had 
:  rx*en  within  its  own  confines,  of  nther  a  formidable  dcscripiion- 
4  'Misidering  the  strength  of  the  enemies  without,  and  tiic  distnicted 
«ate  of  the  govemmcnL 

1 1.  Though  such  was  the  situation  of  the  country,  with  regard 
t  >  foreign  powers,  and  royalists  at  home,  the  struggle  between  tht 
'  f iroodists  and  Robespierrean  faction  was  carried  on  at  Faris  with 
Mie  utmost  violence  and  precipitation;  but  the  Mountain  prevailed 
Tiie  leaders  of  the  Brissotines  were  arrested  and  confmed  in  the 
month  of  May.  and  on  the  31st  of  October  following,  all  executed 
iirtsMt  biiQjselt  saw  sixteen  of  liis  party  f  uillotined  before  it  caoM  In 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  li 


3tS  MODERN  fflSTORF. 

hli  toni,  and  four  were  beheaded  afterwards.  Many  oi  them  were 
persons  of  considerable  talents,  and  not  destitute  or  priTate  inxtoes 
bad  they  lired  In  less  turbulent  and  tryine  times. 

15.  Horrible  as  this  execution  must  nave  been,  one  still  mat 
tppaliing  had  eneaged  the  attention  of  the  people,  on  the  same  spot, 
only  fifteen  days  oSbre.  Loaded  with  insults,  and  deprived  of  every 
possible  comfort  or  consolation.  ^  the  widow  of  Lewis  Caped^  e 
fhey  chose  to  call  their  ^ueen,  (a  princess  of  Austria,  and  daa^ter 
c(  the  high-minded  Mana  Theresa,)  had  not  been  suffered  to  eqjoy 
one  moment  of  repose  from  the  day  of  the  king's  execution ;  pre|>- 
aradons  were  soon  after  made  for  her  own  trial,  which,  if  possible, 
was  conducted  in  a  manner  still  more  revolting  to  erery  feeliof 
mind,  than  that  which  had  been  adopted  in  the  case  of  her  unhappy 
consort  Her  cuilt  and  her  punishment  were  as  soon  decided  opcii) ; 
but  even  after  this  sad  act  of  vengeance  and  injustice,  shocking  circum' 
stances  of  ignominy,  degradation,  and  i>er8ecution  took  place,  scarce- 
ly to  be  cn^ited  as  the  acts  of  any  portion  of  a  people  at  all  adTanced 
in  civilization ;  she  was  cast  into  a  dungeon,  and  delivered  into  the 
custody  of  a  gaoler  seemingly  selected  on  purpose  to  insult  oya 
her  misfortunes,  and  aggravate  her  sufferings.  On  the  dreadful  day 
of  her  execution,  she  was  conveyed  to  the  scaffold  in  a  commcm  can, 
with  her  hands  tied  behind  her.  amid  the  brutal  shouts  of  an  Infuml- 
ed  populace.  Thus  died,  in  the  38th  year  of  her  age,  the  queefl 
of  one  of  the  {;reatest  kingdoms  of  the  earth ;  a  princess,  wb^ 
though  not  entirely  free  from  faults,  had,  tilt  this  &tal  revolutico, 
lived  in.  all  the  splendour  and  luxury  of  a  court,  the  marked  oligecC 
not  only  of  admiration  and  adulation^  but  of  homage  so  profound,  aod, 
m  some  instances  so  servile  and  eruminn^,  as  to  palliate  and  accoont 
nr  all  the  errors  of  her  short,  but  eventnil  life. 


SECTION  XIII. 

ORIUT  BRITAIN,  FROM  THE  CONCLUSION  OF  THE  AM^l- 
CAN  WAR,  1,783,  TO  THE  PEACE  OF  AMIENS,  1,80J. 

!•  From  the  peace  of  Versailles,  in  1,783,  to  the  commencement 
of  the  year  1,793,  Great  Britaiji  kept  free  from  war,  thoueh  not 
without  some  disputes  with  foi'eign  powers,  and  occasional  caib 
upon  her  to  interpose,  as  an  ally  or  mediatrix,  in  the  al&irs  of  other 
states,  Holland  particularly.  Soon  after  the  termination  of  the 
American  war,  extraordioarjt  changes  in  the  administration  took 
place.  The  ministry  that  negotiated  the  peace,  at  the  head  of 
which  was  the  earl  of  Shelbume,  was  displaced,  and  succeeded  by 
what  was  called  the  cociiiion  ministry,  from  the  extraordinary  cir 
cumstance  of  Mr.  Fox  and  lord  North  becoming  joint  secret^es  of 
state,  after  an'  opposition  peculiarly  animated,  and  a  positive  deckra- 
tion  on  the  part  of  the  former,  that  they  differed  so  in  principlt  as  to 
render  such  an  union  ibr  ever  impracticable. 

2.  The  unpopularitv  of  such  an  appar«:iut  dereliction  of  principle, 
as  might  reasonably  be  expected,  rendered  their  continuance  in 
power  extremely  precarious,  and  it  was  not  long  before  their  re- 
moval  was  effected^  in  consequence  of  a  bill  brought  into  parlia- 
ment by  Mr.  Fox^  to  regulate  the  affairs  of  India.  The  measoni 
was  judged  to  be  fraught  with  daneer  to  the  constitution,  bv  throw- 
ing too.  much  power  into  t)ie  hap&  of  a  board  of  commitwioiiei^  t» 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODERN  BISTORT.  3X3 

be  chosen  hj  pariitineDt,  and  though  it  paned  the  commoni,  It  wm 
thrown  out  by  the  lords,  and  the  ministry  dismissed. 

3.  Mr.  Pitt,  a  younger  son  of  the  great  lord  Chatham,  now  csaim 
into  power,  not  in  any  subordinate  situation,  but  as  premier,  though 
at  the  early  age  of  twenty-four,  and  under  circumstances  peculiarly 
embarrassing,  for  he  had  long  to  contend  against  a  majority  of  the 
house  of  commons,  who  threatened  to  stop  the  supplies,  and  effect 
his  removal,  as  not  enjoying  the  confidence  of  the  people.  This 
being  judged  too  great  an  interference  with  the  prerogatiye,  and 
many  addresses  being  presented  to  the  king  to  retain  him  in  his 
««enrice,  the  parliament  was  at  length  dissolved,  and  the  issue  turned 
out  to  be  extremely  favourable  to  the  choice  of  his  majesty. 

4.  The  af£iirs  of  India  manifestly  requiring  the  interposition  of 
government,  Mr.  Pitt,  as  soon  as  possible,  procured  a  bill  to  that 
efiect  to  be  passed,  according  to  which  a  board  of  control  was  to  ha 
appointed,  not  by  parliament,  but  by  the  crown.  Though  this  in- 
creased in  some  degree  the  influence  of  the  latter,  it  was  judged  to 
t>e  hr  less  hazardous  than  the  proposal  of  Mr.  Fox,  which  threatened 
to  throw  such  a  power  into  the  hands  of  the  minister  and  his  friends, 
as  might  enable  them  to  overawe  the  sovereign,  and  render  their 
removal  almost  impracticable.  Mr.  Pittas  bill,  also,  was  found  to  in- 
terfere far  less  with  the  chartered  rights  of  the  company.  It  passed 
the  lords,  August  9,  1,784. 

5.  Another  measure  of  considerable  importance  occupied  the  al- 
tenlion  of  the  minister,  during  the  year  1,786,  which  was  expected 
to  contribute  greatly  to  the  support  of  public  credit  This  was  ths 
establl^imcnt  of  a  new  sinking  fund,  by  appropriating  the  annaal 
sum  of  one  million,  to  be  invariably  apphed  to  the  liquidation  of  tha 
public  debt  At  a  subsequent  period,  a  sinking  fund  of  still  greater 
importance  was  established,  by  which  every  future  loan  was  to 
carry  with  it  its  own  sinking  fund.  This  was  proposed  to  the  house 
in  1 793,  and  readily  adopted ;  it  consisted  in  raising  one  per  cent.. 
l>esides  the  dividends  upon  every  new  stock  created,  to  be  appliea 
by  the  commissioners  tor  the  reduction  of  the  national  debt,  in  the 
sime  manner,  and  under  the  same  regulations  as  the  original  mil- 
lion.* 

6.  From  the  commencement  of  the  year  1,786,  to  the  year  1,795> 
the  attention  of  the  British  parliament  was  in  a  very  extraordinary 
maimer  occupiod  with  the  charges  brought  against  Mr.  Hastings, 
governor-general  of  Benfi;al,  in  F'ebruary,  1,786.  Mr.  Burke,  whose 
miod  had  been  long  adected  by  the  abuses  practised  in  lnd:«,  by 
the  servants  of  the  company,  had  appeared  for  some  time  to  tiava 
tixed  his  eye  upon  Mr.  Ilaiitings,  as  a  tit  object  of  prosecution ;  and 
be  now  moved  for  papers  to  substantiate  the  'charges  upon  which 
he  meant  to  impeach  him.  Tiiese  charges  being  discussed  in  par- 
liameot,  during  the  session  of  1,787,  and  referred  to  a  committee. 
were  confirmed  by  the  house  of  commons,  on  the  9th  of  May,  and. 
the  artH:les  of  impeachment  exhibited  to  tne  house  of  lords,  on  the 
14ti) ;  in  consequence  of  which  Mr.  Hastings  was  taken  into  cub» 
tody,  hut,  on  the  motion  of  the  lord  chancellor,  admitted  to  bail 
The  trial  did  not  commence  till  February  15,  1.788,  was  continued 
not  only  through  the  whole  of  that  parUament^  though  very  slowly, 
Imt  after  much  debate,  determined  to  be  pending  on  the  commence 

*  By  thii  provition  every  loan  would  have  itt  own  fond,  which  would' 
•perate  at  componnd  interest,  and  discharge  the  debt  in  Ibrty-itven  ] 
at  tiM  lonpt^  ifom  the  tima  a  waiifiai  iqcoirad.. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


SS4  MODERN  HiSTOHT. 

meat  of  tbe  new  paniament,  1,790,  and  Dot  brougbt  to  a  caodmim 
till  the  month  of  ApriL  1,795. 

7.  The  question  whether  the  impeachment  abated  on  the  6» 
solution  of  parliament,  appearing  to  involve  a  constitutional  point 
of  the  highest  importance,  was  discussed  with  singular  attentioD^ 
»nd  a  large  display  of  legal  and  parliamentary  knowledge.  The 
law  member^  of  both  houses  were  never  perhaps  so  divided  in  their 
opinions;  but  the  numerous  precedents  cited  by  Mr.  Pitt  seemed 
clearly  to  decide  the  question  as  follows :  that  though  legtslatiYe 
processes  are  abated  by  prorogation  or  dissolution,  it  is  not  so  with 
regard  to  judicial  proceedings.  It  appeared  to  be  a  nice  and  curioua 
question,  and,  as  affecting  the  responsibility  of  ministers,  its  deciaiou 
may  be  regarded  as  singularly  important 

8.  Though  in  the  course  of  the  proceedings  and  prosecotioD  of 
the  various  charges  against  Mr.  Hastings,  the  eloquence  of  the 
managers  exceeded  all  that  could  have  been  expected,  yet  never 
perhaps  were  so  great  talents  employed  with  less  success ;  a  trial  of 
such  seeming  importance,  so  strangely  protracted ;  or  a  case  of 
impeachment  brought  to  an  issue  so  little  answerable  to  the  expec- 
tations that  had  ^been  excited.  It  would  be  impossible  to  denv  that 
flagrant  and  enormous  abuses  had  been  committed  In  India  duriog 
the  period  in  question,  yet,  the  very  length  of  the  trial  made  it  ap- 
pear to  most  persons  in  tlie  light  of  a  persecution^  and  that  of  an  in* 
dividual  to  whom  the  company  and  the  nation  stood  highly  indebted 
ibr  many  eminent  services.  As  it  ended  in  the  acquittal  of  Mr.  Ha^ 
tings,  that  gentleman  may  be  presumed  innocent  One  good,  how« 
«ver,  seems  to  have  arisen  from  the  investigation;  all  succeeding 

rvemors-general  have  certainly  been  more  circumspect  and  correct 
their  proceedings. 

9.  In  the  course  of  the  year  1,787,  great  disturbances  having 
token  place  in  tlie  united  provinces,  fomented  by  the  French,  and 
threatening  the  dissolution  of  the  stadtholderate,  an  alliance  was 
formed  between  the  courts  of  St  Jameses  and  Berlin,  to  protect  tbe 
rights  of  the  prince  of  Orange,  and  resist  the  interference  of  tbe 
French.  Preparations  for  w<ir  took  place,  but  the  Prussian  annv 
decided  matters  without  any  active  co-operation  on  the  part  of 
Great  Britain.  The  alarming  state  of  things  in  France,  appeared 
to  deter  the  court  of  Vci^Wiillcs  from  rendering  that  assistance  to 
tbe  malecontents  oi  rtdiand,  which  the  latter  bad  been  taught  to 
expect 

i<^  During  the  session  of  1,788,  the  attention  of  the  house  of 
;  conmions  was  first  called  to  the  horrible  circumstances  attending 
the  African  slave-trade.     It  is  quite  surprising  that  such  atraOk 
should  have  been  so  long  carried  on,  without  exciting  the  resent- 
ment of  every  sensible  mind,  and  disgusting  the  feelings  of  a  civil 
ized  people ;  unfortunately,  when  tirst  noticed,  it  was  Ibund  to  be 
so  deeply  interwoven  witn  the  interests  of  our  settlements  in  the 
West  indies,  and  to  depend  so  much  on  forei^  states,  as  well  a> 
our  own,  as  to  render  it  almost  necessary  to  proceed  slowly  and 
cautiously,,  though  it  was  impossible  not  to  be  horror-struck  with 
tbe  information  laid  before  the  house,  particularly  in  regard  u> 
what  was  called  the  middle-passage,  or  transportation  of  the  uuhap* 
vy  Africans,  from  their  native  shores  to  the  several  islands.    As  it 
vould  be  inconsistent  with  the  nature  of  such  a  work  as  the  present^ 
0  enter  into  the  detail  of  the  proceedings  upon  this  very  interesting 
ul^ject.  which  took  up  a  laag  time,  «od  can  scattely  now  be  said  ta 

Digitized  by  CjOOQIC 


MODEEIN  HISTORY.  3t6 

t<^  trraiinated,  it  may  be  sufficient  to  note,  that,  after  continual  re- 
no  wa  is  of  the  subject  in  the  two  houses  of  parliameDt.  yet,  owing  to 
i.iitiy  untoward  circumstances^  it  was  not  hnally  abolished  tiU  the 
year  l,80y,  nor  has  it  even  yet  been  in  the  power  of  any  minis^, 
i»r  any  of  our  diplomatists,  effectually  to  prevent  the  trade,  as  car- 
rinl  oo  by  foreign  states^  though  every  person  of  humane  feelings 
must  devoutly  wish  and  desire  that  it  should  be  so.  It  must,  how- 
over,  always  redound  to  the  credit  of  our  own  country,  that  the 
voice  of  compassion  and  mercy  was  first  heard  amongst  us,  and  that 
the  £rst  arm  stretched  out  to  save  and  to  rescue  a  large  proportion 
of  our  fellow-creatures  from  the  most  abject  slavery  and  cruel  toi- 
tores  that  ever  were  inflicted,  was  the  arm  of  a  Briton 

11.  The  parliament  being  prorogued  on  the  llthof  July.  l,7C8, 
to  the  20th  of  November,  was  compelled  to  meet  on  the  ouy  ap. 
pointed,  by  circumstances  of  a  most  distressing  kind.  His  majesty, 
probably  through  excess  oi'  business,  to  which  he  was  known  to 
devote  more  time  an  I  labour  than  could  well  be  consistent  with 
his  health,  was  seized  with  an  illness  which  totally  inaipacitateti 
him  from  discharging  the  functions  of  his  high  and  exalted  station. 
It  must  appear  strange,  that  by  the  laws  and  constitution  of  the 
reafaa,  so  httle  provision  had  been  made  for  a  catastrophe  by  no 
means  out  of  the  line  of  probability,  that  it  became  a  question  into 
what  hands  the  suspended  executive  had  devolved,  and  this  led,  at 
might  be  expected,  to  very  warm  and  important  debates  in  parlia- 
ment Though  the  prince  of  Wales,  being  of  full  age,  did  not  perMXi- 
ally  claim  the  regency  as  matter  of  right,  his  party  did.  The  min- 
ister. Mr.  Pitt,  contended  that  it  belonged  to  [xiniament  to  supply 
the  aeficiency ;  and  this  question  being  stated,  it  was  judged  expe- 
dient to  debate  it,  and  settle  it  by  vote.  The  decision  upon  this 
occasion  was  entirely  in  favour  of  the  power  of  parliumcnt  to 
appoint  the  regent,  none  doubting,  however,  that  the  heir  apparent 
ivas  the  fit  object  of  such  appointment.  Other  questions  were 
ngitated  at  the  same  time,  of  equal  imporhmce ;  partictiinriy  how 
far  restrictions  could  be  imposed  by  parliament,  in  regard  to  the  ei- 
ercise  of  prerogatives,  the  whole  of  which  were  reasonably  enough 
supposed  to  be  essential  to  the  goyemmiint  of  the  country.  This 
qu^ion  also  was  decided  in  favour  of  the  minister,  who  had  pf>oposcd 
ivstrictions,  with  an  understanding,  however,  that  they  could  only 
apply  to  a  tem[X)rary  suspension  of  the  kingly  power.  In  tiii»  case 
aUo,  the  care  of  the  king's  person  was  assigned  not  to  the  regent,  hut 
to  the  queen.  One  ereat  diiliculty  remained  after  all  the  di:<cus.^ions 
Qpon  the  regency.  It  was  doubted  how  the  lord  chancellor  conld 
N»  empowered  to  put  the  great  seal  to  a  commission  for  openinjj  thfi 
•4*jsiioD8  of  Darliament,  so  as  to  restore  "  the  eflicacy  of  legislatii)n;'' 
j(  was  decided  that  he  mi^ht  he  directed  to  do  it  in  the  name  of  tije 
king,  bv  aothorit?  of  the  two  houses. 

f^.  Fortunately  for  the  public,  this  first  illness  of  his  majesty 
was  of  so  short  duration,  as  to  render  unnecessary  all  the  ciianges 
that  had  been  contemplated.  Early  in  the  year  1,789,  the  lord 
chancellor  was  able  to  announce  to  the  houses  of  parliament,  the 
perfect  recovery  of  the  king.  Nothing  conld  exceed  the  transports 
of  joy  with  whk:h  this  intelligence  was  received  throughout  Urn 
whole  kingdom.  A  national  thanksgiving  was  appointed,  and  his 
majesty  went  himself  in  great  ftate  in  6L  i^anPs,  to  offi>r  up  his 
grateful  devotioos  on  the  event  The  iliumirkilions  oo  the  occasioo 
^ers  to  genend.  that  it  ii  pfobaMe,  ftom  lbs  sccoudIi  given  of 
£e 

Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


3C6  MODERN  HISTORY. 

them,  that  gcarcely  a  cottage  in  the  most  remotewts  of  the  i 

was  without  its  show  of  loyalty  and  afiectioD.  Toe  appeaience  of 
the  metropolis,  in  particular,  was  most  extraordioaiy,  smd  ootwitb- 
standiog  the  immense  concourse  of  people  that  continued  ahno8t  tht 
whole  night  m  the  streets^  and  the  crowded  throng  of  carriages  aod 
horses,  so  strong  a  disposition  was  shown  by  ail  ran&  and  descriptiom 
of  persons  to  conduct  thin^  peaceably,  that  fewer  accidents  occurred 
than  were  ever  Iinowu  before  in  similar  cases. 

13.  It  should  be  noted,  as  a  matter  of  general  histoiy,  that  bad 
not  his  majesty  recovered  so  opportunely,  difficulties  of  an  extraor- 
dinary nature  might  have  ensued,  from  the  difi'erent  procecdipgs  of 
the  two  legislatures  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  While  in  Ihs 
former  it  was  decided  that  the  prince  could  not  assume  the  regencv, 
as  matter  of  right,  and  that  the  parliament  bad  a  power  to  imwm 
restrictions,  in  Ireland,  his  right  appeared  to  be  acknowledged  by 
the  two  houses  agreeing  to  address  him,  to  take  upon  him  immediately 
the  government  of  that  kingdom,  during  the  kmg^s  incapacity,  ami 
with  the  usual  powers  of  royalty. 

14«  In  the  year  1,789,  the  proceedings  in  France  began  to  occupy 
the  attention  of  Europe,  and  of  England  in  particular.  A  struggle  lor 
freedom  seemed  to  be  so  congenial  to  the  spirit  of  the  people  of  th< 
latter  country,  that  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  that  the  commencement 
of  so  extraordinary  a  revolution  should  excite  the  strongest  seosa- 
tk)ns.  Unfortunately  the  abuses  in  the  French  government  were  &o 
many,  and  some  of  them  so  entirely  contrary  to  every  principle  of 
reason  and  equity,  that  it  soon  became  apparent  that  notlting  ie>9 
than  a  radical  change,  and  revolution  of  every  existing  institutioo 
and  establishment,  would  satisfy  the  disturbed  minds  of  Oiat  vohitiis 
people ;  minds  unhappily  prepared  not  merely  to  resist  oppression* 
out  to  throw  ofl'  every  restraint  of  religion  and  morality.  Sudi  an 
example,  therefore,  required  to  be  watched  and  guarded  againstj  in 
a  country  whose  free  constitution  supplied  its  own  means  of  retor- 
matioD  in  every  case  of  necessity,  and  where  tumultuary  proceediop 
could  only  lead  to  ends  the  most  fatal  and  deplorable.  ^Ir.  Pitt 
seemed  aware  of  this,  and  though  his  measures  of  precaution  \ver« 
supposed  occasionally  to  press  too  hardly  on  the  liberty  of  tlie  sub- 
ject, it  must  be  admitted  that  a  verv  improper  intercourse  wwi  at 
times  carried  on  between  the  several  popular  associations  in  F^nghuil 
and  Ireland,  and  the  national  assembly  of  France.  The  objecf  oi' 
the  latter,  in  its  replies  to  the  addresses  presented  to  it.  t>elng,accurJ- 
ing  to  all  reasonable  interpretation  of  tne  terms  usecL  to  invite  and 
encourage  the  discontented  of  all  countries  to  follow  their  exaroplr, 
which  was  every  day  becoming  more  violent  and  anarchical 
This  was  not  alif  emissaries  were  employed  to  propagate  xUeit 
principles  in  other  countries,  many  of  whom  came  to  Lhgland,  and 
met  with  an  encouragement  not  to  be  overlooked  by  a  govenunent 
properly  sensible  of  the  dangera  to  be  incurred  by  any  adoption  of 
such  sentiments  and  principles,  in  a  country  so  very  differently  sjti>- 
ated  from  that  of  France.  England  had  long  ago  done  for  herself 
what  France  was  now  attempting :  and  though  no  such  changes  and 
oevolutioas  can  be  expected  to  take  place  without  some  violence, 
yet  England  had  jHmed  through  ma  ordeait  and  accomplished  her 
Point  a  whole  century  before  France  began  to  assert  her  Uberties. 
Il  was  little  less,  than  an  msiilt  to  every  true  Englishman,  therefore, 
fc  attempt  to  stir  him  up  to  such  violent  proceeoings  as  had  already 
leen  ooonteDanced  and  lanpti^ned  hf  th^  Fx^oph  revolationiptsi.  bai 

Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


MODERN  fflSTORI.  5f7 

fhat  such  attempts  were  making,  cocild  not  )>nt  be  too  obvioui.  On 
the  19th  of  November,  1,792^  the  natiooal  assembly  passed  a  decree, 
that  they  would  rrant  fratemitj  and  assistance  to  all  who  mijght  wish 
to  recover  their  Bbertj.  This  was  two  months  after  they  had  pro> 
claimed  the  eternal  abolition  of  royalty,  and  imprisoned  the  king;  sifter 
they  had  declared  hereditary  nobility  to  be  incompatible  with  a  free 
state ;  and  thus,  by  implication,  declared  that  England  and  most  of 
the  other  states  of  Europe  were  not  free.  It  was  ailerwards  proved, 
by  their  own  acknowledgment,  that  before  any  declaration  of  war. 
more  than  a  million  sterling  had  tieen  sent  to  England  from  the 
national  treasury  of  Fi'ance,  for  purposes  strictly  revolutionaty 
So  country  was  free  from  these  political  disturbers ;  even  genenU 
Washington,  as  president  of  the  United  States  of  America,  was 
obliged  to  publish  letters  patent,  to  withdraw  his  countenance  fro* 
the  accredited  French  nuntsters  in  that  country,  who  liad  grossi^ 
insulted  him  as  head  of  the  executive  government 

15.  In  the  year  1.790,  an  unpleasant  dispute  arose  between  the 
courts  of  St  Jameses  and  Madrid,  which  nad  nearly  involved  the 
two  countries  in  a  war.  it  related  to  a  settlement  on  the  north- 
western coast  of  America,  which  had  been  attempted  by  some  sul>> 
jecta  of  Great  Britain,  at  Nootka  Sound,  for  the  carrymg  on  a  fur 
trade  with  China.  Tne  Spaniards,  conceiving  this  to  be  an  invasion 
of  their  rights,  under  a  claim  to  these  distant  regions  the  most  ex. 
travacont  imd  uwurd,  with  great  precipitation  attacked  the  English 
settM  there,  took  the  fort  which  had  been  erected  with  the  consent 
of  tlie  Indians,  and  seized  upon  the  vessels.  It  was  not  possible  to 
pass  over  so  great  an  outrage ;  but  by  the  vigorous  and  timely  prep^ 
aiatioQS  made  to  procure  reparation,  and  the  little  hope  ot  assist- 
ance  to  be  derlvea  from  France,  in  case  tilings  should  come  to  ex* 
tremities,  the  Spanish  court  was  brought  to  terms  before  the  expira- 
tioo  of  the  year;  and  not  only  every  point  in  dispute  ceded  to  tbf 
English,  but  many  advantages  granteri  with  regard  to  the  navlgatior 
of  Ihe  racilic  ocean. 

16.  In  the  course  of  the  same  year,  the  British  court  interfered 
successfully  to  restore  peace  between  Austria  and  Turkey,  and* 
was  further  instrumental  though  not  without  some  hindrances,  in 
neduclni;  the  revolted  Netherlands  to  the  dominion  and  aothorit^ 
of  tlie  termer  power.  Her  attempts  to  mediate  between  Rossn 
and  the  Porte,  were  by  no  means  so  successful,  and  had  nearly,  in 
deed,  involved  the  nation  in  war,  for  an  object  of  very  little  im- 
portance in  the  eyes  of  the  public  at  large,  though  the  minister 
seemed  to  think  otherwise.  In  consequence,  however,  of  the  op- 
position be  met  with,  he  wns  induced  to  forego  the  plan  he  had  in 
view,  of  preventing  Russia  getting  possession  of  the  town  of  Ocza- 
kow,  and  a  peace  was  concluded  with  that  power  at  Yaasi,  January 
1,792. 

17.  Towards  the  close  of  the  same  jear,  after  the  king  of  Franea 
and  his  &mily  were  in  a  state  of  conhnement,  maujr  attempts  were 
tnauAe  by  the  natiooal  assembly  to  ascertain  the  views  ot  England 
with  regard  to  the  confederacy  formed  against  her,  and  the  questlOD 
of  peace  or  war  seemed  nearly  brought  to  an  issue,  before  the  nonibla 
execution  of  the  king,  in  the  month  of  January,  1,793.  That  event 
heiog  followed  by  the  dismissal  of  the  French  minister  at  London, 
appeared  so  totalnf  to  dissolve  all  friendly  communications  belweeo 
(he  two  countries,  as  to  induce  the  French  government,  by  a  decno 
erf*  tho  awmbly  Febniary  3, 1,793,  to  declace  war  agiiiait  the  btw 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


528  MODERN  HISTORY 

^  Great  Briimn  and  the  stodtholder  of  Holland ;  ia  tvhich  decree, 
Uicre  was  evidently  an  attempt  in  the  very  wording  of  it  to  separate 
the  peopU  of  the  two  countries  from  their  respective  sovereigns. 

18.  By  this  time,  indeed,  the  encroaching  disposition  of  the 
French  revolutionists  was  manifested  in  their  annexation  of  Savoy 
to  France  for  ever,  ns  soon  as  they  had  gained  any  advantages  over 
it;  and  in  their  conduct  in  tiie  Netherlands,  by  declaruig  the  navi- 
gation of  the  Sclield  free,  contrary  to  all  subsisting  treaties  with 
tue  Dutch.  The  same  spirit  was  apparent  in  their  refusal  to  ex- 
empt Alsace  and  Lorraine  irom  the  operation  of  the  decrees  for  the 
abolitiOQ  of  feudal  rights,  and  in  their  forcible  seizure  of  Avignon 
and  the  comtat  Venaissin,  which  had  belonged  to  the  Roman  see 
for  many  centuries.  It  is  true,  the  indiscreet  manifestoes  of  the 
combined  armies  were  sulhcient  to  stimukte  a  people,  already  in 
a  high  degree  of  irritation,  to  acts  of  severe  reprisal,  in  all  cases  of 
success;  but  it  was  very  maniiest  that  they  had  already  violated 
their  own  principle  of  not  acting  on  a  system  of  aggrandizemenL, 
of  which  they  made  such  boast  at  the  beginning  of  the  revolutioa 
Their  glaring  abandonment  of  this  principle,  and  the  injury  done  to 
the  Dutch  by  opening  tiie  Schcld,  were  the  ostensible  grounds  of 
the  war  on  the  part  of  England.  I'hc  declaration  of  France,  in 
some  degree,  saved  the  minister  from  the  responsibility  of  having 
adually  commenced  hostilities,  however,  in  the  opinion  of  opposi- 
tion, he  might  be  said  to  have  provoked  them;  but  it  should  still  be 
observed,  that  there  was  a  treaty  subsi'^ling  between  the  two  comUritx 
affirming  that  the  recal  or  dismission  of  public  ministers  should  be 
considered  tantamount  to  a  declaration  of  war.  If  so,  and  tlie  treaty 
was  not  invalidated  by  the  change  of  things  at  i'aris,  as  many  asserted, 
the  first  declanition  of  war  proceeded  from  the  English  government 
who,  on  the  suspension  of  the  khigly  authority,  had  recalled  lord 
Qower  fr<>m  Paris,  (many  other  courts,  however,  having  done  the 
same,)  and  on  the  death  of  the  king,  abruptly  di.<missed  the  French 
minister.  M.  Chauvelin,  from  England. 

19.  The  exact  objects  of  the  hostile  interference  of  EnglanJ 
were  never  formally  explained  in  parliament,  though  in  the  king's 
declaration  they  were  regarded  as  loo  notorious;  every  thing  ad- 
duced to  render  it  apparent,  that  they  had  in  view  asmuchtoop* 
pose  the  propagation  of  anarchical  }  rinciples,  as  the  violence  of 
territorial  aggre^-sions ;  that  previously  to  the  declaration  of  wur 
bo  either  part^  tiie  Englisii  govornnieut  had  shown  a  disposition  not 
to  interfere  with  the  internal  affairs  of  France,  seems  maniiest  frcm 
manr  circumstances. 

20.  it  is  not  necessary  to  enter  into  the  details  of  the  war  thai 
took  place  aAer  England  joined  the  confederacy.  The  extnor- 
dinary  progress  and  success  of  the  French  appertains  to  tlie  history 
of  that  country,  and  may  therefore  be  found  elsewhere.  Thougb 
the  British  troops  fought  with  their  accustomed  bravery,  and  Uv 
tained  io  their  tirst  campaign  some  signal  advantages,  yet,  owmg 
in  some  measure  to  the  want  of  harmony  and  cordiality  lietweeo 
the  coofedenites,  but  still  more  to  the  overwhelming  force  of 
France,  now  risen  en  masse^  they  ultimately  met  with  great  reTerse^ 
and  were  compelled  to  abandon  the  country  they  had  undertaken  to 
defend;  but  though  unsuccessful  by  land,  on  the  ocean  England 
maintained  her  wonted  superiority.  Many  of  the  French  West  In- 
dUa  islands  fell  into  her  power  in  the  summer  of  1,794,  and  a  motf 
docittve  victory  was  gained  by  lord  liowe,  over  the  Brest  fleetj  on 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  329 

(he  1st  of  June.  The  island  of  Corsica  also  was  sabdaed,  and  b? 
the  nqti-gallican  partj,  with  the  celebrated  Paschal  Paoli  at  tlieir 
liead,  erected  ioto  a  mooarcfay,  the  kiogly  power  and  prerogative*^ 
Inline  freely  conferred  on  his  'majesty  George  lU.  In  the  monti)  of 
OctcS»er,  however.  1^796,  the  French  party  recovered  the  ascender- 
cy.  and  the  island  being  ei-acuated  by  the  English,  was  re-anncxi  J 
to  France. 

21.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  year  1,794,  though  France  had  on 
the  continent  made  surprising  acquisitions,  the  spirits  of  the  EnKli.Ii 
uere  far  from  being  shaken,  and  the  utmost  efforts  were  chcen:i!iv 
ni.ide  for  continuing  the  contest  on  the  ocean;  and  in  all  the  co!<)''i..s 
of  the  enemy,  the  lul  vantages  were  clearly  on  the  side  of  the  liriii^'j, 
«1 11  ring  the  years  1,795,  1,796,  and  1,797,  when  negotialioiis  (( r 
pt»ace  took  place,  but  without  being  brought  to  any  fjivourable  i<-su  \ 
Al  the  close  of  1,797,  his  majesty,  attended  by  the  two  hou-i*-^  <*i 
parliament,  and  the  great  officers  of  state,  went  to  St.  PauPs,  to  off  r 
np  a  public  and  national  thanksgiving  for  the  naval  victories  obt..i:i'  1 
ill  all  parts  of  the  world;  upon  which  occasion,  many  H.i;;'^  uu] 
colours  taken  from  the  French,  Spaniards,  and  Dutch,  were  Ixirn-^  i'l 
««>lemQ  pomp  to  the  cathedral,  and  deposited  on  the  altar.  T^otliM):; 
Cv>uld  exceed  the  enthusiasm  with  w'bich  the  British  nation  at  fjii; 
period  appeared  disposed  to  resist  the  threats  of  the  enemy.  Tlf* 
national  militia  having  offered  to  transfer  their  services  to  Ire  la:  t>!« 
to  suppress  a  rebellion  which  had  broken  out  there,  volunteer  cor^'^ 
were  formed  in  all  parts  of  the  kingdom  to  supply  their  place,  np.«i 
the  people  were  readily  induced  to  submit  to  a  measure  of  finance, 
then  first  adopted,  namely,  of  raising,  by  a  triple  assessment,  (aftrr- 
wards  converted  into  an  income  arid  property  tax,)  a  lar^e  propoi- 
tioo  of  the  supplies  wanted  for  carrying  on  the  war  withtn  die  year , 
«o  nach,  in  short,  of  the  loan,  as  should  exceed  the  sum  dischar^'J 
by  the  operation  of  the  sinking  fund,  so  that  no  addition  should  {m> 
made  to  the  permanent  debt. 

!i2-  In  the  year  1,798,  the  afiliirs  of  Ireland  occasioned  great  dif- 
Gctiltics.  A  regularly  organized  rebellion,  the  leaders  of  whirlt 
were  in  constant  communication  with  tha  enemy,  threatened  t<>- 
Liily  to  dissolve  the  connexion  subsisting  between  that  country 
and  <sreat  Britain,  and  to  invite  the  aid  and  co-operation  of  Fr^incr, 
at  the  manifest  hazard  of  rendering  Ireland  a  de|»endencT  of  thL- 
latter  power,  as  had  already  been  the  case  with  bavoy,  Belgium, 
Lombaidy,  and  Venice.  Ireland  had  but  lately  obtained  concesr^ions 
from  England  of  no  inconsiderable  importance,  a  free  trade,  and  tiie 
recognition  of  her  political  independence ;  but  the  catholics  were  dis- 
satisfied with  the  national  representation,  to  the  defects  in  which 
they  attributed  the  continu<ince  of  the  penal  statutes  still  directed 
agaSnrt  them.  The  French  revolution  led  to  the  formation  of  (he 
feociety  of  United  Irishmen,  in  1,791,  which  had  many  reforms  and 
chances  in  view,  though  short  perhaps  of  an  entire  revolution.  In 
1,79S«  from  repre8entatH)ns  made  to  it  of  the  oppressed  state  of  Ire- 
land,  the  French  government  regularly  proffered  its  assistance  to 
•ubveit  the  monardiy,  and  separate  Irelanci  from  Britain.  Fortunate- 
ly the  plans  of  the  tnutors  were  timely  discovered,  and  though  it 
was  not  possible  to  prevent  a  recourse  to  arms,  which  afflicted  many 
parts  of  the  kingdom  between  April  and  October,  vet  the  principal 
ringleadeia  were  for  the  most  part  seized,  executed,  or  compelled  to 
fir,  and  under  the  able  government  of  lord  Comwallis,  tranquiilkj 
Ee«  ^* 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


530  MODERN  HISTORY. 

was  happily  restored,  with  leas  difficalty  and  damage  than  had  been 
expected. 

23.  The  situation  of  afiairs  in  Ireland  during  1,798,  led  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  to  the  project  of  an  union  l>etween  the  two  countries, 
which  Mr.  Pitt  submitted  to  the  British  parliament  in  the  form  of  a 
message  from  the  king,  January  22,  1 ,799.  The  Irish  legislature 
having  been  declared  independent  in  1,782,  it  was  obvious  that  no 
iuch  measure  could  be  earned  into  execution  without  the  free  con- 
sent and  acquiescence  of  the  Irish  parliament  Many  circumstan- 
ces seemed  to  conduce  to  render  the  proposed  union  desirable  and 
beneficial  to  both  nations,  and  at  this  particular  moment,  to  recon 
cile  most  people  to  it  The  catholics  of  Ireland  had  become  div 
satisfied  with  tlie  parliament  of  that  country,  while  the  protestants, 
who  were  greatly  outnumbered  by  the  catholics,  though  they  po^ 
sessed  four  dflhs  of  the  property  of  the  kingdom,  had  good  reason 
to  suppose  their  interests  and  ascendency  would  be  l^st  secured 
in  one  united  and  imperial  parliament,  than  in  a  distinct  legisla- 
ture, in  a  country  where  the  catholics  had  already  obtained  their 
elective  Iranchise,  and  composed  the  bulk  of  the  population.  They 
might  also  reasonably  apprehend  the  consequences  of  the  overtures 
that  had  been  made  to  France,  and  the  alarming  proeress  of  revolu- 
tionary principles.  In  the  case  of  the  regency,  the  dangers  incident 
to  two  distinct  legislatures,  had  been  rendered  sufficiently  apparent 
On  all  these  accounts,  though  the  measure  was  at  first  very  coldly 
entertained,  and  even  rejected  by  the  Irish  house  of  commons;  the 
minister  was  greatly  encouraged  to  proceed,  by  the  strong  support 
he  received  in  both  countries,  from  persons  of  all  ranks  and  parties. 
A  series  of  resolutions  was  proposed  to  the  house,  to  be  laid  before 
his  majesty^  recommendatory  of  the  proposed  union,  which,  after 
some  <ypposition,  was  sent  to  a  committee  by  a  me^ority  of  140  to 
1 5.  In  the  lords,  the  address  passed  without  a  division :  a  protest, 
however,  being  entered  on  the  books,  signed  by  three  Ions,  Hoi> 
land,  Thanet,  and  King. 

24.  The  last  year  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  distinguished 
by  the  most  important  events  in  India,  where  the  English,  uikler  the 
government  of  the  earl  of  Momington,  totally  defeated  the  mo^ 
insidious,  and  powerful  en^m^,  the  forces  in  that  remote  country 
ever  baa  to  contend  with ;  Tippoo  Saib,  the  sultan  of  Mysore,  son 
of  the  celebrated  Hyder  Ally  Khan,  who  had  usurped  those  domi»> 
ions  in  1,761.  In  the  years  1,784,  and  1,792,  treaties  of  peace  had 
been  concluded  bettveen  the  sultan  and  the  English,  which,  howevei; 
had  had  very  little  effect  on  the  former,  who  had  shown  himself 
constantly  attached  to  the  French  interests ;  and  having  been  con^ 
pelled  by  the  last  treaty  to  cede  one  half  of  his  dominions  to  tha 
conquerors,  and  to  deliver  two  of  his  sons  as  hostages  into  the  hand 
of  lord  Comwallis.  the  govemor-general^ppears  to  have  harboured 
the  most  inveteraie  hatred  against  the  English  from  that  moment, 
and  to  have  meditated,  by  the  aid  of  the  French,  and  certain  of  the 
native  powers,  nothing  less  than  their  total  extirpation.  It  woidd  be 
impossible,  perhaps,  to  find  in  history  stronger  instances  of  du|4idtj 
and  treachery,  than  were  practised  by  this  celebrated  potentate 

S gainst  the  British  interests,  during  the  years  1,797  and  1,798.  in 
e  spring  of  the  latter  of  which,  lord  Momineton  amved  in  lnaia« 
liVith  the  French  directory,  with  the  French  colonial  government  la 
Mauritius,  with  the  king  of  Candahar,  with  the  courts  of  Poooah 
lad  Hyderabad,  with  Buonaparte  in  Egypt,  and  even  with  the  Otto* 

Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


MODERN  H1ST0R\. 

Porte,  mt  the  same  time,  the  wily  sultan  managed  to 
secret  negoliations,  amidst  the  strongest  professions  of  ac 
attachment  towards  the  English  government,    it  has  been  c(  i 
ed,  that  bad  he  obtained  efiectualaid  from  the  French,  in  exi  i 
the  English,  he  would  as  willingly  have  turned  against  his  E 
abettors;  the  purport  of  all  his  negotiations  with  the  native  \ 
being  to  stir  tnem  up  to  a  general  combination  against  the 
and  enemies  of  the  prophet^  without  any  distinction  of  tl 
nations. 

2a.  By  the  extreme  vigilance  and  cautious  proceedings 
new  governor-general,  the  intrigues  of  the  sultan,  notwiths 
his  reiterated  assurances  of  fidelity,  were  so  amply  di**covei 
<:xpo«ed^  as  to  vindicate,  in  the  fullest  manner,  the  declara 
war  which  took  place  in  February,  1,799,  and  which  was  s 
followed  up  by  the  mo^l  vigorous  proceedings  on  the  pari 
armTj  terminating  in  the  capture  of  Seringa patam,  the  ca 
(he  Mysorcan  dominions.  May  4,  and  the  death  of  the  sultan, 
body  was  found,  after  the  action,  covered  with  heap  of  dea 
immense  territories  were  divided  amongst  the  alhcd  powe 
remains  of  his  family  provided  for  in  the  Camatlc,  and  a  boy 
years  old,  the  surviving  representative  of  the  Hindoo  dynasty, 
ed  to  the  throne  of  his  ancestoi^ 

26.  In  the  first  year  of  the  new  century,  the  projected  tmi 
mcorporation  of  the  two  legislatures  and  Kingdoms  of  Great 
and  Ireland,  was  brought  to  a  conclusion.  Jjoubts  were  ex; 
in  the  Irish  house  of  commons,  and  supported  by  great  strei 
argument,  whether,  as  a  delegated  b<xly,  and  wimout  a  fr< 
peal  to  their  constituents,  they  could  foimally  consent  to  the 
annihilation.  Strong  suspicions  also  were  thrown  out,  that  t! 
had  no  other  object  in  view  than  that  of  recoverini^  to  EngU 
domination  she  had  surrendered  in  1,782,  when  the  independc 
Che  Irish  legislature  had  been  fully,  and,  as  it  was  alleged, 
acknowledged  and  established;  but  these  objections  wen 
ruled.  It  was  no  surrender,  it  was  urged,  of  tlieir  leeislative 
to  consent  to  be  incorporated  with  the  parliament  of  Great 
but  a  consolidation  of  tbem;  and  their  consent  would  ac< 
character  from  the  regulations  of  1^782,  highly  honourabU 
uation;  she  could  now  treat  as  an  mdependent  state,  and 
fuocing  of  equality,  instead  of  being  in  any  respect  compc 
might  otherwise  nave  been  the  case,  to  an  union  of  suL 
Early  in  the  year  1,800,  the  assent  of  tne  two  houses  of  pari 
IQ  Ireland,  was  slgnilicd  in  addresses  to  his  majesty,  trai 
throagh  the  lord  lieutenant,  which  being  submitted  to  the 
parliament,  aAer  much  discussion  and  oebate  on  the  bill 
4*ral,  as  well  as  its  several  provisions,  the  union  of  the  tw 
(ioms  was  finally  arranged  to  take  place  from  the  first  of  J 
1^1. 

27.  The  act  of  incorporation  contained  eight  articles: 
three  decreed  the  union  of  the  two  kingdoms,  the  mainten 
the  protestant  succession,  and  consolidation  of  the  parliame 
Che  fourth,  it  was  settled  that  four  prelates  should  sit  altera 
each  session,  and  twenty-eight  lay  pe^rs  be  elected  for  lif< 
two  members  for  each  county,  (thirty-two  in  all)  and  thirty h 
sens  and  burgesses,  should  represent  the  commons.  The  fiAl 
onited  the  churches  of  England  and  Ireland ;  the  sixth  and 
prorlded  for  the  commercial  and  financial  arrangements  of  i 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


93t  MODERN  HISTORT. 

ooontrles,  and  the  eighth  for  the  maintenance  of  laws  then  In  ktc% 
find  continuance  of  the  courts  of  judicature. 

28.  On  the  iiret  of  January,  1,801,  a  royal  declaration  was  issoed 
regulating  the  style  and  titles  appertainmg  to  the  imperial  crown  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  with  the  arms,  dags,  and  ensigns  thereoC 
In  these  arrangements,  the  opportunity  was  judiciously  taken  of 
laying  aside  the  title  ol  king  of  France,  and  the  French  arms ;  the 
title  in  English  was  confined  to  Great  Britain  and  Ireland;  in  Lati^ 
^  BriUmnianmi  /2ex,^^  and  the  quartering  of  the  ^^Jlewrs  de  lis^^  omit* 
ted  in  the  blazonry. 

29.  A  fresh  revolution  in  the  government  of  France,  about  this 
time,  havioff  thrown  the  executive  power,  in  a  great  measure, 
into  the  hands  of  a  supreme  magistrate,  the  first  consul,  and  over- 
tures for  peace  havine  been  made  by  buonaparte  in  that  capacity^, 
much  discussion  upon  the  subject  took  place  between  the  mimsten 
of  the  two  countries,  but  without  effect  The  Austrians  havint 
sustained  a  defeat  in  Italy,  had  solicited  and  obtained  a  suspension  of 
hostilities,  and  entered  upon  some  negotiations  for  peace,  to  which 
England  was  invited  to  become  a  party,  upon  consenting  to  a  naval 
armistice,  but  her  maritime  power  stood  so  high,  that  while  Malta 
continued  subject  to  France,  and  the  French  army  unsubdued  in 
Egypt,  she  could  not  reasonably  be  expected  to  forego  such  advan- 
tages, and  to  place  herself  upon  a  footing  with  her  continental  ally, 
whose  situation  was  so  different  Her  determination  to  continue  tlia 
war.  was  soon  followed  by  the  surrender  of  Malta,  on  the  5th  of  Sep- 
tember, 1,800,  and  in  the  course  of  the  next  year,  the  French  troops 
were  compelled  finally  to  abandon  Egypt;  tnus  terminating  an  ei- 
pedition,  in  a  great  degree  mvsterious,  but  which,  no  doubt,  might 
have  led  to  the  disturbance  of  our  power  in  India,  had  it  not  heenlbr 
the  interruption  it  met  with  on  its  way  thither,  and  the  overthrow  of 
Tippoo  Saio. 

30.  In  the  course  of  the  year  1,800,  the  enemies  of  flngland  were 
greatly  increased  by  the  revival  amongst  the  northern  powers,  of 
tlie  armed  neutrality,  originally  devised  and  adopted  in  1,780.  As 
this  dispute  involved  a  very  curious  point  of  intematiooiil  law,  it 
would  nave  been  well,  if  it  could  have  been  brought  to  such  an 
issue  as  might  have  settled  the  question  for  ever ;  but,  after  much 
negotiation,  and  some  very  unpleasant  conflicts  at  sea,  (particularly 
wiui  the  Danes,)  seizures  and  embargoes,  the  matter  terminated 
rather  in  an  uncertain  compromise,  than  any  positive  adjustment 
The  right  of  search  bv  belligerents,  however  mconvenient  to  next- 
trals,  seemed  to  have  been  acknowledged  for  many  centuries,  as  a 
principle  of  maritime  law ;  upon  the  system  of  the  armed  neutnilit]^ 
ft  was  contended  that  ship  under  convoy  should  pass  free,  the  flag 
of  the  neutral  power  bemg  sufiicient  pledge  and  security  that  the 
cargoes  were  not  contraband  of  war.  The  claim  in  this  case  being 
evidently  directed  against  England,  then,  and  at  all  times  mistress 
of  the  sea,  rendered  it  a  point  of  extreme  importance;  one  which 
she  could  not  surrender  without  a  contest,  or  armed  negotiation; 
otherwise,  and  if  it  had  not  been  decidedly  in  favour  of  her  oppo- 
nents, the  countenance  given  to  the  new  system  by  so  many  states  of 
Europe,  Russia,  Denmark,  Sweden,  I^ussla,  Naples,  France,  Spaing 
Holland,  Austria,  Portugal,  Venice,  and  Tuscany,  (for  by  some  steps 
or  other  they  all  seemed  disposed  to  adopt  the  spirit  of  it,)  might  have 
been  expected  to  amount  to  a  formal  recognition  of  its  firinciple,  as 

proper  law  of  nations;  the  dispute,  however,  upon  this  occasioiH 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  333 

.  _j  iettled  at  Petersburg,  by  negotiation,  after  the  accenion  of  the 
emperor  Alexander,  andHttendea  with  concessions  on  the  part  of  the 
Baltic  powers,  of  singular  importance,  though  less  complete  than 
chey  might  hare  been,  owing  to  the  counter  concessions  of  firitaiou 
Thus,  though  it  was  decided  that  enemy's  property  embarked  on 
board  neutnd  ships,  should  be  liable  to  confisoition,  and  that  the 
right  of  searching  merchant  ships,  even  under  convoy  of  a  ship  of 
war,  should  be  recognized,  yet,  it  was  at  the  same  time  determined 
that  arms  and  ammunition  only  should  be  considered  as  contraband^ 
and  that  the  right  of  searching  merchant  ships  under  convoy  shoula 
appertain  exclusively  to  vessels  belonging  to  the  royal  navy.  If  not 
entirely  decisive,  however,  tlie  stipulations  of  this  celebrated  coi>- 
vention  biglily  deserve  to  be  looked  up  to  as  a  proper  standard  of 
the  rights  of  neutnility. 

31.  l)uring  the  contest  that  arose  with  England,  out  of  this  co!> 
"■ederacy  of  the  nothern  powers,  the  king  of  Prussia,  one  of  the  coi> 
tracting  parties,  saw  tit  to  take  posses^sion  of  the  king  of  Great  firiW 
aln's  electoral  st;ites  of  Hanover,  but  on  the  change  of  aftain  -in 
Russia,  was  speedily  induced  to  restore  them. 

32.  by  the  treaty  of  peace  concluded  at  LuncviIIc,  between  tfai^ 
eraperor  of  Germany  and  France,  February  9,  18U1,  England  was 
left  without  an  ally,  and  a  change  of  ministry  having  tiken  place 
about  the  same  time,  m<iy  be  siud  to  have  laid  the  foundation  for 
more  serious  negotiations  for  peace,  on  the  part  of  England  and 
France,  than  had  hitherto  taken  place  since  the  commenc^ement  of 
the  revoltition.  Nothing,  however,  seemed  to  hasten  it  so  much 
»4  the  defeat  of  the  French  army  in  Egypt,  and  the  settlement  of 
the  differences  between  England  and  the  Baltic  powers,  which 
enabled  her  to  negotiate  with  more  advantage,  and  greatly  lowei^ 
eA  the  spirit  of  the  French  government.  Preliminaries  were  signed 
on  the  hiMt  of  October,  1,801,  and  a  definitive  treaty  concluded  at 
Amiens,  between  G real  Britain  and  the  French  republic,  Spain  and 
Molkmd.  on  the  2uth  of  March,  1,802.  By  this  treaty,  En{;land 
ubtainea  Ceylon  from  the  Dutch,  and  Trinidad  from  the  Spaniards) 
relinquishing  all  her  other  conquests;  Malta  being  given  baekto 
the  knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  under  the  guarantee  of  the 
pcindpu  powers  of  Europe. 


SECTION  XIV. 

FRANCE,  FROM  THE  DEATH  OF  THE  KING  AND  QUEEN, 
AND  OVERTHROW  OF  THE  GIRONDIST  OR  BRISSOTINl 
PARTY,  1,793,  TO  THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  DIREO- 
TORT,  1,795. 

1.  Ths  ritaatioD  of  France,  towards  the  close  of  the  year  1,7931 
was  deplorable  in  the  extreme.  It  lay  at  the  mercy  of  a  faction, 
not  mereljf  blood-thirsty,  but  which  nothmg  but  blood  woald  satis- 
fy.  The  jacobins,  or  Robcspierrean  parU,  determined  to  root  out 
ererv  firing  that  could,  by  the  remotest  miplication,  be  denoooced 
as  adreive  to  their  plans,  procured  a  decree  to  be  passed,  ezceed- 
lac  every  thing  that  can  be  conceived  in  atrocity.  Such  was  ths 
^  Loi  sur  les  iwrpedf,^'  paawd  In  September,  by  which  their  agents 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


SS4  MODERIQ  HIST0R7. 

in  air  parts  of  the  country,  were  empowered  to  arrnt,  tepdmOi 
and  thereby  doom  to  destruction,  whomsoever  suspicion  m  any 
manner  attached  to«  not  merely  as  principals,  but  as  connected  witn 
principals,  however  unavoidably,  naturally,  or  accidentally.  One 
article  alone  will  explain  the  rest  The  followimg  are  the  pecsoo 
denounced  in  the  5th : — ^AIl  of  the  ancient  class  otnobility;  all  hus- 
bands, wives^  fathers,  mothers,  sons,  or  daughters,  brothers,  sisters, 
or  agents  of  emigrants,  who  shall  not  have  constantly  manifested 
an  attachmeni  to  the  revohuion.  The  queen,  the  twenty-two  victiim 
of  the  Girondist  party,  and  general  Custine,  may  be  considered  as 
among  the  earliest  and  most  distinguished  persons  that  fell  under 
the  power  of  this  horrible  faction.  The  due  d^Orleans,  thoogh  ool 
belonging  to  the  Girondist  party,  was  denounced  by  Robespierre 
himseu^  as  connected  with  them,  and  publicly  executed  on  the  6th 
of  November ;  but  his  life  and  conduct,  both  public  and  private,  bad 
been  such,  that  he  fell  totally  unregretted.  It  would  be  vain  to 
attempt  to  relate  the  many  dreadful  events  which  marked  this  bloody 
period.  It  is  to  be  hoped  history  will  never  again  have  to  reconi 
such  complicated  cruelties  and  miseries,  such  premeditated  murdeiSi 
auch  studied  torments,  mental  and  bodily. 

2.  On  the  17th  of  November,  of  this  memorable  yeat^  the  cath- 
olic religion,  (at  the  instance  of  an  archbishop  of  Farts^  Gobetl) 
was  publicly  abjured  by  the  convention,  and  decrees  past,  amidst 
the  most  tumultuous  acclamations,  for  substituting  a  religion  of  reoHn 
In  its  room.  The  churches  were  quickly  despoiled  of  their  ornaments, 
the  altars  destroyed,  civic  feasts  instituted  instead  of  religious  festi- 
vals, and  Liberty^  Equality^  &c.  consecrated  as  objects  of  worsbifk 
These  revolutionary  and  anti-catholic  decrees  were  moreover 
ordered  to  be  translated  into  Italian^  on  purpose  that  they  mi|bt  be 
transmitted  in  that  most  intelligible,  and  therefore  most  ofiensiro 
ahape,  to  the  pope.  The  calendar  underwent  also  a  correction.  A 
new  republican  form  and  era  being  adopted  and  established,  to  cony 
mence  from  the  22d  of  Septen\ber,  1.792,  the  day  on  which  the  na- 
tional convention  began  its  sittings,  and  royalty  was  aboUsbed.  The 
year  was  divided  into  twelve  parts,  of  thirtjr  days  each,  distinguished 
according  to  the  prevalent  seasons,  Vendeniiaire^  September  and  0> 
tober ;  ffrumaire^  October  and  November ;  Frw/uwVe,  November  and 
December;  Airuove,  December  and  Januaiy;  Plumose^  January  and 
February;  Veniose^  February  and  March;  Germinal^  March  and 
April;  Florealy  April  and  May;  Frairial,  May  and  June ;  jyesfuior. 
June  and  July ;  Thermidor.  July  and  August ;  Frudidor^  August  and 
September.  The  Sabbatn  was  abolished,  and  five  complimentary 
^lajrs  added,  all  commemorative  of  the  revolution.  Each  month  was 
divided  into  three  decades,  and  a  respite  from  labour  allowed  on 
erery  tenth  day. 

3.  it  was  not  possible  to  suppose  that  those  who  ruled  duriof 
fbis  dark  ^  reign  of  terror ^'^  coula  lon£  be  suffered  to  retain  their 
power  and  station  in  the  republic  Fortunately  for  the  good  of 
numan  society,  their  very  crimes  rendered  them  jealous  and  sq»> 
picious  of  eacn  other,  so  that  before  mai^  months  had  passed| 
efler  the  execution  of  the  queen  and  the  Bnssotines,  the  earth  H'as 
lid  of  such  m(x»ten,  proscribed  and  driven  to  the  scaffold  by  their 
own  friends  and  associates  hi  wickedness;  Robespierre,  from  whom 
the  faction  chiefly  took  its  denommation,  being  at  leu^th  accused, 
condemned,  and  executed,  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours  m  the  month 
M  July,  1,794|  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  whole  civilized  world    B^- 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  985 

hrt  this  neat  day  of  relrihution,  however,  one  more  vicUm  of  rqy* 
aJltj  was  broaght  to  the  scaffold,  whose  sole  ofieoce  must  hare  been 
the  heroic  display  she  had  made,  in  her  constant  attendance  upoQ 
the  king,  her  brother,  and  his  most  unhappy  family,  of  every  ami»- 
Me  virtue  that  could  adorn  a  woman.  Tne  princess  Elizabeth,  who 
had  continued  in  the  temple,  with  the  two  children  of  tlie  unhappy 
Lewis  XVI.,  from  the  period  of  his  execUion,  was  brought  betort 
the  rerolutionary  tribunal,  accused  of  ^  accompanying  the  late  king 
when  be  attempted  his  escape  ;'^  of  having  ^^  attended  upon  and  ad- 
ninistered  help  to  the  wounded  in  the  conflict  with  the  guards;^ 
and  of  ^  having  encouraged  her  infant  nephew,  Lewis  XVII.,  lo  en 
icrtain  hopes  of  ascending  the  throne  of  hts  father;'^  <md  upon  ihem 
charges  sentenced  to  die,  May  10,  1,794,  and  executed  without  pity 
or  remorse. 

4.  It  was  during  the  year  1,793,  that  Napoleon  Buonaparte,  a  nn- 
tire  of  Corsicii,  kid  tirst  an  opportunity  of  distinguishing  himself  in 
the  f>>eDch  army,  being  employed  in  the  direction  of  the  artillery  at 
the  siege  of  Toulon,  which  had  fallen  for  a  short  time  into  the  handtf 
uf  the  English.  Hitherto  the  war  against  the  powers  in  opposition 
to  France,  had  been  carried  on  in  a  most  desultory  and  extraordinary 
manner,  with  more  success  certainly  on  the  part  of  the  French  than 
co'ild  have  been  expected,  from  the  extraordmary  condition  and  cir- 
cun^tances  of  their  armies,  and  the  strange  state  of  responsibility  in 
which  their  commanders  were  placed  by  their  rulers  at  home. 
^a:ne  of  their  generals  were  compelled  to  desert,  many  were  pro- 
s'ribed,  and  many,  ailcr  displaying  the  utmost  valour  in  the  field, 
were  actually  brought  to  the  scailoid.  Nevertheless,  the  impulso 
»;iven  to  tlie  revolutionary  army,  by  tlie  circumstances  of  their  coud* 
iry,  aided  by  mistakes  and  jealousies  on  the  part  of  their  opponentL 
fMLibled  it  to  combat  ctrectually  against  much  better  oreanizea 
tr<>ops.  and  to  resist  the  attacks  that  were  made  upon  it  in  aU  quar- 
ts n> ;  tor  in  addition  to  the  Austrians  and  Prussians,  Sardinians^  £ag- 
ii^h  and  Spanish,  in  La  Vendee  and  other  departments,  a  civil  war 
prevailed,  where  many  acts  of  heroism,  indeed,  were  displayed 
bj  a  brave,  but  unsuccessful  band  of  royalists,  who  ultimately 
piiid  dear  for  their  revolt,  by  the  most  horrid  and  disgraceful  puniab- 
ments. 

&  The  French  revolution  had  now  attained  that  pitch  of  extra? • 
agance  and  disorder,  which  left  no  hopes  of  any  cneck  or  term^ 
nation,  but  that  which  actually  ensued,  namely,  a  military  despo- 
ii^m.  According  to  the  remarks  of  one  of  the  ablest  members  of  tbm 
tint  Dationai  assembly,  one  who  was  sacrificed  at  the  period  wa 
luve  been  treating  of,  in  a  way  the  most  treacherous  ana  revoltinr 
to  every  feeline  mind,  the  French  revolution  being  undertaken  nA 
for  the  sake  of  men.  but  for  the  sake  of  opinion,  had  no  distiDd 
leader,  no  Cromwell  or  Fairfax.  AU  were  leaders,  all  io8titutoii| 
all  equally  mterested  in  the  course  of  aflairs.  Such  a  revolatioii| 
he  ouerves,  must  be  coounenced  by  all,  but  he  was  sagaciooi 
4*oough  to  foresee  that  it  would  probably  be  terminated  by  cm.  Ali| 
however,  for  a  certaui  time,  being  leaders  and  institutors,  DOthinf 
could  ensoe  from  such  a  state  of  tbmgs.  but  cootiouai  stnigglet  to  bo 
uppermost ;  cootinuai  denonciatioos  aSd  proscriptions  of  ri? al  partiei , 
and  a  stnnge  succession  of  new  constitotions,  aiod  new  forms  of  gor* 
<*mment,  as  any  opening  seemed  to  occur  for  bringing  thinp  to  a 
^ttlement 

(».  The  death  of  Robespierre,  and  of  many  of  hia  accomjilifieaj 

Digitized  by  CjOOQIC 


336  MODERN  HISTORY. 

dearly  affi>ided  such  an  opening,  if  not  for  settling,  at  least  Ibr 
ameliorating  things ;  but  for  some  time  the  convention  and  the  na- 
tion seemed  to  be  in  too  great  a  surprise  and  consternation  to  pro- 
ceed with  any  method  to  so  desirable  an  end.  The  former  having 
had  its  origin  in  the  days  of  anarchy  and  confusion,  seemed  little 
prepared  to  defend  or  support  its  own  dignity,  but  the  cry  of  hu- 
manity began  again  to  be  raised,  and  to  be  heard,  and  in  no  long 
course  of  time  after  the  defeat  of  Robespierre,  the  jacobin  clnl-. 
fi'cni  which  had  emanated  all  the  previous  acts  and  decrees,  ?«| 
disgraceful  to  France,  was  abolished  and  dissolved,  by  a  decree  of 
the  convention.  The  reformation  of  the  laws  ancf  goveromeut 
gave  greater  trouble.  The  pain  of  death  had  been  decreed  agai{l^l 
any  who  should  propose  to  set  aside  the  constitution  of  1,793,  arti 
with  this  sentence  hanging  over  them,  all  the  people  had  «\?oru  ic 
upfiold  and  maintain  it  Tired,  however,  of  the  absolute  and  uf^- 
eontrollable  power  they  had  exercised,  many  members,  even  of  the 
convention,  sincerely  wished  for  more  limited  authority.  A  con^ 
miitee  was  appointed  to  prepare  a  new  code  of  laws,  and,  in  the 
mean  time,  processes  were  carried  against  some  of  the  most  violent 
of  tlie  abettors  of  the  late  tumults  and  dlsonlers,  particularly  th« 
commissioners  who  had  sanctioned  the  most  dreadful  proceedings 
at  Lyons,  Nantes,  Orange,  and  Arras.  The  execrable  law  under 
wliich  they  had  acted,  ^^  Lk)!  des  suspects,"  was  repealed,  and  a  just 
vengeance  directed  against  those  who  had  been  most  forward  to  car- 
ry it  into  execution. 

7.  At  length  a  new  constitution  was  framed,  presented  to  the 
convention,  and  approved.  Two  legislative  councils,  one  of  fivo 
hundred  members,  and  the  other  of  two  hundred  and  fifty,  wcra 
to  enact  the  laws ;  the  former  to  propose,  the  latter  to  ssiuction  oi 
reject  them.  The  executive  government  was  committed  to  tiie 
directors,  chosen  by  the  legislature,  but  whose  responsibility  wrj 
lU-defined,  and  their  connexion  with  the  legislative  bodies  not  sulih 
ciently  provided  for,  either  as  a  balance,  or  cftntrollin^  power.  U 
was  not  without  other  faults  and  blemishes,  huf  it  may  undoubtedly 
be  regarded  as  making  a  much  nearer  approach  to  order  and  re^* 
nlarity,  than  the  one  which  it  was  intended  to  supersede.  It  wai 
formally  accepted  and  proclaimed,  September  23,  1,79&.* 

8.  This  may  be  considered  as  the  third  constitution  established 
since  the  first  meeting  of  the  states-general,  in  1,789;  great  ofcj^- 
lioni  were  made  to  one  article,  which  secured  the  return  of  a  very 
krge  proportion  of  the  members  of  the  convention,  to  serve  in  the 
new  legislature.  Tumults  were  raised  in  the  sections  of  Paris,  and 
an  attack  made  upon  the  convention,  which,  however,  was  at  last 
rescued  from  the  violence  of  the  mob.  Buonaparte,  who  was  iheo 
at  Paris,  was  appointed  to  act  upon  this  occasion  in  defence  of  the 
anembly. 

9.  Extentally)  the  zSaln  of  France  may  be  said  to  have  been  at 
fhis  moment  in  a  high  and  extraordinaiy  degree  of  prosperity.  Tho 
campaizos  of  1,794  and  1,795,  committed  to  the  charge  of  very  abl« 
generau,  Pichegru,  Souham,  Jourdan,  Kleber,  Moreau,  ana  Do* 
fonmiier,  had  hitherto  succeeded  beyond  their  utmost  expectations 
The  Belgian  states,  and  the  united  provinces)  had  not  only  been 

*  The  directors  b^ing  Reabel,  Letournear,  LareveiUere-Lepauz,  Ba^- 
Hks,  mod  Sieyet  ^  lat  the  latter  declining  tlie  honour,  Carnot  tapplisd  hit 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


tfOD£RN  mSTORT.  397 

wre^  from  the  hands  of  their  defendera,  the  Anatrians^  IVoMlam. 
nnd  British,  bjit  i«ociated  with  the  Frencii  lepubKi  clSTcS 
fedenicy.  The  stadthoWenhip  was  again  ah^hed  and  t^s^ 
holder  and  his  famUy  oblige/to  take^refnge  in^Cd  In  the 
mean  tune,  peace  had  been  concluded  with  many  ttTflie  belligere^ 
powers,  higlily  advantageous  to  France :  with  i>ros8ia,  Spain:  tiie 
andgnire  of  flesse,  the  grand  duke  of  'tuscany,  and  otheSj  while 

m.d^^ffi?  ^n  ^H  ?iri"  ^^^'  ^^.^'  and'Scheldt,  had  been 
rerjdcred^  free,  in  aU  theh-  courses  and  branches,  to  the  people  of 

lYmr^.n^^®  commencement  oFa  system  gureued  from  that 
ume  on  all  the  frontien  of  the  new  republic  By  a  decree  of  the 
naUonal  assembly,  the  French  generals  were  dir^  to  pr^IaiS 
^J^IJ^^  **f  wereignty  of  the/)jqpfc,to  suppress  all  authorities 
arid  pnyikges,  to  repeal  aU  taxes,  and  establish  provisional  covem- 

;^  It  WM  called,  the  subdued  countries  being  formed  into  republic, 
repubkMii  aaeUues,''  as  they  were  significauUy  denominated  by  tS 
Freoch  themselves,  were  associated  with  France  as  subordinate 
fiates.  Of  the  ^ates  first  revolutionized  in  this  manner,  the  Batavian 
republic  took  the  lead,  surrendering  to  France,  without  hesitaUon, 
i:ie  chief  of  her  fortresses,  and  thus  extending,  and  at  the  same  time 
Kotectmg  her  fronUer.  The  mistake  she  made  in  thus  welcomin« 
fl^Mch,  was  but  too  soon  discovered  The  French  levied  heavy 
tontnbutions;  the  English  took  from  them  many  of  their  foreign 
of  Ce°^        particulariy  the  cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  the  island 

.f\^^,u%TJ^^'^^^*?'''2^''^^^^»  Xm,  the  unfortunate  son 
I  LOUIS  XVI-  died  m  the  temple,  under  circumstances  extremely 
'^ispiaoos.  and  very  deplorable,  having  been  some  time  m  the  cui 
xiy  of  a  low4)om  drunken  wretch,  who  did  every  thing  he  could 
ij  insult  and  tonnent  hun,  and  undermine  his  healtli.  He  was  in  the 
Seventh  yew  of  his  age  at  the  time  of  his  death.  His  sister,  the 
innceas  royal,  (the  present  duchess  of  Angouleme)  was  soon  after 
|vard8  moat  happUy  released  from  her  ^serabie  prison,  whence  a 
<>imcr.  mother,  and  aunt,  had  been  successively  led  to  execution, 
-d  where  an  only  brother  had  died  a  victim  to  cruelty,  and  perhaps 
r-  ison.  Her  royal  hirfaDess  was  exchanged  for  certain  roembera  of 
:ic  late  coo vention,  wlio  had  been  delivered  up  to  the  allies,  by  the 
s^Qcrab  who  had  incurred  the  displeasure  of  their  rulere  at  Park. 
u-  iiad  Men  mto  the  hands  of  the  enemy  by  other  accidents. 


SBCmON  XV. 

rRAKCfi,  FROM  THE  ESTABLISHMERT  OF  THE  DIEECTORT, 
1,796,  TO  THE  PEACE  OF  AMIEN8. 

I .  TbE  appotatment  of  the  five  directoPB,  was  an  act  ol  poltey 

the  part  of  the  ruling  members  of  the  conventkm,  who  thought 

!)etter  to  hazard  such  a  division  of  the  executive  power,  thimto 

ve  WDbrace  to  the  people,  by  the  renewal  of  a  fivt  raagistratei 

agh  an  electire  one.     As  these  new  officers,  however,  owed 

[kit  nomination  to  the  influence  of  those  memben  of  the  late  co» 

Mbtjoo  who  were  chosen  to  fonn  a  part  of  the  legislative  bo^y ;  a 

•  •  ^3 


•'J 

•  i 

:ive 


y  Google 


558  Mui;ERN  HISTORY. 

dose  unioQ  was  sooQ  found  to  sabsist  between  the  directon  and  fbe 
majority  of  the  council. 

S.  The  council  of  ancients,  consisting  of  two  hundred  and  fiAv 
members,  at  first  appeared  to  form  the  bulwark  of  the  new  cods d* 
tution ;  having  no  snare  in  (he  finamin^  of  the  laws,  they  were  able 
to  interpose  with  the  greater  dignity  m  pronouncing  their  iudgmeoi 
upon  such  as  were  referred  to  them,  and  often  exercised  the  re- 
stored priTilege  of  the  veto  beneficially  for  the  public  The  JQ^lv 
cial  murders  of  the  reign  of  terror  were  termmated,  and  the  gov- 
ernment displayed,  in  many  instances,  a  return  to  moderation  aiJ 
humanity,  extremely  desirable  and  praiseworthy,  but  in  the  sout^i* 
em  department,  a  system  of  reaction  and  retaliation  prevailed,  which 
it  was  beyond  their  power  to  control.  An  organized  body  of  assi-^i  u 
kept  all  those  parts  of  the  nation  in  a  state  of  incessant  alarm.  Tnje 
metropolis  was  in  some  dej^ree  restored  to  its  wonted  gayety,  but 
every  thing  bespoke,  as  Queht  reasonably  be  expected,  a  most  d^r 
moralized  state  of  society.  The  stage  became  intolerably  licenlioiw. 
and  the  public  amusements  were  disgraced,  by  a  freedom  of  mp.> 
ners,  and  indelicacy  of  dress  on  the  part  of  the  females,  beyond  nn^jr 
sure  offensive.  Those  whose  nearest  connexions  had  been  doomtii 
to  the  scaffold,  could  find  no  better  mode  of  commemorating  their 
kss,  than  by  festive  meetings,  called  "  BuU  a  ki  Victtme^'*  to  whicL 
no  one  could  be  admitted  but  such  as  had  lost  a  father^  a  mother,  n 
husband,  a  wife*  a  brother,  or  a  sister,  by  the  guillotine  1 

3.  Hitherto  the  prowess  of  the  French  armies  had  been  marv 
fested  much  more  in  the  north,  and  on  the  Rhine,  tliaa  io  ibr 
southern  parts  of  the  continent;  towards  Italy,  the  Ausbrians  ai^. 
Piedmontese  seemed  to  hold  the  French  in  check.  Dugommier  h:.  i 
indeed  invaded  Spain  with  effect;  and  by  his  attacks  contributt  1 
to  bring  about  a  peace  with  that  country;  but  now  a  new  bc(\^*^ 
was  about  to  open,  leading  to  auch  a  succession  of  victories  ar 
revolutions  as  it  would  be  impossible  fully  to  describe  in  such  a  i\  c:> 
ai  the  present 

4.  Early  in  the  year  1,796,  general  Buonaparte  obtained  {Xnin  z 
Chen  twenty-six  years  of  age,)  the  chief  command  of  the  army  :: 
Italy,  as  it  was  called,    liis  eagerness  to  commence  operaliv-r^ 
drew  upon  him  some  remonstrances.    It  was  suggested  to  him  fkJ 
many  tnings  were  wanting  m  his  army  necessary  to  the  casu^ai^  w 
**  1  have  enough,"  said  he, " if  I  conquer,  and  too  many  if  1  shoj.^ 
be  beaten."     The  Austrian  army  in  those  parts  was  commarui*' 
br  general  Beaulieu.  an  officer  peculiarly  active  and  enterpnslL^ 
General  Buonaparte  took  the  command  of  the  French  armv  on  u^ 
30th  of  March,  and  between  the  12th  and  15th  of  April,  beat  t  . 
Austrian  troops  in  three  distinct  engagements,  at  Montenotte,  M.  • 
lesjmo  (or  Montelezino,)  and  Dego.    in  the  space  of  four  days.  . 
has  been  computed,  that  the  Austrian  army  was  diminished  to  t:^ 
amount  of  15,000  men,  being  separated  at  the  same  time  from  th^  - 
Piedmontese  allies.    Afler  the  battle  of  I)ego,  Buonaparte  advaix . 
rapidly  into  Piedmont,  nor  did  he  stop  tin  ne  had  arrived  at  u 
very  gates  of  Turin.     There  he  agreed  to  an  armistice  solicited   \ 
the  king,  who  was  ignominiously  compelled  to  submit  to  his  occ  - 
pyiDg  with  French  troops  all  the  principal  foitresses  of  his  cou  ^ 
try     Happy  to  be  allowed  to  retain  the  capital,  he  was  also  obh^- 
to  cede  bavoVi  Nice,  Tende,  and  BeuiL     From  Turin,  Buck.. 
parte  punueu  his  course  into  Lombai^y,  and  by  the  cddtm- 


y  Google 


MODERN  mSTORY.  980 

tmtUe  of  Lodi,  » the  10th  of  May,  obtafaied  complete  poeKfliioii  of 
the  Milanese. 

5.  Unwilling  to  enter  immediately  mto  the  narrow  parts  of  Italy 
m  this  stage  of  his  proceedings,  he  satisfied  himself  with  threaten* 
iTjT  the  pope  and  the  king  of  JNaples,  till  he  brought  them  to  tenu 
'^1  peace ;  the  former  surrendering  to  the  French  republic,  Boloena, 
K  errara,  and  the  coasts  of  the  Adriatic,  from  the  mouths  of  the  ro, 
t£>  Ancona;  and  the  latter  consenting  to  contribute  largely  to  the 
iiuniatenance  of  the  French  army,  and  to  close  his  ports  against 
Oie  enemies  of  France.  The  duxes  of  Parma  and  Modena,  made 
.^ibmission  in  time  to  save  their  countries.  The  grand  dfuke  of 
Tuscany  had  previously  acknowledged  the  French  republic,  bat 
fvas  bidden  very  peremptorily  to  exclude  the  English  from  the 
yx)rt  of  Leghorn.  The  submission  of  ail  these  princes  and  states 
u>  the  overwhelming  force  of  the  army  under  the  command  of  fiuo- 
iiaparte,  was  but  part  of  the  victory  he  obtained  over  them.  In 
«  verv  step  be  took^  he  was  careful,  oy  new  laws,  treaties,  and  po- 
litical arrangements,  to  ^  revohUionizP^  the  countries  over  which 
be  obtained  an  ascendeocy  by  arms,  and  to  incoiporate  them  with 
the  French  republic.  Savoy,  Nice*  and  the  Milanese,  were  thus 
hmnght  under  his  dominion,  and  ultimately  erected  into  distinct, 
Uiough  subordinate  n^publics. 

G.  It  was  at  the  very  commencement  of  the  military  career  of 
this  extraordinary  man,  that  he  adopted  a  system  of  plunder,  which, 
tor  a  long  time^  engaged  the  attention  of  the  whole  civilized  world. 
In  all  the  treaties  concluded  with  the  Italian  princes,  he  stipulated 
I  hat  French  artists  should  be  admitted  into  their  public  galleries 
iiHJseums,  and  palaces,  to  select  as  many  as  they  might  choose,  or 
*i)e  choicest  perlbrmanccs  of  the  celebrated  pamters  and  sculptors 
<f  all  ages,  and  cause  them  to  be  conveyed  to  Paris.  French  sentiment 
h  IS  dwelt  upon  the  circumstance  of  the  immortal  Raphael.  Titian, 
jid  Domemchino,  having  thus  had  it  in  their  power,  and  in  such 
•  ntical  moments,  to  pay  the  ransom  of  their  native  countries,  ove^ 
I  K>king  the  sad  violation  of  sentiment  occasioned  by  the  removal  of 
tiic^  precious  pledges  of  their  stupendous  talents  from  the  hands 
>vhich  Dad  so  long  preserved  them,  and  from  places  of  which  they 
t  it)  been  so  justly  regarded  as  the  choicest  and  most  valuable 

maments. 

7.  The  siege  of  Mantua  was  attended  with  many  severe  conflicts. 
'  )n  the  reduction  of  that  important  place,  Buonaparte  is  stated  to 

tve  thus  addressed  his  soldiers :  ^  The  capture  of  Mantua  termi* 
%  ites  a  caonpaJgn  which  has  Justly  entitled  you  to  the  everlasting 
jratitude  of  your  country.    \  ou  have  triumpned  over  the  enemy  in 

:iree  pitched  battles,  and  seventy  inferior  engagements ;  you  fcAve 
liken  a  hmidred  thousand  prisoners,  fifty  fiel^piece&  two  thousand 
Catering  cannons.  The  country  you  have  subdued  has  nourished, 
iDaintained,  and  paid  the  army  during  the  whole  campaign,  and  you 
hiive  remitted  thirty  millions  to  the  minister  of  finance,  in  aid  of  the 
public  treasury.  You  have  enriched  the  museum  at  Paris,  with 
ID  ;re  than  three  hundred  of  the  choicest  and  most  valuable  works  of 
mru  both  of  ancient  and  modem  Italy,  and  which  it  had  taken  thirty 

^^  to  produce.^ 

<>.  Tboudi  we  know  from  subsequent  accounts  of  French  Ticto* 

1*:.S  that  tney  are  not  always  to  be  depended  upon,  yet  there  can 

~p  DO  doubt,  that  the  above  address  does  pretty  fairly  describe  the 

xtraordlnary  rapidity  and  extent  of  Buonaparte'^s  firrt  operations 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


S4S  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Id  the  field.  The  yeaw  1,796  and  1,797,  were  indeed  marked  bj 
sach  surprising  instances  of  this  nature,  tiiat  thev  deaerve  a  place 
in  history,  though  the  pmdence  and  good  generaJship  of  such  pre* 
Gipitate  steps  has  heen  reasonably  questioned.  Mantua  capitulated 
on  the  2d  of  February,  1,797,  and  Buonaparte  pursued  his  course 
in  the  direction  of  the  Austrian  capital,  leaving  Italy  behind  him, 
with  a  view  of  penetrating  to  Vienna.  Though  obliged  to  fight  his 
way,  he  succeeded,  Maich  2, 1,797,  in  taking  possession  of  Grade- 
ca,  which  iakl  open  to  hhn  the  provinces  ofOoritz,  Camlola,  aiu] 
Carinthia. 

9.  The  Austrian  grand  aimy  was  commanded  by  the  emperor^ 
brother,  the  archdiuce  Charies,  an  able  general,  a  great  favourite 
with  the  soldiers,  and  who  had  combated  the  French  on  the  Rhine 
with  signal  success.  He  was  not,  however,  strong  enough  to  awaii 
the  approach  of  the  French,  who  soon  reached  Leoben,  only  thirty 
miles  from  Vienna,  where  great  consternation  was  excited,  and  tho 
hnperial  famil}r  compelled  to  retire.  As  both  armies,  however, 
were  brought  into  a  very  critical  position,  negotiations  were  en- 
tered into  at  this  place,  an  armistice  concluded  on  the  8th  of  ApiiU 
and  preliminaries  of  peace  signed  on  the  15th  of  the  same  month. 
1,797. 

10.  Before  we  notice  the  celebrated  treaty  of  Campo-Formii\ 
by  which  the  peace  was  settled  and  confiimed,  it  may  be  fit  to  coch 
aider  the  state  of  those  countries  which  Buonaparte  had  left  behin) 
on  his  march  upon  Vienna.    He  had  made  peace  on  his  own  tena^ 
(most  advantageous  ones  for  France)  with  Parma,  Modena,  Rom^s 
and  Naples.     He  had  overrun  Savoy,  obtained  possession  of  ik^ 
Milanese,  and  reduced  Mantua.     He  nad  erected  Genoa  Into  thr 
Ligurian  republic,  and  the  Milanese  he  converted  into  the  Cisalpiut 
republic,  after  having  first  givea  It  the  name  of  T^nspadane^  u» 
relerence  to  the  river  Po,  and  in  contradistinction  to  the  Cispad:uir> 
republic,  consisting  of  Modena,  Bologna,  Regno,  and  Ferrara,  ccii- 
federated  in  1,796.    He  bad  pained  \^ce  on  nis  way  to  Trkste,  i^ 
which  he  took  possession  on  the  3d  of  April,  1.797.    The  Venetian^ 
had  afforded  an  asylum  to  Lewis  XVllI.,  and  wavered  greatly  :'j 
takine  part  either  with  the  Austrians  or  the  French,  not  being  a^>u» 
to  calculate  upon  the  issue  of  the  contest    They  had  also  fiiU^n 
into  domestic  broils  and  dissensions,  which  gave  the  French  command 
er  the  opportunity  he  always  sought,  of  introducing  a  French  aru^T 
to  allay  their  di£terences.    The  consequences  were,  that  they  iR>- 
mediately  seized  upon  the  fleet,  the  Ionian  islands,  and,  in  fact,  all 
Ihe  Venetian  states,  which  enabled  Buonaparte  greatly  to  in^rovu 
the  peace  he  was  making  with  the  Austrians.    Albania  and  the  Ioni- 
an islands  he  kept  to  himself  i  to  the  Cisalpine  republic  he  aasigpn: .: 
the  western  dependencies  of  Venice,  reservmf^  for  Austria,  the  ca^ii- 
lal,  Istria,  Dalmatia,  and  the  island  of  the  Adriatic,  in  exchange  li  r 
the  Netherlands  and  the  duchy  of  Luxembiurg.    He  had  praes>c* 
ed  to  enter  upon  the  Venetian  states,  merely  to  rescue  them  fi^ou^ 
the  hands  of  Austria,  but  by  this  extraordinary  manoeuvre,  he  uxi 
oilv  delivered  them  over  to  the  very  power  6om  whom  he  under- 
took to  save  them,  but  he  obtained  from  Austria  the  very  dqcct  f  -. 
the  sake  of  which  her  EngUsh  allies  had  refiised  to  make  peace  z- 
1*796.    Such  appears  to  have  been  the  chief  foundation  of  thecel*- 
hrated  treaty  or  Uampo-Formio,  conducted  between  the  emperor 
the  French  repubUci  October.  17, 1,797.    * 

IL  Previously  to  the  conclusion  of  the  treaty  of  Campo-Pi 

Digitized  by  CjOOQIC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  541 

the  allies  bad  lost  three  of  their  coDfederates,  the  dakes  of  Wir- 
tembiD^  and  Bavaria,  and  the  Margrave  of  fiadeo,  all  of  whom 
bad  foimd  it  DeceMary  to  purchase  peace  of  the  directory  by  heavy 
coDtribatioDS.  Such  great  advantages  in  its  external  relations 
were,  however,  fiir  from  contributing  to  the  internal  tranquillity  of 
tlie  repubtic.  The  first  live  directors,  as  nught  naturally  have  been 
expected,  were  by  no  means  accordant  in  weir  views,  or  of  equal 
Lilents  and  abilities;  and  provision  seemed  to  have  been  made 
lor  fresh  revolutions,  by  the  continual  recurrence  of  new  elections, 
iioth  in  the  legislative  assemblies  and  directory.  One  of  the  five 
•lirectois  was  annually  to  go  out,  and  one  third  of  each  of  the  ie-  - 
f:i^lative  bodies  to  be  renewed.  The  first  event  of  tliis  kind,  as 
Tnighi  be  expected,  revived  all  the  j^onsies  of  rival  parties,  aod 
produced  an  explosion  ahnost  as  violent  as  any  that  had  yet  occur- 
f  etj ;  the  explosion  of  the  18th  of  Fmctidor,  as  marked  in  the  short- 
lived republican  calendar.  Le  Toumeor  quitted  the  directory  by 
lot^  and  was  succeeded  by  Barthelemi,  who  soon  appeared  inclined 
to  join  Camot  against  Keabel,  Barns,  and  Larevilliere-Lepuux. 
The  three  latter  were  for  assuming  a  despotic  power ;  their  oppo- 
cpntB  were  divided,  some  inclined  to  the  restoration  of  royalty, 
others  to  the  emancipation  of  the  councils  from  the  sway  of  the 
directors,  Reubel  and  his  two  associates ;  but  as  they  formed  a  mi- 
aority,  and  their  enemies  were  prompt  in  their  measures  of  revenue, 
'  iid  had  moreover  the  command  of  the  military,  it  was  not  lone  Be- 
t'jre  the  latter  obtained  the  victory  they  sought  On  the  4th  of 
>«'pCember,  1,797,  the  legislative  assembhes  were  surrounded  with 
uxiops,  and  at  the  instance  of  the  three  ruhng  directors,  two  of  their 
y\  lieagoes,  (Camot  and  Barthelemi)  several  members  of  the  two 
councils,  many  public  ministers,  and  many  men  of  letters,  declared 
C':il(y  of  anti-republican  measures  and  prhiciples,  arrested  and  impri- 

*  ncd ;  and,  on  the  5th,  sentenced  to  deportation  to  the  unhealthy 
i  )J  remote  settlement  of  Guiana,  in  South  America.  The  authors, 
(  iitois.,  directors,  and  proprietors,  of  no  less  than  forty-two  public 
j>  umaJs  were  included  in  the  sentence.  Some  of  the  proscribed 
ni«:mber9  found  means  to  escape ;  but  those  who  were  conveyed  to 
<iuiana,  su&red  dreadfullv  from  the  voyage;  many  died  from  the 
ill  whofesomeoess  of  the  place,  some  found  means  to  return  to  Europe, 
f  irticulariy  general  Pichegru  and  the  ex-director,  Barthelemi,  who 
ure  conveyed  to  England  from  the  Dutch  settlement  of  Surinam. 

12.  Buonaparte  returned  to  Paris  not  long  after  these  disturban- 

•  s  and  was  received  with  peculiar  honours.  The  people  hcgau 
*>'  look  up  to  him  for  deliverance  from  the  tyranny  of  three  dirtct- 

!  s  and  the  latter  were  as  eager  to  remove  him  from  the  metnipo- 

-.  in  the  midst  of  the  honours  paid  to  him,  on  account  of  his  vic- 
nf's  in  Italy  and  Germany,  Barras,  with  great  emphasis,  nomirmt- 

•1  him  as  the  hero  destined  to  place  the  tri-coloured  (lag  on  the 
'  •^♦^r  of  London.    Troops  were  actually  assembled  on  the  coaKt-* 

/  Klanders  and  Normandy  for  the  purpose ;  but  Buonaparte  him- 
-  if,  seeing  the  impracticablillty  of  such  an  attempt,  meditated  a 
:  .  Te  distant  expedition. 

13.  In  the  course  of  the  year  1,798,  the  system,  began  so  su«- 
•  ^'si  ullj  in  Flanders  and  Holland,  of  revolutionizing  the  countries 
■'o  wbMch  the  French  armies  should  penetrate,  was  carried  to  a 

.  reat  extent    Watchful  to  seize  upoQ  every  opportunity  afforded 

.cm  bj  internal  dissensions,  the  French  this  year  obtained  pofise»- 

^jia  of  Romej  Switzerland^  ija^  fays  de  Vaud,  the  Grisona,  an4 

*  ^*  Digitized  by  ^^OOgie 


Ut  MODERN  HISTORY. 

(Seneva,  under  circamstances  peculiarly  dlstresaiDg  to  the  extstine 
eovemments,  and  commonly  attended  with  heavy  exactions,  aDd 
tne  plunder  of  their  churches,  palaces,  and  museums.  The  pope 
was  driven  from  Rome,  partly  by  his  own  subjects,  and  partlj 
through  an  overweening  confidence  in  his  own  power  and  indu- 
eoce.  The  Roman  republic  was  proclaimed  February  15,  1,790; 
and  the  finances  being  found  in  a  bad  state,  the  Vatican  and  other 
public  buildings  stripped  of  their  contents.  The  Pays  de  VeikI, 
whither  the  French  had  been  invited,  to  protect  them  against  Uk". 
aristocratic  despotism  of  the  Bernese,  was  formed  into  the  Letnahy 
and  Switzerland,  afler  many  cruel  sacrifices,  into  the  JHehetic  re- 
public, or  rather  into  three  republics,  for  that  was  ultimately  the 
arrangement  adopted;  provisional  governments  bein^  in  oil  places 
appointed,  conformably^  in  a  great  degree,  to  the  pnnciples  of  the 
French  constitution.  No  remonstrances  on  the  part  of  the  free  can- 
tons could  save  them  from  the  directorial  decrees.  An  addrese  to 
this  efiect  ]^culiarly  pathetic  and  eloquent,  from  the  cantons  of 
Schwitz,  Uri,  Appenzel,  Claris,  Zufi[,  and  Underwalden,  had  no 
affect  whatever  m  preserving  them  from  a  change  of  constitutioo, 
forced  upon  them  bv  democratic  France.  The  degenerate  Romant 
had  appeared  to  pride  themselves  upon  emulating  their  heroic  iin- 
cestors,  in  re-establishing  the  republic,  under  the  auspices  of  Gallic 
invaders.  But  the  brave  Swiss  resisted  to  the  utmost  the  rude  dis- 
turbers of  their  ancient  freedom.  The  modem  republicans  of  Rome 
chanted  a  Te  Deum,  to  hallow  their  deliverance.  The  Swiss  sung 
their  antiquated  sones  of  patriotism  and  freedom,  till  the  most  diro 
necessity  compelled  them  to  surrender  their  established  constituticii 
to  the  dictates  of  a  French  directory. 

14.  On  the  5th  of  May*  Buonapaite  led  Paris  for  Toulon,  to  take 
the  command  of  an  expeaition,  the  real  object  of  which  has  scarce- 
1t  been  ascertained  to  this  day,  though  it  appears  most  prolnble. 
that  he  designed  to  join  Tippoo  Saib  in  India,  and  to  subvert  \ht$ 
Brftish  empire  there.  He  was  accompanied  by  many  artists,  natT> 
ralists,  and  antiquarians,  and  a  large  proportion  of  the  army  which 
had  served  under  him  in  Italy.  Malta  lying  in  his  way  to  Egypt, 
he  failed  not  to  take  possession  of  it,  partly  by  force,  and  part^  by 
intrigue*  subjecting  that  island  and  its  dependencies,  Uoza  and  Cutm- 
no,  to  tne  French  republic,  Juhe  12, 1,798.  Its  conquest  had  for 
some  time  previously  been  meditated,  but  it  had  lately  been  put 
under  the  protection  of  the  emperor  of  Russia^  Paul  I. :  it  vras  treated 
by  the  French  as  ill  as  other  places,  notwithstanding  the  utmost 
assurances  to  the  contrary.  The  knights  were  driven  fix)m  tiie 
island,  many  of  the  people  compelled  to  join  the  French  army, 
and  new  laws  imposed  under  the  authority  of  the  directory.  In  the 
month  of  July,  this  year,  1798,  a  triumphant  entry  into  Paris,  of 
all  the  works  of  art  collected  in  the  several  places  subdued  by  tht^ 
French  arms,  took  place  amid  the  acclamations  of  the  i>eople.  Tht 
French  fleet  had  narrowly  escaped  at  Malta  the  pursuit  of  an  Ene- 
lish  one,  under  the  command  otNelson ;  and  after  the  subductJOD 
of  the  island,  it  was  able  to  proceed,  still  undiscovered,  to  £gyl>^ 
where  the  English  had  already  been  to  look  for  them  in  vain.  Cto 
the  2d  of  July,  Buonaparte  took  possession  of  Alexandria,  moorini; 
his  ileet  in  the  bay  of  Aboukir.  In  less  than  three  weeks  from  hi^ 
landing,  and  afler  a  severe  action  with  the  Mamelukes*  called  the 
battle  of  the  pyramids,  Cairo,  and  the  whole  of  the  Delta  fell  iQU> 
his  power ;  but  his  triuniph  was  kflsened  by  the  loss  of  his  flee^  oa 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODEliN  HISTORY.  343 

(he  Ist  of  August,  which,  being  attacked  in  the  bay  If  Nelson,  was 
III  most  totally  destroyed  or  taken,  the  French  admiral  Brueys  being 
killed  and  his  ship  burnt ;  four  ships  only,  two  of  them  frigates,  were 
:11  that  esca|>ed.  When  Buonaparte  lefl  Toulon,  his  fleet  consisted 
of  400  sail,  including  thirteen  ships  of  the  line,  and  it  was  rather 
increased  than  otherwise  by  his  enterprise  at  Malta. 

13.  The  victory  of  Nelson  jeave  a  new  turn  to  the  war  against 
'ho  French.  On  his  quitting  &ypt,  he  carried  his  fleet  to  Naples, 
^\  here  the  utmost  jov  was  manifested  by  the  court  at  the  blow  wnich 
h.il  been  given  to  the  French  preponderance.  The  queen  invoked 
ii^  Austrians  to  renew  the  war  against  France;  and  the  expedition 
'•>  Kj^yptand  attack  upon  Malta  having  excited  the  czar,  and  even 
'^^  ^r.ind  seignior,  to  resist  aggressions  so  unprovoked  ana  alarming, 
I'l.incislL  was  not  insensible  to  the  call  made  upon  him.  Englaiui 
MO*  not  backward  to  encourajge  and  aid  such  movements,  in  every 
pirt  of  Europe.  The  king  orSardinia,  and  the  grand  duke  of  'I'l;?- 
c;iiiy  showed  themselves  willing  to  join  the  new  confederacy;  but 
'iu:  king  of  Prussia  was  not  to  Be  prevailed  on  to  abandon  his  neo- 
•.rality. 

I  or  The  Neapolitan  court  which  had  been  the  foremost  (o  ex- 
■Iti?  this  new  war,  were  the  first  sufierers  from  it.    Having  invaded 

•  ^le  territories  of  the  church,  and  even  obtained  possession  of  Komc, 
'.icy  were  suddenly  driven  back  by  the  French,  the  capital  taken, 

*  Mi  the  royal  family  compelled  to  retire  to  Palermo,  in  Sicily.  Na- 
:>;«  was  not  taken  possession  of  without  a  formidable  insurrection 

f  that  extraordinary  portion  of  its  population,  the  Lazzaroni^  with 
•^lom  the  king,  whose  amusements  were  of\en  unbecoming  liis  high 
I  u»k,  happened  to  be  popular.  This  resistance  provoked  repri-tils 
•  v<  eedingly  distressing  to  the  inhabitants,  and  almost  ruinous  to 

."  city;  the  tumult,  however,  was  at  length  appeased,  and  the 
.  •j;:dom  of  Naples  converted  into  the  Parihenopean^  or  KeapoUtcm 

17.  The  king  of  Sardinia,  and  the  erand  duke  of  Tuscany  were 

No  made  to  pay  dear  for  the  renewal  of  hostiUties,  both  bt'ing  de- 

•rived  of  their  dominions,  as  allies  of  the  Neapolitans,  and  com- 

,   iled  to  abandon  their  capitals.    The  aged  pope,  who  nad  indeed, 

\   many  unwise  provocations,  irritated  the  French,  a  refugee  in 

.'•  Tuscan  territories,  tmwiliing  to  accompany  the  deposed  princes 

.  I  tfieir  retreat  from  Florence,  and  too  conlklently  relying  on  the 

.'  verence  that  would  be  paid  to  his  years  and  stiilion,  was  actually 

Tf'i'ted  in  his  monastic  retirement,  and  conveyed  to  Valence,  in 

^ 't'jphiny,  a  prisoner,  where  he  died  broken  hearted,  August  i*9, 

i.Ti'L«.     On  the  establishment  of  the  consular  government,  his  body 

^'  i«  honourably  interred,  and  a  monument  erected  over  him. 

I  J.  Bat  the  directory,  in  the  midst  of  these  arbitrary  seizures  of 

itts  and  kingdoms,  acted  with  too  little  foresight,  as  to  the  elVects 

<  Uie  fbrmiduble  confederacy  of  Russia  and  Austria.    The  French 

'I'^ief^  were  widely  separated,  and  many  of  the  most  successful 

r^'i.crals.^  through  a  pernicious  jealousy,  disgraced  and  removed 

ni  their  command.    This  disheartened  the  soldiers;  and  reverses 

.  rt?  preparing  for  them,  both  in  Germany  and  Italy.    The  Russian 

.  rn  V,  onder  Souvarofi*,  entered  the  latter  country  early  in  the  spring 

t  lite  year  1,799,  and  on  the  18th  of  April  was  at  Verona.    The 

h  inicter  and  manners  of  this  northern  general,  made  a  great  im- 

't  n»ioii  both  upon  the  allied  armies,  and  upon  the  inhabitants  of  the 

L  uniries  he  invaded.    The  French,  under  the  celebrated  Uoreau^ 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


344  MODERN  HBTORV. 

were  obliged  to  fall  back,  leaving  the  Iffilanese  exposed  to  the  com* 
bined  forces.  After  various  actions,  Milan  was  invested ;  and,  after 
a  nineteen  dajs^  siege,  taken  May  24.  Tnrin,  Alessandria,  MantisH 
and  Tortona,  were  reduced  in  the  months  of  Jnne  and  July  ;  and 
in  most  of  these  places,  as  well  as  in  other  parts  of  Italy,  Tuscany^ 
Naples,  and  Rome,  great  indignation  was  manifested  against  tlie 
French,  of  whose  tyranny  they  had  all  tasted,  and  of  whose  frieoi)- 
ship  they  were  already  become  weary.  In  a  short  time  the  French 
retained,  of  all  their  conquests  in  those  parts,  only  Genoa  and  Savoy. 
19.  While  these  things  were  going  on.  the  councils  at  Paris  be- 
gan to  distrust  the  government  of  the  directors,  and  to  ask  why 
Buonaparte  was  at  such  a  distance.  Inquiries  of  this  kind  were 
often  put  to  his  brother  Lucien,  who  had  a  seat  in  the  council  of 
five  hundred.  A  party  was  formed  against  the  most  obnoxious  of 
the  directors,  and  tiiree  found  it  necessary  to  retire.  Another  revo- 
lution in  the  government  was  evidently  preparing.  Buonaparte^s 
absence  and  object  seemed  equally  mysterious.  It  was  supposed 
that  he  meant  to  open  the  old  chsmaeiof  trade  between  the  Ekist 
Indies  and  the  Mediterranean.  After  the  destruction  of  his  fleets 
as  though  bajiished  from  France,  he  appeared  eager  to  establish  a 
colony  m  Egypt,  which,  perhaps,  was  originally  in  his  view,  io 
carrying  thither  all  that  the  arts  and  sciences  of  Europe  could  coo- 
tribute  of  utility  or  beauty.  All  his  works  were  superintended  by 
persons  of  known  celebrity  for  talent  and  knowledge  of  every  de- 
scription ;  but  he  was  turned  from  this  obiect  by  the  jealousy  ol* 
the  Turks,  who.  after  the  battle  of  Aboukir,  (or  of  the  Nile,  as  it 
is  generally  called  in  England,)  were  ready  enough  to  join  tiie 
English  in  attacking  the  French,  confined,  as  it  were,,witmn  their 
territories.  Buonaparte,  to  be  beforehand  with  them^  marched  into 
Syria,  where  the  pacha  of  Acre,  a  man  of  most  ferocious  character, 
eomnianded.  He  succeeded  in  taking  many  fortresses,  and  for 
three  months  maintained  a  war  In  the  very  heart  of  the  country. 
but  his  artillery  having  been  intercepted  by  the  English,  who  baa 
also  been  admitted  into  Acre,  his  attempts  upon  the  latter  place 
were  frustrated,  and,  being  threatened  on  all  sides,  he  resolved  to 
return  to  Egypt ;  there  he  received  letters  to  inform  hun  of  the 
reverses  in  ItaJy,  and  the  disorders  at  Paris,  and  to  press  his  return ; 
but  the  Turks  had  landed  at  Aboukir,  and  taken  possession  of  the 
ibrt,  and  it  was  judged  necessary  for  liis  fame,  that  he  shoukl  not 
quit  Egypt  without  beating  them.  He  hastened  to  attack  them, 
and  succeeded ;  but  not  without  many  severe  conflicts,  and  an  eigtii 
days'  siege  of  the  Ibrtress  of  Aboukir.  Soon  after  this  success,  be 
embarked  clandestinely  for  France,  leavins  the  army  under  the  com- 
mand of  general  Kleber,  (who  complainea  greatly  of  being  so  duped 
imd  abandoned,)  and  in  a  very  extraordhiary  manner  escaped  all  ib# 
English  ships  cruising  in  the  Mediterranean.  , 

20.  Buonaparte  arrived  just  in  time  to  take  adv.  '"^ee*  of  the 
distracted  state  of  the  government  The  legislature  wa^ .  prey  to 
fkction ;  the  directors  divided  in  opinion :  the  jacobins  and  anarc&isu 
extremely  troublesome,  and  not  unlikely  to  recover  their  sway; 
while  many  departments  were  in  a  state  of  insurrection  and  civil 
war.  Sieyes,  the  most  wise  and  politic  of  all  that  had  yet  been  u 
the  directory,  foresaw  the  necessib^  of  a  change,  and  wanted  only 
some  military  genius  to  supDort  bis  measures,  and  to  whom  be 
could  confide  his  designs.  Three  other  important  chanu:ter8  ap- 
peared to  rest  tbeir  Bopes  on  the  interference  of  BuonapiMrte , 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  Mb 

Foache,  minister  of  police;  Cambaceres,  minister  of  justice;  and 
the  ex-minister  for  foreign  affidrs,  Talleyrand  Perigord 

21.  Within  a  month  after  the  arrival  of  Buonaparte,  a  proposal 
was  made  in  the  council  of  ancients,  to  remove  the  legislative  bod> 
ies  to  St.  Cloud)  and  to  confer  on  Buonaparte  the  command  of  tte 
troops  at  Paris.  At  the  moment  the  decree  was  passed,  BuonapartBi 
accompanied  bj  many  of  the  generals  who  had  distinguished  tbenv 
selves  under  him,  appeared  at  the  bar,  denouncing  threats  against  all 
who  should  traverse  the  decree  just  passed.  The  council  ol  five 
hundred,  taken  by  surprise,  made  some  show  of  resistance ;  and  i^iio- 
iinparle  appearing  amongst  them,  gave  such  offence,  that  he  was  in 
tlanger  of  assassination,  amidst  the  cries  of  "Down  with  the  tyrant  !* 
•*'^o  dictator  f  His  brother  Lucien,  at  that  thne  president,  wm 
loiidlv  called  upon  to  pronounce  a  decree  of  outlawry  against  him, 
%vbich  he  evaded  by  throwing  aside  his  official  dress,  and  renouncing 
his  seat  in  the  assembly;  after  which,  Buonapule,  in  some  alarm, 
birring  ioined  his  troops,  the  meeting  was  dissolved,  and  violently  dw- 
perecd  by  the  soldiery.  It  was  allowed  however  to  assemble  again 
under  the  former  presidency,  the  Jacobinical  members  being  excluded, 
when  a  new  order  of  things,  approved  by  the  council  of  elders,  wm 
brought  forward,  decreed^  and  proclaimed.  The  directory  was  aboW 
i^hed,  and  three  new  chiet  magistrates  appointed  under  the  name  ol 
consuls  while  committees  were  formed  to  prepare  a  new  con;:titi> 
tion.  Eighty  persons  were  to  compose  a  senate,  one  hundred  a 
tribunate,  and  three  hundred  a  legislative  body. 

22.  The  time  seemed  now  to  be  arrived  when  the  excesses  of  tlie 
revolutionary  movement  had  prejpared  men's  minds  for  a  traniition 
from  a  state  of  anarch]ir  to  one  ot  despotism.  Popular  liberty  had 
Lilten  into  disrepute,  from  tiie  violences  of  the  jacobins;  and  a 
strong  executive  government  seemed  indispensably  necessary  to  ra- 
ft ore  thiriers  to  any  degree  of  order  and  consistency.  Though  tlie 
Jive  directors  appeared  to  be  exchanged  for  thre4  consuls,  there 
was,  in  the  last  instance,  no  correspondent  division  of  power  aiid 
authority.  To  the  first  consul  were  assigned  functions  and  pre- 
rogatives exceedingly  distinct  from  those  of  nis  colleagues.  ''  LVJlj 
of  thought  and  action  was  declared  to  be  a  fundamental  quality  la 
Uie  executive  power.''  So  far  they  were  evidently  going  back  to 
tiie  tirst  and  best  principles  of  monarchy.  Hitherto,  however,  an 
floctive  and  limited  consulate  was  all  that  was  contemplated.  Gen- 
eral Buonaparte  was  appointed  tirst  consul,  Cambaceres  the  socond 
aad  Le  brun  the  third ;  the  first  two  for  ten,  the  last  for  only  fi\^ 
years:  Buonaparte,  to  Siiy  the  least,  having  all  the  power  of  a  kin^ 
lliough  not  the  name,  assigned  to  him, — a  power  approaching  loo 
bear  to  absolute  and  uucontrollable  despotism. 

23.  in  the  first  dL<)charge  of  his  new  functions,  however,  he  was 
careful  to  display  a  spirit  of  moderation,  forbearance,  and  conci!iation» 
in  many  popular  acts  at  home,  and  overtures  of  peace  to  England 
The  latter  were  without  etlect,  and  a  large  subsidy  being  granlcd  by 
tlie  British  parliament,  to  enable  the  emperor  to  continue  the  wai^ 
no  time  was  lost  by  the  French  in  endeavouring  to  recover  their 
t(xyting  in  Italy.  In  the  month  of  May,  1,800,  the  first  consul  led 
I'aris,  to  take  the  command  of  the  army  in  those  parts ;  and  al^er  a 
roost  surprising  passage  through  the  mountainous  parts  of  Switze^* 
lan4L  ftnd  the  capture  of  the  town  of  Costa,  with  the  celebrated  foil 
of  Bard,  succeeded  so  far  as  to  be  able  lo  enter  Milan  once  more  in 
triomph,  the  AostriaDS  retiring  before  him,  littlt  enacting  thai  h« 

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346  MODERN  fflSTORY. 

conld  find  a  vray  into  Lombardy  b^  the  road  he  had  chosen.  The 
Russian  armj  had  been  withdrawn  in  disgust,  after  the  proceedings  io 
Switzerland,  which  had  greatly  offended  tne  czar.  Previous^  to 
Che  entrance  of  the  first  consul  into  Milan,  the  French,  under  Masse- 
na,  had  been  compelled  to  evacuate  Genoa :  but  the  Austrians  wern 
doomed  to  suffer  a  reverse;  and  though  in  the  famous  battle  ot* 
Marengo,  which  took  place  on  the  Hth  of  June,  they  fought  with 
the  most  desperate  courage,  and  sustained  an  action  of  fourteen 
hours  mth  great  heroism,  and  the  fairest  prospects  of  success,  the 
enemy  received  reinforcements  at  so  critical  a  moment  as  to  enable 
them  to  obtain  a  complete  victory,  which  was  soon  followed  by  a  susr 
pension  of  hostilities,  solicited  by  the  Austrian  general. 

24.  Negotiations  tor  peace  were  entered  into  at  Paris,  and  the 

Sreliminaries  were  signed ;  but,  through  the  remonstrances  of  th« 
nglish  government,  ^as  it  is  supposed.)  the  emperor  refused  hi& 
ratification,  and  the  war  was  continued,  both  in  Germany  and  Italy, 
till  the  25th  of  December.  1,800,  when  another  suspension  of  hostil- 
ities being  agreed  to,  at  Steyen,  a  town  in  Upper  Austria,  soon  led 
to  the  treaty  of  LuTieim^,  between  the  French  republic  and  the  empire^ 
^gned  February  9, 1801 :  by  which  the  Rhine  was  made  the  boun- 
dary of  the  French  republic,  leaving  the  several  princes  dispossessed, 
in  part  or  in  whole,  of  their  territories  on  the  left  side  of  the  river, 
to  oe  indemnified  in  the  bosom  of  the  empire ;  the  Adige,  in  Ibe 
same  manner,  being  fixed  to  be  the  boundary  between  the  Austriai 
territories  in  Italy  and  the  Cisalpine  republic  The  Grand  duke  ot 
Tuscany  renounced  his  dukedom  in  favour  of  the  infant  duke  ol 
Parma,  created  king  of  Etruria ;  and  the  independence  of  the  Bat> 
vian,  Helvetic,  and  Cisalpine  republics,  was  recognised  and  guaniD- 
tied  by  both  piarties. 

25.  The  £j)glish  government  had  refused  to  enter  into  a  Da^'pJ 
armistice,  though  in  danger  of  being  deserted  by  the  emperon  cf 
Germany  and  Kussia.  and  had  declined  every  offer  of  peace  upon 
such  terms,  while  Malta  and  Eg^pt  continued  in  the  hands  of  France. 
But  after  the  re-capture  of  the  former,  and  the  defeat  of  the  French 
under  Menou,  at  Alexandria,  in  September,  1,801,  both  parties  seem- 
ed more  disposed  than  before  to  enter  into  negotiation,  with  serious 
views  of  bringing  things  to  an  accommodation.  On  Marcli  STlls 
1,802,  a  definitive  treaty  was  signed  at  Amiens,  more  favourable  to 
France  that  to  England,  though  nothing  could  exceed  the  joy  ox- 
pressed  in  the  latter  country,  on  the  termination  of  hostilities  xsiiti 
the  French  republic.  It  was  soon  found  to  be  no  better  than  a  tmoB 
of  vevj  short  duration. 

26.  The  power  of  the  French  republic  at  this  moment  was  eno;*' 
^  mously  great.    In  addition  to  the  tormer  possessions  of  France,  it 

had  gained  the  Netherlands,  and  a  considerable  portion  of  Germanv : 
Geneva,  Piedmont,  and  Savoy  had  been  incorporated  with  It ;  HoV 
land  and  Switzerland  were  rendered  effectually  dependent  upon  a 
The  Cisalpine  renubUc,  including  the  Milanese,  the  duchies  of  Mt> 
dena^  Mantua,  and  Para^,  and  part  of  the  Venetian  and  Roman  tei> 
ritories,  was  placed  under  the  presidency  of  the  first  consul,  for  a 
term  of  ten  years.  Genoa,  or  the  Ligarian  republic,  had  been  n> 
covered  by  the  treaty  of  Luneville ;  Spain  was  entirely  at  the  con> 
mand  of  Franc^  as  well  as  Tuscany,  under  its  new  possessor,  tlus 
Taasal  king  of  Ktruria.  It  had  recovered  also  its  West  Indian  seltio^ 
ipepts,  anq  acquired  a  cpnsidei^ble  footing  in  South  America* 

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MODERN  HISTORY  347 

SECTION  XVL 

nU5CF^  FROM   THE  PEACE  OF  AMIENS  TO  THE   TREATY 
OF  TILSIT,  1,807. 

1.  It  has  already  been  observed,  that  the  first  steps  of  the  con- 
«ulate  were  of  a  conciliatory  nature.  £lndeavours  were  made  to 
nacify  the  rebellious  departments;  the  law  of  hostage,  which  had 
{»^on  in  its  operation  extremely  vexations,  was  repealed;  and  the 
h-t  of  emigrants  closed.  On  the  first  change  of  the  government- 
Du^asures  were  taken  to  repress  the  violence  of  the  jacobins,  ana 
:iwe  Ibe  factious ;  but  the  sentences  passed  on  the  most  obnoxious 
Here  afterwards  mitigated. 

2.  Soon  after  the  conclusion  of  the  peace  of  Amiens,  the  first 
consul  gave  great  satisfaction  to  the  bulk  of  the  nation,  by  restoring 
tlie  catholic  religion.  On  Easter-day.  1,802,  the  peace  was  ratified 
in  the  metropolitan  church,  with  all  the  siinctions  of  the  ancient 
n-li^ious  forms,  and  a  large  attendance  of  new  prelates.  The  b;isi» 
« 'f  the  convention  with  the  pope  had  been  settled  and  arranged  in 
ihe  preceding  year,  upon  the  Ibllowing  principles: — That  a  new 
ji  virion  of  the  French  dioceses  should  oe  made,  suited  to  the  re- 
l*«jl»Iic;m  division  of  the  country;  and  that  the  first  consul  should 
Tiuroinate  the  new  archbishops  and  bishops,  leaving  it  to  the  pope, 
;t*  a  matter  of  course,  to  confer  canonical  mslitutions.  The  bishops 
to  apiJoint  the  parish  priests,  subject  to  the  approbation  of  govern- 
mt-nL  The  pope  to  procure  the  ancient  bishops  to  resign,  and  to 
I  nuiige  not  to  disturb  the  alienated  property  of  the  church.  No 
hull,  rescript,  ix.,  from  the  court  of  Home,  no  decrees  of  synods,  or 
«:»"-neral  councils,  to  be  received,  or  promulgated,  without  the  consent 
«'f  government.  No  national  or  diocesan  meeting  to  take  place  with* 
<.ut  the  same  authority  ;  or  any  nuncio,  legate,  or  vicar,  to  be  allow- 
«<i  to  exercise  his  lunctions. 

3.  Such  wei*e  some  of  the  prbcipal  articles  of  the  concordahtm 
of  1,^01.  The  pope  seemed  to  be  glad  to  make  any  concessions 
liiat  might  recover  trance  from  the  depths  of  intidelity ;  while  tli« 
articles  themselves  plainly  show  that  the  first  consul,  in  restoring 
c  aiholicism,  had  no  intention  to  subject  the  nation,  as  heretofore,  to  the 
r!i>ininion  of  the  Koman  see,  even  in  spiritual  matters.  A  still  strong- 
♦  r  prooti  however,  of  which,  nppears  in  the  liberty  afibrded,  at  thm 
«anie  time,  to  the  Lutherans  and  Calvinists,  who  were  placed  nearly 
npon  the  same  footing  with  the  catholics;  and  were  even  allowed  to 
I .  a ve  three  seminaries  of  education ;  two  in  the  eastern  parts  of  Fnincei 
liir  the  Lutherans,  and  one  at  Geneva,  for  the  Calvinists.  Provisico 
^vas  also  made  in  the  new  concordatum  for  the  supposed  case  oi  a 
X>rote8taot  being  chosen  chief  magistrate  of  the  republic. 

4.  On  the  second  of  August,  lyB02,  by  an  extraordinary  expre»-^ 
«3  on  of  the  pabUc  will,  the  consulate,  the  term  of  which,  in  the  catt 
cf  Baooaparte  and  Cambaeeres,  had  been  limited  to  ten  Tears,  irai 
eonferred  oo  the  former  for  life.  The  original  proposal  had  beeo 
^--Tily  to  extend  the  term;  bat  the  people  in  the  different  cammmn 
^.^einc  called  upon  to  give  their  opmion,  voted,  almoet  imanhDOu^ 
ty,  for  ill  beiDf  cootmned  to  the  fint  coaiul  for  life)  which  — 
rea^Mjy  iaftctioned  bj  the  lenate.. 

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34a  MOO£RN  HISTORY. 

5.  This  appointment  was  soon  followed  by  a  new  form  of  co»> 
ititution,  calculated  to  throw  greater  power  mto  the  hands  of  the 
first  magistrate,  who  was  permitted,  not  only  to  nominate  li^  colk 
leagues,  but  to  make  war,  Ibrm  alliances,  conclude  peace,  pardoo 
criminals,  and  virtually  to  choose  the  members  of  the  iegisIatlTe 
body,  by  means  of  the  senate,  which  was  almost  entirely  ondei 
his  iniuooce.  He  was  careful,  at  the  same  time,  to  put  the  gOTero- 
ments  of  the  Cisalpine  and  Ligurian  republics,  and  other  newly  ac- 

Suired  states,  upon  a  similar  footing,  reservins  to  himself,  In  all  cas^ 
le  supreme  power  as  first  magistrate.  AU  mese  steps  were  8o  art^ 
fiiUy  taken,  as  to  appear  to  be  the  regular  result  of  popular  choice 
and  deliberation.  Liberty,  equality  of  civil  rights^  and  natioorj 
representation,  were  professeato  be  the  objects  in  view;  but  care 
was  taken  to  render  each  dependent  on  the  domineering  influence 
and  directions  of  the  first  consul.  It  was  at  this  period  that  the  Cisal- 
pine was  converted  into  the  Italian  republic. 

6.  Switzerland  was  not  so  easily  to  be  brought  under  the  French 
joke,  though  its  struggles  for  liberty  and  mdependence  were  finailjr 
onavailing.  Many  of  the  cantons  displayed  an  almost  invincible  au 
tachment  to  their  ancient  constitution,  and  resisted,  in  every  way 
they  could,  the  menaced  invasion  of  their  rights  and  privileges;  I'ut 
the  more  tney  were  divided  amongst  themselves,'  which  unhappily 
proved  to  be  the  case  to  a  high  degree,  the  greater  opportunity  wai 
afforded  to  the  despotic  ruler  of  France  to  interpose  his  offices  to 
restore  peace,  nomiaally  as  a  mediator,  but  really  and  efifectually  lo 
the  subjugation  of  the  country,  which,  when  reduced,  was  in  mockery 
declared  to  be  free  and  independent  Remonstrances  on  the  part  of 
(he  English  court,  are  supposed  to  have  had  some  effect  in  nrutigatiag 
(he  rigour  of  bis  exactions,  and  rendering  the  new  constitation  pi^ 
pared  for  them,  more  congenial  to  their  feelings  than  might  otLt^ 
wise  have  been  the  case. 

7.  In  1,802,  by  the  death  of  the  duke  of  Parma^  and  io  virtue  of 
a  previous  convention  with  Spain,  the  first  consul,  in  the  name  of  t^ie 
French  republic,  took  possession  of  the  duchies  of  Parma,  Placentia^ 
and  Guastalla,  and  incorporated  them  soon  afler  with  France.  The 
•nljF  son  of  the  decea/^ed  duke  of  Parma,  by  a  Spanish  princess 
having  assigned  to  him  by  the  treaty  ofLuneville,  the  Tuscan  states, 
under  the  title  of  the  kingdom  of  Etruria. 

8.  Though,  by  the  above  treaty,  the  indemnification  of  tliose 
princes,  whose  rights  and  property  had  suffered  from  the  progrt  ss 
of  the  French,  seemed  to  be  left  chiefly  to  the  decision  of  the  dim 
of  the  empire,  Buonaparte  found  means  to  interfere  to  his  own  ati^ 
vantage,  favouring  those  most  from  whom  he  had  the  most  to  fean  cr 
who  were  most  likely  to  be  subservient  to  his  views.  For  the  duLe 
of  Wlrtemburgh,  the  landgrave  of  Hesse  Cassel^  and  the  mai^ni\  e 
of  Bade;i,  he  secured  tlie  electoral  dignity ;  whde  the  indemnilic:*- 
tions  were  provided  for  by  the  secularization  of  many  ecclesiastic  J 
states  on  the  right  side  ot  the  Rhine. 

9.  It  was  soon  found  that,  by  the  peace  of  Amiens,  little  cordialitv 
was  produced  between  the  two  nations.  The  first  consul  profes?c  i 
lo  be  bound  by  that  treaty  only  to  particular  specified  points,  an  J 
appeared  through  his  agents,  secret  or  avowed,  to  be  preparing  tl»r 
a  renewal  of  hostilities.  He  had  some  reason,  it  must  be  confessed, 
to  be  offended  with  the  liberties  taken  with  him  in  some  of  the  pu> 
lie  journals  of  England  at  this  time ;  and  though  it  can  scarcely  ba 
•uppcaed  that  peace  could  be  hia  object|  yet  he  appear  to  nave 

• 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


RIODERN  lilSTORT. 

been  provdced  and  Irritated  by  the  distmst  of  the  British 
ment  and  nation.    So  early  as  the  month  of  May,  1,803,  1 
countries  may  be  said  -to  nave  been  again  in  a  state  of  w 
each  other. 

10.  On  this  quick  renewal  of  hostilities,  the  first  consul 
coune  to  a  most  extraordinary  measure,  in  detaining  ail  th 
lish  who  happened  to  have  come  over  to  France  during  the 
for  business  or  pleasure,  as  a  sort  of  hostages  for  the  future  ( 
of  their  count^.    He  also  projected  a  poweriul  invasion  c 
land,  which  had  only  the  effect  of  rousing  the  latter  country 
vigorous  and  patriotic   exertions  as  entirely  to  frustrate 
schemes  and  mtentions.     A  levy  en  masse  was  proposed, 
to  the  regulations  of  pariiament     As  another  act  of  ven 
against  £I^^land,  an  army  was  sent  to  occupy  Hanover,  thou 
king,  in  his  electoral  capacity,  had  detennined  to  remain  neut< 

1 1.  The  first  consul  nad  now,  for  some  time,  exercised  n( 
kingly)  but  almost  despotic  power,  and  artfuUv  placed  hiii 
fucE  a  situation  of  control  and  influence)  with  regard  to  i 
public  bodies,  assemblies,  and  councils  of  the  nation,  that  i 
to  be  wondered  that  he  should  have  aspired  to,  and  obtain c 
highest  dignities  it  is  in  the  power  of  a  nation  to  bestow ;  t 
haul  he  acted  with  less  prudence  and  policy,  nothing  certain)] 
have  occurred  more  surprisiryg  than  the  undisturbed  elevati< 
CoreicaD  adventurer  to  one  ofthe  most  splendid  thrones  of  1- 
By  an  organic  senatus  consultum  of  the  18th  of  May  1.804,  . 
parte  was  declared  Emperor  of  the  Frekch.  The  title  to . 
reditary,  as  to  his  unmediate  descendants,  and,  in  case  of  fail 
male  issue,  granting  him  a  ihrther  power  to  adopt  the  chiM 
Ip^od-cbllaren,  of  his  brothers.  AQ  laws  were  to  onginat< 
the  sovereign,  or  to  be  proposed  in  his  name ;  and  due  cai 
triken,  by  rendering  the  legislative  body  and  tribunate  depcnc 
the  senate,  in  the  appointment  of  which  the  emperor  was  t 
ulmost  the  whole  power,  to  prevent  the  passiug  or  any  laws  cc 
to  his  wilL  The  imperial  tide  thus  conferred  on  him,  was  ac 
edged  hr  most  of  the  states  of  Europe,  though  not  by  Englau 

J  2.  This  assumption  ofthe  imperial  title,  by  Napoleon  . 
parte,  and  the  subsequent  confederation  of  the  Rhine,  led  i\ 
peror  of  Germany,  Francis  U.^  to  abdicate  the  Germanic  cmpi 
eo  change  his  title  to  thatot  emperor  of  Austria,  thereby  bt 
^he  tame  hereditary  honour  to  the  house  of  Hai)sburg,  and 
^une  time,  not  entirely  resigning  his  political  relationship 
states  and  empire  of  German  v. 

IS.  On  the  2d  of  December,  1,804,  Napoleon  was  crowi 

"he  cborch  of  Notre  Dame,  with  extraordinary  pomp  and  sph 

;  i  aTiDi;  previously  invited,  or  rather  compelled  the  humbled 

•  I'  Rome  to  be  present  at  the  ceremony,  and  to  anoint  hin 

jnpreas,  Josephme  Beauhamois,  to  whom  he  had  been  som 

^  xnrried,  was  crowned  at  the  same  time. 

1 4.  One  of  the  first  acts  of  the  new  emperor  was  to  chanj 
.  i«xne  of  the  Code  ehil  da  Francois,  introduced  under  the  c( 
*  *:9vernment.  for  that  of  the  Coae  Napot&m.  His  two  bn 
'tf^Tseph  and  Lewis,  and  his  two  colleagues,  Le  firun  and  Camb] 
t.-  ^ra  declared  gmnd^kctor^  conutabll^  archrdumceUorj  and  ara 
r-^T^  of  the  empire:  and  the  dignity  of  mareschal  was  confer 
r  J  ^  Doost  distiiu^ashed  of  his  jsenerab.  But,  in  order  to  give 
i,^^^iiitttj  to  hir tErone,  or  intimidate  his  enemiesi  under  jvetem 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


360  MODERN  HISTORY. 

fnyalui  conspiracy,  he  had  many  eminent  persons  brought  to'^trial 
amone  others,  the  two  celebrated  generals,  Picbegni  mud  Moreat 
The  tormer  was,  soon  after,  found  dead  in  his  prison,  under  circum 
stances  implying  little  less  tnan  a  most  deliberate  murder ;  the  Latter, 
an  equal  object  of  dread  and  alarm,  anJxvhose  death  was  probably 
contemplated,  was  permitted,  however,  to  retire  to  North  America 
It  is  scarcely  credible,  though  it  certainly  appears  upon  record  that 
the  French  minister  at  Berhn  was  directed  to  move  the  king  of  Pnis- 
gia  to  deliver  up  the  unfortunate  Lewis  XVIIL,  then  at  Wansaw,  and 
to  send  him  to  Prance,  to  answer  for  the  concern  he  was  stated  to 
have  had  in  this  conspiracy. 

15.  Having  obtained  the  imperial  dignity  in  France,  Napoleon  a[> 
peared  dissatisfied  to  be  only  president  of  a  republic  with  regard  to 
his  Cisalpine  conquests.  Means  were  found  to  mduce  the  constituted 
authorities  of  the  new  Italian  republic  to  offer  to  him  the  crown  cf 
Italy,  an  offer  he  was  quite  prepared  to  accept,  as  though  the  wbold 
of  that  devoted  country  had  been  already  subdued.  On  the  26th  of 
May,  1,805,  he  repaired  to  Milan,  and  taking  the  famous  iron  crown 
from  the  altar  of  the  cathedral,  placed  it  on  his  own  head,  denouncing 
vengeance  against  all  who  siiould  dispute  his  right  to  it.  Haiing 
done  this,  he  appointed  the  son  of  the  empress  Josephine.  Beaubar- 
nois,  to  oe  his  viceroy,  and  agreed,  that  upon  his  death  the  two 
crowns  should  be  separated.  Soon  after  he  seized  upon  Genoa,  dis- 
possessed the  doge  and  senators  of  their  power,  and  decreed,  th:it 
nenceforth  the  territories  of  the  Ligurian  republic,  as  it  was  calk-«l 
should  be  annexed  to  France.  These  rapacious  proceedings  at  length 
provoked  a  fresh  confederacy  against  him,  so  that  before  the  >e.ir 
was  passed,  not  only  England,  but  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria,  wore 
in  arms  to  resist  his  encroachments.  Sweden  had  joined  the  conte<V 
eracy,  but  retired  in  discust.  Such,  however,  was  the  dread  of  t:  t 
power  or  vengeance  of  France,  that  several  of  tlie  German  princt*, 
particularly  the  elector  of  Bavaria,  sided  with  Napoleon,  in  oppo*- 
tion  to  the  emperor  Francis. 

16.  By  sea,  the  power  of  the  French  and  Spaniards  combined  failoJ 
of  gaining  any  advantages  over  the  allies.  On  the  21st  of  Octobtr, 
1,805,  in  the  battle  of  1  rafalgar,  a  complete  victory  was  obtained  i  y 
the^British  fleet,  under  lord  Nelson,  who  perished  in  the  »€tio:i. 
There  was  a  disparity  in  the  number  of  ships,  m  favour  of  the  French 
and  Spaniards,  of  tmrty-three  to  twenty-seven.  On  the  contiiieTit, 
the  course  of  the  war  was  very  different.  The  king  of  Prussia  h.k 
dilatory  in  his  proceedings,  and  even  treacherous.  Sweden  had 
withdrawn.  The  emperor  Francis  employed  an  inefficient  con>- 
mander,  if  not  worse,  (general  Mack,)  and  the  Russians,  who  were 
mor»«in  earnest,  wereoaffled  by  the  unsteady  proceedings  of  tht- .r 
allies,  and  distressed  by  want  of  provisions,  sickness^  and  fatigi^e 
After  the  battle  of  Austerlitz,  in  December,  the  emperor  of  Aust^i;^ 
whose  capital  had  been  in  the  hands  of  the  enemy,  solicited  peaces 
submitting  to  surrender  what  had  been  allotted  to  him  of  the  Veneti  m 
tenitories,  together  with  the  principalities  of  Lucca  and  Fiombioo: 
sod  to  acknowledge  Boona^urte  as  Jung  of  Italr.  Bavaria  acquireJ 
a  part  of  the  Brisgaw  and  Tyrol  Snch  were  tne  tenns  of  the  peace 
er  Presburgh,  October,  1,804. 

17.  The  succession  of  some  of  the  German  states  from  the  empe- 
ror of  Austria,  had.  in  the  mean  time,  produced  changes  that  require 
to  be  notioed.  The  electors  of  Bavaria  and  Wirtetibargh  were 
•leyetcd  ta  the  rank  of  kings  of  their  respective  ceoptnee  i  and 

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MODERN  HISTORY.  351 

fo^ene  Beauharnois,  viceroy  of  Italy,  son  of  the  French  empress 
Josephine,  obtamed  in  mamage  the  daughter  of  the  new  king  of 
i>avaria,  tnough  she  had  been  previously  TOtrothed  to  the  prince  of 
IJaJeo. 

Id.  The  coort  of  Naples,  during  this  war,  Ihrough  the  iojudk 
^lous,  but  natural,  resentment  of  the  aueen,  sister  to  the  late  un- 
fortunate  queen  of  France,  had  the  misfortune  to  incur  the  high  di»> 
f'leiisure  of  Napoleon,  by  admitting  a  British  and  Russian  army  to 
lind  on  its  territories.  The  French  despot  lost  no  time  in  pronouns* 
iri^  sentence  on  the  rebellious  neutral  He  quickly  made  it  known 
tnat  the  Boqrbon  dynasty  had  ceased  to  reign  at  Naples.  ,  The  royal 
i'lmily  was  compelled  to  retire  to  Palermo,  and  in  a  short  tune  aAei, 
Napoleon  conferred  the  Neapolitan  crown  on  his  brother  Joseph, 
much  to  the  discontent,  however,  of  the  people,  who  for  some  timn 
^  ivc  him  gi^at  disturbance.    Joseph  was  proclaimed  king,  Majsch 

1 9.  The  emperor  of  the  French  had  another  kingdom  in  view  for 
h:3  brother  Lewis,  constable  of  France.  Holland  had  submitted  to 
^'veral  forms  of  government,  without  obtaining  that  order  and  trar^ 
•luillity  which  was  supposed  to  be  in  the  contemplation  cf  thosa 
-vlio  directed  her  aflairs.  It  was  suggested  that  a  monarchy  wouki 
r<  medy  all  the  disorders  to  which  she  was  exposed ;  and  it  was  hin^ 
'  1,  too  plainly  to  be  misunderstood,  that  it  would  be  agreeable  to  ths 
mpcror,  if  the  leading  persons  of  the  state,  not  the  community  at 
tr^e,  would  give  countenance  to  such  a  change.  So  great  was  the 
it.ituation,  or  timidity,  of  the  persons  to  whom  these  suggestions 
xre  made,  that  they  did  not  scruple  to  solicit  the  appointment  of 
•)e  emperor's  brother,  who  declared  himself  king  or  Holland  ao- 
.Ttiingly,  June  5,  1,806.  To  the  credit  of  the  new  king,  it  should 
K.'  f)bf»erved,  that  he  soon  fell  into  disgrace  with  his  imperial  brothet, 
\  lieing  too  lenient  to  his  subjects,  tmd  by  endeavouring  to  mitigate 
lO  rigour  of  the  French  decrees. 

JO.  In  the  year  1,80G,  Napoleon  succeeded  b  subverting  the 
'Ti'-titution  of  the  German  empire,  by  detaching  man^  of  the  prirv- 
ii»al  states,  chietly  of  the  western  and  southern  divisions  of  Gei^ 
'\ny,  to  form  what  was  denominated  ^  The  Confederaiim  of  Uu 
f'tTie^  by  which  the  several  princes  consented  to  renounce  the 
\v:«  of  the  empire,  to  contract  a  federative  alliance  with  the 
rcnch  emperor,  and  to  supply  him  with  troops  whenever  he  should 
rii;ind  them.  In  consequence  of  this  gross  defection  of  so  many 
i^nilicrs,  the  emperor,  by  a  solemn  edict,  abdicated  the  goven>> 

lit   of  the  Germanic  empire,  absolvine  all  the  electors,  princes, 

j  ^tntes,  from  the  obligations  by  which  they  stood  bound  to  him, 
I  their  legitimate  head;  thereby  terminating,  as  it  were,  a  gov- 
tinient  which  had  sut)sisted  for  a  thousand  years,  and  been  uiv 
w  rruptedly  contided  to  the  house  of  Hapsburgh  from  the  year 

JL 1 .  It  seemed  as  if  every  thing,  at  this  time,  was  doomed  to  fidl 
:ore  the  power  of  the  Uorsican.  Prussia,  which  had  hith^riD 
rrd  a  most  unwise  part,  in  neglecting  to  add  its  weight  to  th» 
/ijederacy  of  1,804.  and  even  submitting  to  be  ogoled  into  ao 
trinc«  with  France,  became,  in  the  course  of  the  year  1,806,  sen* 
le  of  her  error;  but  to  no  cood  purpose.  She  now  precipitately 
r^red  faito  a  war  for  wluco  she  was  ill-prepared;  with  no  sq^ 
\-l  but  that  of  SaxoDj :  and  having  pat  her  army  under  the  coo^ 
Lod  of  the  doke  or  Bnnswfck^  sostained  two  sifpnl  and  aipiosk 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


362  MODERN  HISTORY. 

&tal  defeats,  at  Jena  and  Averstadt.  laying  the  capi^  open  to  th« 
advance  of  tne  enemy,  who  entered  it  in  triamph ;  an<L  being  too 
well  received  and  entertained  by  the  people,  did  not  fail,  as  in  ail 
other  cases,  to  take  due  advantage  of  their  willing  submissioiL  b 
the  course  of  the  contest,  the  Saxons  were  detached  from  Prussia, 
and  the  duke  of  Brtinswick  being  wounded,  and  obliged  to  quit  his 
dominions  on  the  advance  of  the  French,  aied  miserably  at  Altooa; 
Napoleon,  in  resentment,  meanly  refusing  to  suffer  his  body  to  be 
bmied  amongst  his  ancestors. 

22.  It  was  during  his  sojournment  in  Berlin,  November,  1,806, 
(hat  the  French  emperor  dictated  that  extraordmary  decree,  de- 
daring  the  British  islands  to  be  in  a  state  of  blockade,  though  he 
had  no  naval  force  capable  of  interrupting  their  commerce  in  any 
part  of  the  world.  By  this  decree,  the  whole  trade  of  Britain  was 
proscribed ;  no  intercourse  of  any  sort  was  allowed  to  take  place ; 
all  British  subjects  on  the  continent  were  threatened  wkh  arrest  and 
confiscation  ol  property,  and  every  port  shut  against  £ngli8h  ves- 
sels, in  Prussia,  Denmark,  the  Hanse  towns,  Holland,  Flandei^ 
France,  Spam,  Italy,  &c. 

23.  The  progress  of  the  French,  in  the  territories  of  the  king  of 
Prussia,  occasioned  fresh  alarm  to  the  emperor  of  Russia,  and  to 
the  British  government,  and  procured  for  Frederick  that  assistance 
which  his  former  supineness  and  intrusion  on  the  Hanoverian  stales 
might  very  reasonably  have  rendered  hopeless.    The  king  of  Swe- 
den was  also  subsidized  by  England,  to  send  an  army  into  Pcme- 
cania ;  but  ail  the  eilorts  of  the  allies  were  insufhcient  to  stop  ih^ 
career  of  the  French.    The  Russians  fought  many  severe  battles, 
at  Eylau,  Friedland,  &c.,  but  were  unable  to  prevent  the  French 
letting  possession  of  Dantzic  and  Konigsberg;  losses  so  severely 
.elt  by  the  king  of  Prussia,  as  to  compel  liim  to  conclude  a  separate 
peace,  as  a  conquered  enemy ;  while  Napoleon,  with  consummate  jrt, 
not  only  persuaded  Alexander  to  abandon  the  king  of  Prussia  to  Li« 
fate,  but  to  form  an  alliance  with  himself,  for  the  furtlier  apoliuii  jo 
of  the  Prussian  dominions,  and  to  concur  in  arrangements  vtry 
adverse  to  the  general  interests  of  Europe,  and  serviceable  only  lo 
his  own  fanwly.    By  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  Jul^,  1,807,  the  emperoi 
of  Russia  agreed  to  acknowledge  the  Rhenish  confederacy,  no^f 
Csonsisting  of  many  states,  and  Joseph  and  LevoU  Buonaparte,  as  kinc;5 
of  Naples  and  Holland.    He  suffered  the  French  emperor  to  coiilt- r 
on  his  youngest  brother,  Jerome^  with  the  title  of  king  of  Westph^ 
Ca,  the  Prussian  provinces  between  the  Elbe  and  the  Rhine,  tht» 
tteites  of  Hanover,  and  the  territories  of  the  duke  of  Bronsvvick.  nul 
landgrave  of  Hesse  Cassel,  while  the  greater  part  of  Prussian  Polaii 
was  given  to  the  elector  (now  king)  ot  Saxony,  with  the  title  of  d'A** 
of  mirsaw ;  and  by  secret  articles,  as  it  has  been  alleged,  roost  c\ 
the  usurpations  of  the  French,  in  all  parts  of  Europe,  were  siinc* 
tinned  and  confirmed.    During  the  wtiole  of  the  years  1,806  ani 
1,807,  the  German   states   were   undergoing   continual    changr^ 
through  the  overbearing  tyranny  of  Napoleon.    All  the  princes  wuj 
Joineathe  Rhenish  confederation  were  rewarded  with  titles  or  ttr^ 
ritorial  possessions:  all  who  favoured  the  allies,  dispossessed   'f 
their  dominions,  and  declared  enemies  of  France.    To  particularm> 
all  these  revolutions,  few  of  which  were  permanent,  would  excexd 
^e  limits  of  the  present  work. 

24.  Among  other  acquisitions  resulting  from  the  trea^  o!  Tilsit* 
Kapoleou  v«coyered  the  Ionian  Ulands.    These  islands,  subse^ocn^ 

Digitized  by  CjOOQIC 


fe 


MODEftN  HISTORY.  363 

to  the  treaty  of  Campo-Formio,  had  bcer«  greatly  agitated  and  diB- 
tiirbed,  aiuf  it  seemed  difficult  to  icnow  what  to  do  with  them.  In 
March,  1,800,  however,  by  a  convention  between  Russia  and  the 
Porte,  it  wjis  settled  that  Corfu,  Cephalonia,  Zante,  ItJiaca,  Ceriffo, 
Si.  Maiiro,  and  Faxo,  should  be  formed  into  one  state,  under  foe 
pTianintee  of  the  contracting  parties,  by  the  name  of  the  Ionian 


po^ired  to  be  dictated  entirely  by  the  despot  of  France.  Prussiaj 
HfJiiridoned  by  her  Russiim  ally,  suffered  dreadfully.  The  king  ot 
i*>wedeD  refused  to  become  a  party  to  this  memorable  convention, 
and  manifested  a  determination  to  resist,  to  the  utmost,  the  ei> 
rroachments  of  the  French ;  but  he  had  little  judgment  or  prudence 
(<»  direct  him :  and  he  had  not  the  means  to  contend  against  such  an 
ftdreraary  as  Buonaparte.  After  many  ineffectual  attempts  to  save 
t^tnilsund,  and  keep  his  army  in  romerania,  he  was  at  length 
r.>mpelled  to  retire,  with  the  loss  both  of  Stralsund  and  the  isle  of 
Kageo. 


SECTION  XVIL 
SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL  FROM  1,788  TO  1,814. 

I.  These:  two  countries  are  by  nature  so  connected,  that  though 
(heir  interests  are,  and  generally  have  been,  very  different,  and 
the  people  little  disposed  to  friendly  associations,  vet.  with  regard 
to  the  anairs  of  Europe,  they  have  very  commonly  been  involved 
m  the  same  troubles,  and  never  long  permitted  to  enjoy  tranquillity, 
Hhile  the  leading  powers  of  the  continent  have  been  engaged  in  war. 
This  luis  been  already  sufficiently  manifested  in  the  history  of  these 
two  coDtiguous  kingdoms,  during  the  former  part  of  the  eighteenth 
•^enttiry,  bat  has  been  rendered  still  more  conspicuous  by  the  events 
'A  the  subsequent  j^ears. 

?.  Charles  IV.  of  Spain^  came  to  the  crown  in  December,  1^788;. 
n  hen  the  French  revolution  was  just  beginning ;  and  it  was  not  till 
"^"me  few  years  after,  and  in  the  midst  of  the  reign  of  terror,  that 
t)L«i  kingdom  became  involved  in  the  disturbances  of  that  great  cata^* 
T'pbe.  The  Spaniards,  in  the  year  1,793,  offended  with  the  vio- 
u'ice  offiered  to  the  royal  fiunily  of  France,  had  invaded  the  latter 
•  ouotry,  and  taken  the  town  of  Bellgarde,  httle  foreseeing  the 
-yedj  and  severe  reprisals  to  which  they  were  exposing  them- 
.-ivcis.  Early  in  the  year  1,794,  the  French,  under  general  Dugon>> 
Mier,  hivadccf  Spain,  and  succeeded,  not  only  in  beating  the  Spanish 
-my,  but  In  securing  the  occupation  of  many  places  of  importance 
Iriese  successes  were  not  only  available  to  the  restoration  of  peace 
vith  Spain,  but  procured  for  the  French,  by  the  treaty  of  1^95,  the 
'  !>  inisn  portion  of  the  valuable  Island  of  St.  Domingo,  in  the  VVest 
liie^,  and,  in  1,796,  an  alliance  with  the  Spanish  monarch  against 
'leiandf — an  alliance  fatal  to  Spain  in  many  respects;  her  fleet  b^ 
4  beaten  by  the  English  in  battle,  off  the  cape  of  St  Vincent,  the 
Ttrkd  of  Trmidad  taken  from  her,  and  retained  by  Great  Britain 
r  ehe  peace  of  Amiens,  and  her  commerce  crippled  and  impeded 
I  all  parts  of  the  world. 

X  Tbou^  she  sought,  by  a  large  subsidy  to  France,  to  be  pe»* 
Gg2  46 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


364  MODERN  HISTORY. 

mitted  to  remain  neater,  afler  the  renewal  of  the  war  in  1,80S,  yet 
flhe  was  not  lone  allowed  to  be  at  peace.  In  1^804,  the  Engliah*  sus* 
picious  of  her  cToee  connexion  wltn  France,  seized  upon  sonoe  of  her 
treasure  ships,  coming  from  South  AmericcL  with  a  suddenness  jud^ 
ed  by  many  to  be  not  strictly  justifiable ;  and,  in  1,805,  war  was  Ioitd- 
ally  declared  against  Great  Britain.  But  in  this  new  war  she  ^ai 
again  doomed  to  suffer  misfortune,  her  fleet  being  totally  beaten  by 
lord  NelsoD,  on  the  1st  of  October,  1,805,  in  the  celebrated  battle  oS 
cape  Trafalgar.    (See  Sect  XVI.,  §  16.) 

4.  During  the  year  1,806.  Spain  appeared  disposed  to  break  with 
France,  had  any  misfortune  oefallen  the  latter  power;  but  her  suc- 
cesses in  Prussia  seem  to  have  intimidated  Spain*  and  to  have  in- 
duced her,  in  1,807,  through  the  manoeuvres  or  Goaoy,  the  Spanish 
minister,  who  had  a  view  to  the  principality  of  Algarves,  to  enter 
into  a  regular  treaty  with  France,  tor  the  partition  of  Portugal 

5.  Hitherto  the  latter  country,  since  the  elevation  of  Buonagirre 
to  the  chief  magistracy,  had  been  suffered  to  remain  neuter.  Ihe 
reigning  queen  having  been  declared  insane,  the  power  had  devolve<i 
to  the  prince  of  Brazil,  crown  prince,  in  1,799,  who,  in  virtue  of  tiis 
purchased  neutrality,  had  been  able  to  keep  his  commercial  rehtion^ 
with  England,  unmolested  by  the  French,  tul  the  treaty  just  mention- 
ed between  the  latter  po>ver  and  Spain. 

6.  France  was  not  long  in  availing  herself  of  the  permission  sh« 
had  obtained  to  march  an  army  through  Spain,  for  the  subjugation  of 
Portugal.  Having  made  demands  on  the  regent  of  Portugal,  with 
which  he  could  not,  m  honour,  complv,  it  was  declared  ttiat  the  noose 
of  Braganza  had  ceased  to  reign ;  and,  shortly  afterwards,  the  French 
army,  under  general  Junot,  passed  the  frontiers.  In  these  extrem> 
ties,  insti|;ated  by  the  English,  the  royal  family  determined  to  embark 
for  America.  They  set  sail  on  the  21st  of  November,  1,807 ;  BSi\ 
on  the  30th,  Junot,  with  his  army  entered  Lisbon. 

7.  The  state  of  Spain,  at  this  period,  was  undoubtedly  such 
as  to  encourage  the  most  ambitious  views  of  the  French  emperoe. 
Nothing  could  exceed  the  weakness  of  the  court  of  Madrid,  or  tb* 
coni'usion  of  the  national  afiairs.  At  the  very  moment  of  the  p3rt> 
tion  treaty,  the  hereditary  prince,  Ferdinand,  who  had  refused  » 
marry  the  minister's  sister-in-law,  on  the  suggestion  of  the  court, 
was  arrested,  imprisoned,  and  threatened  with  a  criminal  prosecutioix 
for  having  secretly  sought  a  matrimonial  alliance  with  Buonaparte^ 
&mily.  This  was  followed  by  disturbances,  and  the  imprisonmeoi 
of  the  obnoxious  minister,  Goaoy,  duke  of  Alcudia,  and,  since  the 
convention  of  1,795,  generally  called  the  "prince  of  peace.'' 
Charles  IV..  harassed  and  distressed  by  these  tumults,  was  induce^ 
on  tbe  19tn  of  March^  1,808,  to  resign  his  crown  in  favour  of  his 
son,  now  become  Ferdinand  VIl. ;  but  he  soon  afterwards  revoketj 
his  abdication,  as  forced  upon  him.  and  extorted  by  the  dread  of 
personal  violence.  Nothmg  could  be  more  directly  calculated  to 
promote  the  views  of  Buonaparte  than  these  divisions,  whose  coiv 
stant  policy  it  was,  in  all  cases  of  premeditated  conquest,  to  promou 
dissension,  in  order  to  be  called  in  as  an  arbitrator  or  mediator, 
which  was  the  case  in  this  instance.  After  Buonaparte  had  beeo 
baffled  In  his  hopes  of  compelling  the  king  and  queen  to  emigraie, 
mrooeh  the  resistance  of  the  people  of  Spain  to  such  a  measure, 
the  whole  royal  family  were  invitea  to  repair  to  Bayonne*  to  confer 
«D  the  state  of  afl^irs;  an  invitation  the  most  msidious,  but  wfakk 
had  its  effer  t    On  the  14th  of  April  Buonaparte  arrived  there ;  Fw- 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODERN  HlSTORl. 

(fmsnd  on  the  SOtb^aad  on  the  1st  of  May,  Charles  IV  and  his  qi 
siler  the  favourite,  Godoy,  had  been  refeiised,  on  their  applicati 
ijuooajMrte. 

C.  The  transactions  at  Bayonne  exceeded  almost  ever^  Ihii 
l)€  met  with  in  any  preceding  history.  The  persons  invited 
'  xactly  those  whom  Buonaparte  would  have  been  glad  to  have 
vlriven  Into  his  toils:  in  this  case  they  were  weak  enough  t 
inither  of  tlieir  own  accord.  Having  the  two  kings  complete 
i'i>  power,  and  beyond  the  frontier  of  Spain,  he  compelled  Cii 
if>  resume  his  authority,  on  purpose  that  he  mi^ht  resign  it  inti 
\.:\u(\i  of  the  French,  proposmg,  on  the  terms  ot  an  equivalent 
^'iiore,  a  similar  act  of  renunciation  on  the  part  of  Ferdir 
'vliich  the  latter  indignantly  refusing,  was  at  once '  declared  I 
>  \rluded  from  all  he  had,  and  all  he  might  have  had,  and 

'ic;itencd  with  the  loss  of  liberty.  This  so  intimidated  the  de, 
•- 1  prince,  that  at  length  he  unconditionally  resigned  his  royal  c 
'\.  tirst  into  the  hands  of  his  father,  and  through  him.  into  tho* 
i  jooaparte,  who  soon  obtained,  though  in  a  manner  the  mo^t  {} 
'  niiiiarr,  the  consent  of  most  of  the  principal  personages  of  the  i 
i"*  well  as  of  the  constituted  authorities,  to  the  appointment  c 
'  rother  Joseph,  then  king  of  Naples,  to  the  vacarU  Spanish  th 
.!wj  to  render  it  heredit«iry  in  the  family  of  the  usurper,  li 
Ofan  while,  Ferdinand  was  sent  to  Valancey,  and  afterwards  to 
f  •  nebleau,  as  a  prisoner,  and  Charles  and  bis  qaeen  to  Compie 
•i*  ir  ioint  abdication  of  the  Spanish  crown  was  publicly  annou 
iJ  Maflrid  on  the  20th  of  May,  to  the  great  disgust  of  the  Su 
I'^ie  in  general,  who  soon  resolved  to  be  revenged  for  the  h 
M  iignities  they  were  made  to  undergo. 

'J.  In  the  course  of  the  very  month  in  which  all  the  transac 

•*t  Hayonne  took  place,  and  Joseph  Buonaparte  entered  the  Cii 

i  Spain  as  king,  the  national  resentment  was  manifested  by  a 

Til  rising,  and  insurrection  in  all  the  principal  provinces;  I 

>va>  first  jn  Andalusia  that  any  thing  like  an  organized  eovem 

va^  formed  for  the  conduct  of  the  war,  on  the  part  of  the  pati 

liTe,  0  provincial  junUi^  or  council  of  magistrates,  inhabil 

^'»\  constituted  authorities,  was  formed,  at  Seville^  which  Ic 

"i^r  conventions  of  the  same  nature,  in  places  least  moleste 

: '  French,  and  in  all  of  these  Ferdinand  VII.  was  proclaimed  ! 

')tl  war  openly  denounced  against  the  French,  accompanied 

p^-'clamations  and  manitestoes,  highly  creditable  to  the  good  & 

'    lit.  ardour,  and  patriotism  of  the  Spanish  nation,  and  expn 

J  if-rms  very  different  from  the  language  to  which  the  Frenc 

't  had  been  accustomed.    Joseph  Buonaparte  entered  Spa 

••  Jth  of  July,  1,808,  escorted  by  four  thousand  Italian  troops 

.i'oifed  by  upwards  of  one  hundred  carriages,  conveying  his 

'  1  the  members  of  the  nmta  assembled  at  Bayonne,  to  assist  a 

tugaration.    He  was  ill  received,  or  rather  sullenly  treated  b^ 

t.'ijbitant^  on  his  passage  to  the  capital.    Joseph  entered  Mi 

1  fhc  20th  of  July ;  at  which  very  time  the  Spaniards  obtain* 

'»I)ortant  victory  over  a  French  army  marchmg  upon  Cadiz,  w 

wre  compelled  to  capitulate  to  ths  amount  of  lourteen  thoi 

i»  a»  while  the  French  fleet  at  Cadiz  was  seized  by  the  vigil 

'<d  activity  of  don  Thomas  Morla.    Tliese  successes  on  the 

f  the  Spaniards,  compelled  the  new  king  to  retire  from  the  a 

i<  l>tirgoS|  after  plonaering  the  treasury  and  securing  the  c 

«»weift. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


a6G  MODERN  HlSTORl 

10.  In  the  mean  while,  it  was  soon  discovered  that  the  aid  of 
other  powers  would  he  wanted,  in  order  to  rescue  the  kingdom  and 
peninsula  from  the  grasp  of  Napoleon.  Application  was  accordrngly 
made  to  the  court  of  London,  to  the  Swedes,  and  to  the  Porta^esd 
and  Austrians  The  former  paid  a  ready  and  willing  attention  tt» 
the  call ;  and  the  whole  Brltisn  nation  evinced,  in  an  extraordinary 
manner,  the  utmost  desire  to  render  eiSectual  assistance  to  Sp^ii^ 
whose  cause  seemed  to  be  justly  interesting  to  every  friend  of  freetJoai 

11.  While  these  things  were  passing  in  Spam,  a  similar  sprit 
had  arisen  in  Portugal,  against  the  tyranny  and  usurpations  of  (he 
French ;  and  the  arrival  of  a  British  army,  in  the  month  of  August, 
under  sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  (afterwards  duke  of  Wellington,)  guve 
timely  effect  to  these  patriotic  movements.  The  relief  of  Portu^il 
was  sooner  accomplisned  than  proved  to  be  the  case  afterwar«h 
with  Spain.  On  the  21st  of  August  a  decisive  battle  took  place  it 
Vimieni,  between  the  French  and  combined  armies  of  English  aud 
Portuguese ;  in  which  the  former  were  so  entirely  beaten  as  to  bo 
obliged  to  evacuate  the  country ;  and  which  they  were  enabled  tP 
do,  by  a  convention  concluded  at  Cintra,  under  circumstances  conskV 
ered  far  too  ^vourable,  by  Europe  In  general,  and  which  was  re- 
tented  by  the  people  of  England. 

12.  The  evacuation  of  Portugal,  however,  at  all  events,  set  m 
army  free  for  the  use  of  Spain,  which,  at  the  latter  end  of  L> 
month  of  October,  to  the  amount  of  twenty  thousand  men,  enterrd 
that  country,  under  the  command  of  sir  Jonn  Moore;  the  emperor 
Napoleon  having  quilted  Paris  just  about  the  same  time,  to  take 
the  command  of  the  French  army  there.  Unfortunately,  the  statf- 
o(  Spain  at  the  moment  of  this  first  attempt  on  the  part  of  Enghnd,  t- . 
give  aid  to  the  patriots,  was  such  as  greatly  to  eoibarrass  the  Briti'li 
commander :  he  had  been  taught  (or  rather,  the  government  at  honM" 
had  been  so)  to  expect  a  strenuous  co-operation  on  the  part  of  t.^^ 
Spaniards;  in  which  he  was  exceedingly  disappointed,  while  U 
continually  received  advice  of  the  augmentation  of  the  French 
forces,  to  an  amount  far  exceeding  all  his  calculations ;  nor  did  he 
consider  even  his  own  army  so  well-appointed  as  to  enable  biu- 
to  contend,  in  the  heart  of  the  kingdom,  whither  he  was  directed  t^ 
nroceed,  with  any  fair  probability  of  success.  He  was  evidectlj 
diapirited  with  the  prospect  before  him ;  and  though  a  pertecit) 
brave  officer,  felt  himself  so  ill-supported  by  tlie  Spaniards^  at  Icu^u 
by  those  who  directed  the  public  affairs,  (it  not  even  deceived  ai*** 
betrayed,)  and  so  embarrassed  by  want  of  money  and  other  snpplita. 
OS  to  be  compelled  to  retire.  The  retreat  of  his  army,  tbougn  u> 
happily  disgraced  by  many  irregularities  and  disorders  amongst  \W 
soldiery,  was  conducted,  in  the  race  of  the  enemy,  (Buonaparte  hnir- 
self  being  sometimes  present,}  with  singular  courage  and  dextent\. 
till  they  reached  Corunna,  where,  at  last,  the  transports  not  br^  c 
arnved,  an  action  with  the  pursuing  army  took  place,  whi  t> 
terminated  in  &vour  of  the  English,  though  with  the  loss  of  the  e«K 
lant,  but  unfortunate,  commander,  whose  death  was  greatly  lament*  i 
After  this  action,  on  the  arrival  oi  the  transports,  the  English  tro.  i?- 
embarked  without  molestation,  and  on  the  1 8 Ih  of  January,  l,£o.. 
•et  sail  for  England. 

13.  Before  sir  John  Moore  finally  determined  upon  retiring,  l«? 
had  learned  that  Buonaparte  had  recovered  possession  of  the  ca;^ 
lal,  which,  after  the  departure  of  Joseph,  the  patriots  had  endcat^ 
•ured  to  fortify  and  defend ;  but  it  was  surrendeied  to  thQ  en^^^ 

Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


MODER^N  HISTORr. 

Ariy  la  the  month  of  December,  1,808,  bj  the  temporary  govt 
DoQ  Thomas  Morla.  Spain  was  far  from  being  subdued  at  the 
(f  the  year  1,808,  though  the  aspect  of  things  was  alarming 
(he  French  extremely  contident  of  success.  Joseph  re-en 
Madrid,  in  great  pomp,  in  January,  1,809.  In  the  mean  time,  I 
leoD  had  decreed  that  the  inquisition  should  be  abolished,  many 
csteries  suppressed,  and  the  ieudal  privileges  abrogated. 

14.  After  the  affiur  of  Corunna.  the  French  armj  under  ge 
Sonlt,  (duke  of  Dalmatia,)  invaded  Portugal  again,  and  was 
to  get  possession  of  Oporto ;  while  another  army,  under  ge 
Victor,  threatened  Lisbon.  It  was  at  this  moment  that  fresh  t 
srrived  from  England,  under  the  command  of  sir  Arthur  Wcll( 
who  quicldy  recovered  Oporto,  and  then  turning  against  V 
once  more  relieved  Portugal  from  the  presence  of  the  French 
Jtme  he  entered  Spain,  and  by  the  20tb  of  July  was  in  a  sili 
to  threaten  Madrid ;  on  the  27th  and  28tb,  at  Talavera  del  R 
he  was  attacked  by  the  French  under  Joseph  Buonaparte,  a« 
bf  four  marshals ;  but  was  able,  in  conjunction  with  tne  Span 
li'tf^r  a  very  hard  fought  battle,  to  repel  them  with  great 
Tnough  this  victory  was  not  attended  with  any  immediute  a 
ti^es.  and  would  appear  to  have  been  rather  rashly  hazarded 
liiitisn  general,  for  his  great  skill  and  conduct  during  the  a 
Hits  raised  to  the  peerage  by  the  title  of  viscount  Wellingtc 
'i'alavera. 

15.  Though  a  central  junta  had  been  appointed  in  1,808,  to 
a^nristency  and  strength  to  the  proceedings  of  the  patriots, 
were  still  ill-prepared  either  to  contend  against  the  enemy  £ 
or  conjointly  with  the  British.  In  the  battle  of  Talavera,  and 
nank,  their  movements  had  rather  embarrassed  than  assistei 
•Iterations  of  the  latter.  It  would  have  been  well  if  the  Span 
t. Vm  the  first,  could  have  been  prevailed  upon  to  appoint  loid 
r:)^on  generalissimo  of  all  the  forces  acting  against  tlic  Fr 
1  iie  latter,  however,  were  much  harassed  by  a  sort  of  dest 
uar,  carried  on  by  ^ritia  parties,  who  intercepted  tiieir  sup 
mid  without  attempting  any  regular  engagement,  (for  which,  in 
tiiey  were  unfit,)  were  continuallv  attacking  tnem  in  the  Wc^ 
eoibuscade  and  surprise :  for  which  their  superior  knowledge  < 
coontiy  evidently  save  them  great  advantages. 

16.  It  is  not  to  oe  wondered  that  the  extraordinary  situati 
f  plain  dioukl  occasion  great  embarrassment  in  the  mana^emc 
Liie  war.  In  the  place  of  the  supreme  central  junta  oi  1,8< 
recency  had  been  appointed,  and  the  cortes  assemoled,  but  wi 
r\.Dicient  effect  Tne  Spanish  armies  acted  without  system,  an 
fidiioo  at  large  manifested  a  jealousy  of  their  English  allies^  v 
f' re  vented  such  a  co-operation  as  might  have  brought  the  whole  i 
'  cjc  command,  to  the  evident  advantage  of  the  cause,  in  which 
must  Ittve  l)een,  though  with  different  degrees  of  zeal  and  judf:;i 
equafly  interested.  This  distrust  on  the  part  of  the  Spaniard 
[Hjsed  them  also,  it  ia  to  be  feared,  to  treatment  £ir  from  conciii 

n  the  part  of  the  English.  The  war  which  was  renewed  bet 
France  and  Austria,  m  1.809,  drew  the  attention  of  Napolei 
M^me  defree  from  Spain:  but  those  differences  being  soon  adji 
?.irlj  In  tiie  year  1,810,  powerful  reinforcements  were  sent 
France  to  thereninsuia,  to  reconquer  Poftucal,  and  ^  drive  the 
^^h  into  the  tea.'^  What  has  been  said  of  Spam  it  by  no  mear 
fikiMM  U>  PortQfal:  in  the  latter  country,  not  only  a  better 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


»8  MODERN  HlSTOUy. 

wSa  mftnifested,  but  the  army  being  placed  under  British  conunan^ 
end  regularly  organized,  by  general  lord  Beresford,  was  soon  reDdep- 
ed  capable  of  noording  very  etlectual  aid  aod  assistance. 

17.  During  the  whole  of  the  years  1,810  and  1,811,  the  coaien^ 
fhg  armies  were  occupied  in  striving  to  gain  advantages  over  each 
other,  which  called  forth  all  the  skill  and  judgment  appertaiDin^: 
to  the  science  of  war.  The  detail,  however,  of  the  several  actions 
which  took  place,  of  the  investment  and  capture  of  the  strong  holij 
of  the  two  portions  of  the  Peninsula,  do  not  belong  to  such  a  worK 
as  the  present  It  was  not  till  the  summer  of  1,612,  ^nd  after  ii.e 
victory  gained  by  lord  Wellington  over  the  French  under  marsLJ 
Marmont,  in  the  battle  of  Salamanca,  that  the  total  expulsion  of  tiie 
French,  and  overthrow  of  the  throne  of  Joseph,  became  a  matter  oi 
tittle  doubt.  The  battle  of  Salamanca  may  be  said  to  have  opene<i 
the  gates  of  Madrid  once  more  to  the  patriots  and  allied  army,  ai) ' 
restored  the  Spanish  crown  to  Ferdinand.  The  battle  was  fought  <  r. 
the  22d  of  July.  On  the  30th,  lord  Wellington  entered  Valladoli .. 
the  enemy  retiring  before  him ;  and  on  the  12th  of  August,  MadriJ 
surrendered  to  the  British  arms.  Joseph  and  his  suite  having  pr«^ 
viously  quitted  it  Lord  Wellington  was  received  in  the  capitm  wix% 
the  acclamations  justly  due  to  the  liberator  of  Spain ;  but  had  tb> 
Spaniards  themselves  used  the  exertions  they  might  have  dout. 
^Napoleon  being  at  this  time  engaged  in  Russia,)  the  Peninsul.^ 
might  probably  have  been  sooner  delivered  from  tne  French,  aft£i 
the  recovery  of  the  capital,  than  proved  to  be  the  case. 

18.  The  latter  made  a  stand  at  Burgos,  which  was  invested  br 
the  English,  but  after  a  siege  of  more  than  a  month,  abandoned  wrl 
considerable  loss ;  the  British  forces  being  once  more  obliged  to  r^ 
tire  as  far  as  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  on  the  frontieis  of  Portugal*  Tii« 
Spaniards,  however,  at  length  appeared  to  be  roused  to  a  pro(>er 
■enseof  their  situation,  and  wisely  confided  to  lord  Wellington  t>kC 
termination  of  this  protracted  war.  In  Deceml^r,  1,812,  lie  u^ 
^pointed  generalissimo,  and  distinguished  by  extraordinary  poweT!k 

19.  It  seemed  now  to  be  practicable  to  end,  by  a  decisive  ao 
Hon,  the  contest  for  the  possession  of  Spain ;  and  lord  Wellingtc  l 
lost  no  time  in  seeking  the  opportunity.    He  took  the  field  In  t^^c- 

Sddle  of  the  month  of  May,  1,813,  and  on  the  2l8t  of  June,  brougU 
i  enemy  to  action  on  the  plains  of  Vittoria.  Never  was  a  vk> 
tory  more  decisive  than  the  one  obtained  at  this  time  by  the  con^* 
bined  British,  Portuguese,  and  Spanish  armies.  Josepn  and  hr 
troops  were  compelled  to  quit  the  field  with  such  extreme  pfecifi- 
tatioQ,  as  to  leave  behind  them  fifty  pieces  of  artillery,  two  tfious-^r.  i 
carriages  of  dififerent  descriptions,  stores*  provisions,  and  an  immen<«- 
booty,  consisting  chiefly  of  the  plunder  of  Madrid,  fortunately  re$cuv<' 
open  this  occasion  from  the  usurper,  who  was  present,  and  v^rr 
oarrowiy  escaped. 

20.  After  the  battle  of  Vittoria*  and  the  fall  of  the  strong  i6%^ 
of  St  Sebastian  and  Pampeluna,  tne  British,  Portuguese,  ana  S[ini«^ 
ish  troops  crossed  the  Bidassoa,  and  entered  France.  Early  r. 
MarclK  the  city  of  Bordeaux  freely  opened  her  gates  to  generJ 
Beresford,  in  tlie  name  of  Lewis  XVlII^at  the  same  time  acunittjc? 
the  khi^^s  nephew,  the  duke  of  Angouleme.  On  the  10th  of  Aprl 
the  British  stormed  the  French  entrenchments  near  Thoulouse.  U- 
the  12th^  eeneral  Soult  filed  out  of  the  town,  tmder  the  muzzles  of 

8ie  British  guns.    On  the  13th,  news  arrived  of  die  abdication  ^ 
uonaparte,  and  the  entrance  of  the  allied  soyere^gns  into  Fan» 

Digitized  by  CjOOQIC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  359 

it  L<  coDJeciored  that  the  French  commander  knew  of  these  things 
bofore^  bat  in  tlie  hope  of  gaining  some  advantage  over  the  iovadeoi 
01  France,  conceaied  it 

21.  Before  the  allies  reached  Paris,  Napoleon  had  released  Fep- 
'fin^ind  Vil.*  whose  return  to  Spain  was,  however,  rendered  very 
uuuccentable  to  manv  who  had  espoused  his  cause  in  his  absence^ 
pirticulariy  theroemoersof  4he  regency  and  existing  cortes,  witn 
n  [)ose  proceedings,  in  regard  to  the  new  constitution  proposed  for 
bis  acceptance,  he  expressed  himself  extremely  displeased ;  they 
hid  previously  refused  to  acknowledge  a  treaty  concluded  by  Ferd^ 
r/ind  with  Buonajmrte.  He  threw  nimself  aJso  into  the  hands  of 
liiose  who  were  friends  to  the  ancient  system,  which,  with  extreme 
t.^otry,  he  endeavoured  to  re-establish  in  its  worst  forms.  From 
tiiat  time  to  the  present  the  nation  has  been  kept  in  a  state  of  con- 
*  ierable  ferment  and  confusion.  By  a  revolution  in  March,  1,820 
iJie  cortes  were  restored,  and  the  free  constitution  of  1,812  pro- 
•Jtimed and  sworn  to  by  the  king.  The  inquisition  also  was  finalfy 
H  oliahed:  but  the  effects  of  these  last  movements  remain  to  be 
j'ro\€KL 

^2.  The  old  kin^.  Charles  IV.,  died  at  Rome,  in  1,819.  The  bat- 
*'.o  of  Vittoria,  which  relieved  Spain  from  the  presence  of  the 
i  ft  nch  armies,  restored  Portugal  to  her  former  UKiependence.  On 
the  'ivth  of  March,  1,816,  the  queen,  Maria  Isabella,  died ;  and  was 
t  icceeded  by  the  present  king,  John  VI.,  who  had  been  regent 
f /]c«  1,799,  the  seat  of  government  being  still  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  io 
LraziL 


SECTION  xvin. 

nUNCE,  FROM  THE  PEACE  OP  TILSIT,  TO  THE  ABDICATION 
OF  NAPOLEON  1,814. 

1.  Tte  treaty  pf  Tilsit  left  Napoleon  at  liberty  to jpunue  his  career 
^  vengeance  and  usurpation  ki  other  countries.  He  obtained  by  it 
•ucb  an  Influence  over  Russia.  Austria,  and  Pmssia,  as  to  kiducft 
'hem  to  break  with  England,  without  any  other  reason;  and  as  soon 
V  he  had  thus  disposed  of  matters  ki  those  quarters,  he  turned  his 
Mews  to  the  Spanish  peninsnhi,  where  a  Bourbon  dynasty  still  ex- 
isted, in  three  months  afler  the  signinc  of  the  treaty  of^Tilsit,  he 
<^<  Deluded  4he  famous  partition-treaty  wito  Spain,  already  spoken  of^ 
-i  Virtue  of  which,  French  troops  were  to  be  allowed  to  pass  into 
i'ortugal,  for  the  sacrifice  of  that  ancient  kingdom;  and  afterwaxxk, 
r  •>  doubt,  in  the  views  and  designs  of  the  French  emperor,  of  Spaio 
i-^  1£ 

^  Of  his  subsequent  invasion  and  occupation  of  both  countriesi 
^rid  of  the  war  for  several  years  carried  on,  before  he  could  be 
o^mpeDed  to  renounce  his  usurped  dominion  ki  Spain,  an  account 
M  given  in  the  ^ceding  section.  On  the  17th  of  December,  1,807. 
!'i  the  aame  spirit  of  resentment  against  Great  Britauuwhich  had 
:.cuted  the  celebrated  decree  of  BerUny  declared  the  British  isles 
't>  be  in  a  state  of  blockade,  the  French  emperor  Issued  another 
^xree,  at  Mlan^  (in  consequence  of  the  British  retaliatoiy  orden 
•if  coQDciL  November  21st,)  by  which  every  ship  which  should 
«AUniC  to  bevisited  by  the  English,  or  consent  to  any  pccuolary 


yGoogk 


»0  MODERN  HlSTORl. 

exactloDS  whatsoever,  should  be  liable  to  confiscation  as  a  la\vfu! 
prize ;  but  his  vengeance  fell  hardest  upon  Portugal,  whose  conv 
mercial  and  political  relations  with  England  so  exa^rated  hira 
that,  in  an  audience  given  to  the  foreign  ministers  at  Fontainebleaui 
he  openly  declared,  that  if  the  regent  of  Portugal  did  not  withiD 
two  months  conform  to  the  continental  system,  and  totally  X€noui>:3 
his  connexions  with  EIngland,  the  house  of  Braganza  shoold  cease  io 
reign.  Such  was  the  haughty  language  of  this  extraordinary  man, 
In  me  face  of  Europe,  after  the  convention  at  Tilsit ! 

3.  In  a  few  days  after  this  denunciation  of  the  Portneuese  dr- 
nasty,  the  regent  closed  his  ports  against  English  ships  of  all  descrip- 
tions, but  not  in  time  to  stop  the  French  armies,  who  pressed  ^D 
closely  upon  him,  that  on  the  29th  of  November,  (see  the  preceding 
auction,)  ne  was  obliged  to  quit  his  European  dominions  for  Rio  J.v- 
neiro,  in  the  Brazils,  and  on  the  very  next  day  Lisbon  was  occupit! 
by  French  troops  under  general  Junot 

4.  The  short-lived  kmgdom  of  Etruria  tvas  brought  to  an  en! 
about  this  time;  and  the  queen-regent,  late  duchess  of  Parrr:^ 
with  the  king,  her  son,  obliged  to  depart  for  Spain,  her  naa\c 
country. 

5.  In  March,  1,808.  a  decree  was  passed  In  France,  ordaining  tho 
renewal  of  titles  of  honour,  princes,  dukes,  counts,  k,c^  and  cr€r 
ating  a  new  order  of  hereditary  nobility,  as  essential  to  an  hcrcc^ 
tary  monarch.  About  the  same  time.  Joseph  Buonaparte  was  i^ 
moved  from  Naples,  and  made  king  of  Spain ;  and  Joachim  Murau 
crand  duke  of  Berg,  married  to  the  sister  of  Napoleon,  was  decbreJ 
King  of  Naples. 

6.  The  kingdoms  of  Naples  and  Italy  bebg  thus  entirely  Id  thd 
hands  of  Buonaparte,  in  order  to  prevent  their  communication  ir< >n 
being  interrupted  by  any  hostile  power,  he  seized  upon  the  popt  i 
temporalities,  for  which  Pius  VL  ventured  to  excommunicate  Liix 


He  nad  the  audacity  to  remind  the  pope,  in  thus  despoiling  iu^^i 
that  the  kingdom  of  Christ  was  not  of  this  world ;  thoush  the  on  y 
reason  alleged  for  what  he  had  done,  was,  that  Pius  haa  refused  il> 
declare  war  against  England ;  a  friendly  power,  and  one  from  wbtcr. 
the  pope  declared  he  had  never  received  the  smallest  hijary. 

7.  On  ^e  9th  of  April,  1,809,  war  was  renewed  with  Austrta, 
and  so  rapid  was  the  prbgress  of  the  French,  that  after  three  seveiie 
actions  at  Abensberg,  F/:kmuhl,  and  Ratisbon,  Vienna  was  ciHnpelitHi 
to  capitulate  on  the  12th  of  May.  The  Austrians,  afterwards,  under 
the  archduke  Charles,  gained  some  advantages  over  Buonaparte ; 
but,  before  the  autumn  was  passed,  a  peace  was  concluded,  at  Vieo- 
oa,  extremely  hmnilitating  to  Francis  II.  To  France  he  was  obli£"  < 
to  cede  the  Ulyrian  provinces;  to  Bavaria,  Saltzbunz;  to  Sa^oi.y. 
Che  whole  of  West  Gallicki;  and  to  Russia,  East  Gamcia;  he  w^.^ 
moreover,  compelled  to  accede  to  the  continental  system  agai.'^i 
England,  and  to  acknowledge  Joseph  Buonaparte  as  Idng  of  bpai* 

£  But  as  if  these  concessions  were  not  sufficient  to  mortify  l^ 
{pride  of  the  head  of  the  empire,  and  representative  of  the  house « f 
liapsburgh  and  Lorraine,  tne  French  emperor,  to  the  surprise  v] 
Europej  demanded  and  obtained  in  marriage  the  daughter  of  Fr.i> 
CIS  U.,  the  archduchess  Maria  Louisa,  having  previously  been,  imi^j 
great  form,  divorced  ftvm  the  empress  Josephine,  with  her  ot^:. 
consent,  for  the  express  purpose  or  fonnmg  a  connexion  of  hiEb-.! 
hopes,  ai^  affiordinea  prospect  of  an  heir  to  his  newly  acquireJ  vs- 
-pnal  domioioDB.   The  marriage  took  place  at  Pyuria,  April  S,  l,8ia 

Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  96i 

9.  Intent  upon  providing  for  everr  branch  of  his  £imily,  the 
cmnd  dochj  of  Tuscany  was  revivedf  by  Napoleon,  in  1,809,  and 
ronfcrred  on  his  sister  Eiiza,  princess  of  Lucca  and  Piombino. 
Tiie  grand  docliy  of  Berg,  vacated  by  the  removal  of  his  brother- 
in-law,  Joachim  Murat,  to  the  throne  of  Naples,  was  given  to  Louis, 
iw  nephew,  son  of  the  king  of  Holland  ;  and  on  the  17th  of  May 
f'.o  pope'^s  temporalities  were  declared  to  be  incorporated  with  the 
French  dominions,  and  the  title  of  king  of  Komc  appropriated  to  the 
imperial  prince,  neirtothe  French  empire.  The  situation  of  the 
p.i[Ail  territories,  between  the  kingdoms  of  Italy  and  Naples,  ^vas 
Mich  as  in  hostile  hands  might  be  made  use  of  to  intercept  the  conv 
mnoication  between  the  two ;  and  therefore  the  pope,  who  appcnreJ 
fticndly  to  England,  was  of  necessity  to  be  desjjoilcd  of  his  dcmiin- 
Nis,  but  to  receive  a  revenue  of  two  millions  ol  francs.  The  new 
i<>ii>timtional  government  was  to  be  in  full  activity  and  force  on  the 
bl  ol' January,  1,810.  On  the  14th  of  January,  1,810,  the  clcctoi^ 
i  te  of  Hanover  was  annexed  to  the  dominion  of  the  eniporor's 
Innher,  Jerome,  king  of  Westphalia ;  anil  on  the  20lh  of  Slarch, 
i.oll.  Napoleon  was  gratified  with  the  birth  of  a  son,  who,  nccoril- 
>  ^  to  the  arrangements  already  spoken  of,  was  immediately  tligui- 
t'Lxl  with  the  title  of  kin^  of  Rome. 

10.  In  Jane,  1,812,  Napoleon,  offended  with  some  parts  of  tlni 
rtuhiucl  of  the  emperor  of  Russia,  who  had  begun  to  approciate 
M«  re  justly  the  character  of  the  artful  and  ambitious  Co»"sican, 
« Jioe  more  declared  war  against  him,  having  inlluence,  besides,  lo 
T  re  vail  upon  Prussia  and  Austria  to  join  him.  His  advance  towardb 
lui'  Russian  dominions  was  most  rapid  ;  hut,  consiilering  the  distaiico 
t  •  which  he  was  carrying  his  army,  and  the  inveterate  hatred  and 
1'  iignation  be  had  excited  by  his  bold  threats  again«st  his  imperial 
•i'\  crsary,  his  subjects,  and  his  empire,  extremely  rash.  1  lis  poue/, 
'J  is  true,  was  immense,  400,000,  infantry,  GO,UUO  cavalry,  and  K200 
,  tees  of  artillery;    Germans,  Polandei-s,   Dutch,  »Su'iss,  Italians, 

juniards,  and  Portuguese,  being  numbered  amonj^st  his   troops; 

•  it  nothing  could  exceed  the  anger  and  resentment  of  the  Rus- 

U.  On  the  9th  of  May  the  French  ruler  left  St.  Cloud;  on  the 

'.  Ilh  of  June  he  crossed  the  I^iemen,  and  on  the  14th  of  September 

lained  his  crand  object  of  entering  the  aipilnl  of  the  j\luscovltc 

•  minions.    But  his  reception  wjis  lar  iVom  being  such  as  ho  e»- 
••  ted,  or  such  as  he  had  met  with  in  other  capitak    The  cMy  vms 

:..  •  d  by  order  of  the  governor,  and  by  the  hands  of  the  enraged  ii*- 
.  E'itants;  and  the  French  had  only  ruins  to  occupy,  in  a  latiiu^V  to 

•  I'.di  they  were  totally  unaccustomed,  and  with  all  the  horrors  of 
.^.Nerian  winter  before  them. 

12.  On  the  10th  of  October,  after  having  solicited  an  annistice, 
:  1  proposed  neace,  both  of  which  were  peremptorily  refused, 
<\.«maparte  ana  his  disappointed  army    began  their  dreary    and 

•  liious  march  back  to  !■  ranee.  Nothing  could  exceed  the  dilh- 
cities  and  distresses  to  which  they  were  exposed,  from  the  severi- 
'<  of  the  weather  and  climate,  and  the  attiicks  of  the  Kus.«iana| 

.urn  BIoscow  to  the  capital  of  Lithuania,  where  they  arrived  on 

'i»'  lOth  of  December.    On  the  Cth,  the  emperor  Napoleon  totally 

Mndooed  his  harassed  army  to  its  fate,  having  quitted  it  at  iSm<  f- 

'fiie  in  disguise:  destroyed  the  brid2:cs  by  wliich  he  passed,  regard- 

^  of  those  be  left  benind;  nnd  tra\  crying  Pt.Iand  and  Germany, 

iMiiie  the  best  of  his  way  to  i'uusj  where  he  ariivod  at  midrig'it, 

Hh  40 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


3e«  MODERN  HlSTORr. 

December  18,  having  lost,  or  rather  sacrificed,  upwardi  of  ISO/NXI 
men,  including  prisoners,  167,500. 

13.  it  was  naturally  expected  that  this  total  defeat  of  all  hb 
projects  in  regard  to  liussia,  together  with  the  miserable  coodition  of 
his  arm^  when  it  reached  tne  confines  of  Fraace,  would  have  tecmf* 
natcd  his  giddy  career  of  pride  and  ambition  r  but  in  this  the  world 
w»s  deceived.  In  the  following  year,  he  eageriy  resumed  hostilities, 
hat  manifestly  to  great  disadvantage.  Though  he  was  readily  faP" 
nished  with  a  fresh  army,  amountmg  to  350^00  men,  he  bad  sooo 
opposed  to  him  not  only  Russia,  but  Austria!,  Prussia,  and  Sweden, 
.<uL)sldized  by  England.  Several  of  the  confederates  of  the  Rhine 
ventured  to  abandon  his  cause ;  and  it  became  very  apparent  that 
the  tiUied  powers  were  more  in  earnest  and  more  united  now  than 
on  any  former  occasion.  Many  battles  were  fought  in  the  course  of 
the  summer,  with  doubtful  success,  till,  at  last,  the  great  **  Battle  of 
Nations,"  as  it  has  fitly  enough  been  called,  took  place  at  Leipzig. 
io  which  the  French  sustained  so  signal  a  defeat,  as  seemed  evident Iv 
to  prognosticate  the  ruin  and  discomfiture  of  the  great  disturber  of 
Europe.  This  celebrated  battle,  or  succession  of  engagements 
took  place  on  the  16tb,  18th,  and  19th  days  of  October.  Leip»4 
was  taken  only  two  hours  af^er  Buonaparte  had  effected  hb  escape. 
The  king  of  Saxony  and  all  his  court  were  captured  by  the  allie>; 
a  French  garrison  of  30.000  men,  besides  22,000  sick  and  wounded, 
with  the  h  rcnch  magazines,  artillery,  and  stores.  The  emperor  of 
Russia,  the  king  of  Prussia,  and  crown  prince  of  Sweden,  each  ai 
the  head  of  their  respective  troops,  made  their  entry  into  the  town 
at  different  points,  after  the  engagement  of  the  19th,  and  met  In  lh€ 

:reat  square,   amidst  the    universal  acclamations  of  the  people. 

ust  before  the  battle  of  Leipzig,  the  allies  derived  great  advantage 
from  the  defection  of  the  kings  of  Bavaria  and  Wirtemberg,  and  xhtj 
gnind  duke  of  Baden,  from  the  cause  of  France,  and  the  conBeque^t 
junction  of  55,000  oi'  the  Bavarian  troops ;  aod  during  the  action  of 
the  18th,  a  party  of  the  Saxons,  bringing  with  them  22  guns,  desert- 
ed to  the  crown  prince  of  Sweden,  and  desired  to  be  led  direcify 
against  the  French.  So  much  was  the  aspect  of  things  changed  will 
regard  to  the  destinies  of  Buonaparte,  who,  on  his  return  to  ParK 
had  but  too  much  reason  to  declare,  (as  he  did  in  his  speech  to  X\it 
senate  on  the  14th  of  November,)  ^^  All  Europe  was  with  us  a  ye^ir 
ago, — all  Europe  is  now  against  us.'' 

14.  The  immediate  consequences  of  the  victory  at  Leipzig  wcrt, 
Che  dissolution  of  the.  new-erected  kingdom  of  Westphalia,  aod  Hk 
grand  duchies  of  Berg  and  Frankfort  The  dukes  of  Brunswick 
and  Hesse  Casscl  recovered  their  dominions,  and  the  prince  of 
Orange  was  not  merely  restored  to  his  stadtnolderate  in  HollaDil, 
but  proclaimed  sovereign  of  the  United  Netherlands.  On  the  2d  oJ 
December,  1,813,  the  allies  passed  the  Rhine:  the  southern  frontier 
of  the  Pyrenees  having  been  invaded  by  the  liritish  and  PortugucM 
Id  October  preceding. 

15.  Though  four  great  armies  of  the  allies  were  now  w*itbin  th» 
territories  of  France,  their  work  was  not  accomplished.  Tuti 
French  generals,  and  Buonaparte  himself,  who,  in  a  very  affection 
onnner,  quitted  Paris  on  the  25th  of  January,  1,814,  interrupteu' 
the  progress  of  the  Russians,  Prussians  and  Austrians,  endeaTOureU 
io  prevent,  in  every  way  they  could,  tneir  advance  upon  the  capital, 
out  all  their  exertions  proved  vain,  though  the  attainment  or  tba* 
great  object  was  def<^rred  for  some  months.    It  was  not  till  the  3  lit 

Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


5 


MODERN  HISTORY.  363 

day  oTMarcb^  that  their  triumph  may  be  said  to  have  been  complel- 
cd :  on  that  day  the  emperor  of  Russia  and  the  king  of  Prussia,  aC 
the  head  of  their  respective  annies,  entered  Paris  in  the  most  solemn 
and  imposing  manner.  On  the  2d  of  April,  Buonaparte  was  formally 
deposed  by  the  senate,  and  on  the  11th  he  was  permitted  to  abdicate^ 
upon  terms  judged  by  manjr  to  be  far  too  favourable.  He  was  al- 
lowed to  retire  to  Elba,  (a  residence  of  his  own  choice,)  retaining  his 
imperial  titles,  and  having  that  island  and  its  dependencies  assigned  lo 
lum  as  sovereign,  with  a  revenue  of  two  millions  of  francs.  The  duch- 
ies of  Parma,  Uuastalla,  and  Placentia,  were  at  the  same  time  secured 
to  the  empress  Maria  Louisa,  and  her  descendants,  and  provision 
made  for  aJi  his  other  relations.  Buonaparte,  having  previously  had 
agtiardappointedfSet  out/On  the  20th  for  the  seat  of  his  new  muI 
very  reduced  dominions,  nftuch  exposed  occasionally  on  his  passage  to 
popular  resentment 

16.  On  the  the  entrance  of  the  allies,  they  were  careful  in  their 
manifestoes  to  distinguish  between  the  French  people,  or  nation  at 
Urjre,  andthe  tyrant  whom  they  had  conspirecT  to  overthrow ;  and 
cTUkced  the  strongest  disposition  to  bury  in  oblivion,  with  becoming 
magnnoimity  and  forbearance,  the  numberless  insdli*;}  and  injuries 
they  had  received  at  the  hands  of  the  French,  while  uiidor  tlie  do- 
minion of  their  now  prostrate  foe.  They  took  no  steps  to  force  upon 
them  the  exiled  familv,  but  lef\  the  settlement  of  tlicir  govenmieut 
and  constitution  entirely  to  the  senate  and  provisional  administration. 
The  Bourbons  hud  been  proclaimed  in  the  south,  and  the  count 
d'Artoa  appeared  at  Paris  on  the  13th  of  April;  but  the  recal  of 
the  king  waa  the  work  of  the  French  themselvea,  as  we  shall  have 
(MxaaioQ  to  obaerve  in  a  subsequent  section. 

SECTION  XIX. 

POLAND,    FROM     THE     COMMENCEMENT    OF    TIIE    EIGH- 
TEENTH CENTURY  TO  THE  TREATY  OF  VIENNA,  1,815. 

I.  No  country  in  Europe  has  suffered  more  from  a  faulty  constitu 
tioo  than  the  kingdom  of  Poland.  No  country  lias  afibnlcd  more 
coQvincing  proofs  of  the  mischiefs  appertaining  to  an  elective  mon 
arrhy,  the  constant  source  not  only  of  internal  commoliot)!s%  cabal, 
•md  intrigue,  but  the  occasion  genenilly,  upon  every  vacancy,  or 
toreign  interference.  At  no  era  did  Poland  suffer  more,  perhatis, 
trom  this  combination  of  evils,  than  towards  the  commencement 
"t  the  eighteenth  century ;  nor  has  she  ever  since  been  able  to  re- 
<'>verher  independence.  The  arbitrary,  though  not  unprovoked^ 
rrnceedings  of  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  in  1,704.  when  he  deposed 
Augustus,  and  insisted  upon  placing  Stanislaus  on  the  throne,  in  despite 
ot  Austria  and  Russia,  phunly  showed  how  little  power  a  divided 
<'ounlry  possesses  against  the  encroachments  of  an  ambitious  nt  i;;!^ 
lx)ur,  and  how  naturally  the  interference  of  one  such  neighbuur 
fipo^es  the  invaded  countrj^  to  similar  measures  on  the  part  of 
•fhers;  for  Augustus  himsell  had  been  previously  forced  upon  the 
I'oles  by  Russia.  From  the  above  period  to  the  present  day  Poland 
hiis  been  exposed  to  a  continual  recurrence  of  such  events;  and  lo 
promote  the  views  of  a  combination  of  foreign  potentates,  kept  in  a 
fcintc  ol'  interaal  disunion  and  distraction,  constantly  &TOurable  to 
Uieir  ambttioQB  designs. 

^  Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


364  Modern  history. 

2.  Augnsto,  elector  of  Saxony,  who  was  deposed  in  1,704^  tnd 
compelled  formally  to  abdicate  tne  throne  by  the  treaty  of  Alt- 
Ranstadt,  in  U706,  was  restored  by  the  assistance  of  Russia,  aAer 
the  battle  oi  rultawa  in  1,709,  and  reigned  for  the  space  of  twentj- 
four  years,  dying  in  K733.  (SecL  I.)  iiis  rei^n  was  far  from  beio^ 
an  happy  one  :  he  ofitended  the  Poles  by  the  introduction  of  Saxoa 
troop^  and  by  residing  too  much  away  from  them  in  his  electoral 
dominions :  he  lived  in  the  midst  of  Mictions  and  conspiracies,  being 
continually  at  war  with  the  disnderUs  or  anti-caihoHcs^  ivhile  he  totally 
fiiiled  in  his  endeavours  to  render  himself  absolute,  or  the  crown  he- 
reditary in  his  family. 

3.  The  war  whicn  arose  upon  the  death  of  Augustus,  has  hern 
already  noticed.  Had  the  Poles  been  wise  enousn  to  remedy  thai 
great  defect  in  their  constitution,  which  rendered  the  crown  eleo 
/tve,  they  could  not  have  done  better,  perhaps,  than  to  have  made 
it  hereditary  in  the  person  and  family  of  Stanislaus  Lesciosky,  the 
principal  competitor  of  the  house  of  Saxony,  he  being  a  Pole  bv 
uirth,  and  very  amiable  in  his  private  character :  but  they  were  nl> 
longer  their  own  masters;  and  they  were  divided  amongst  tUt-Miv 
selves  to  such  a  degree  as  to  render  the  interposition  of  some  foreign 
power  almost  necessary  to  determine  their  choice.  Upon  (his  oc- 
casion the  emperor  of  Germany,  whose  niece  the  yomig  elector  of 
Saxony  had  married,  assisted  by  the  Russians,  overcame  tlie  Freoca 
influence  which  had  been  exerted  in  favour  of  Stanislaus,  and,  bv 
effectually  removing  the  latter,  procured  the  election  to  fali  on  the 
•on  of  the  late  king,  Augustus  ill. 

4.  This  kiojg  of  Poland,  on  the  death  of  the  emperor  Charles  VL 
1,740,  laid  claim  to  the  whole  Austrian  succession ;  and  not  altogethei 
without  reason,  had  not  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  stood  in  his  wav. 
his  wife  being  the  eldest  daughter  of  the  emperor  Joseph,  elder 
brother  of  Charles  VI. ;  the  obiect  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  boin| 
to  secure  the  inheritance  to  the  females,  in  default  of  noale  i$sue; 
and  on  the  demise  of  Charles  VL,  his  daughter  becoming  his  immedi- 
ate heir  and  representative,  it  certainly  appeared  hard  that  the 
daughter  of  the  elder  brother,  who  had  been  emperor,  should  be  so 
entirely  excluded.  The  hope  of  succeeding  to  some  part,  at  lea^t, 
of  the  late  emperor^s  hereditary  dominions,  induced  the  kineof  Po- 
land to  enter  into  a  confederacy  with  Bavaria,  Prussia,  and  France, 
Bfsunst  the  house  of  Austria;  but  he  derived  no  advantage  from  tli« 
alliance :  he  aRerwards  changed  sides,  and  at  the  commencement  ol 
the  seven  years^  war,  as  has  been  before  shown,  (Sect  VL)  soffercil 
moat  severely  for  havmg  espoused  the  case  of  the  empress  queeO} 
and  entertained  views  against  Prussia,  which  the  wary  severe^  ot 
the  latter  country  found  means  to  detect,  and  cruelly  to  revenge. 

5.  It  was  not  likely  that  a  king  who  owed  his  election  so  entire^ 
to  the  interference  of  foreign  powers,  should  acquire  any  thin? 
like  mdependence.  or  authority  at  home  or  abroad.  Dunog  ihi 
reign  of  Augustus  III.  great  feuds  and  animosities  prevailed  amoog 
the  Magnats,  while  tl^  king  himself  was  entirely  subject  to  thd 
iDfluence  of  Russia;  a  circumstance  so  resented  by  his  subjects ai 
to  induce  them  to  avail  themselves  of  the  privilege  of  the  Liberm^ 
V^^  to  dissolve  all  the  diets  he  convoked,  and  thus  leave  the  kln^ 
dom  almost  without  any  government  Augustus  III.  died  in  tlie  yeai 
1,763,  at  a  period  when  me  Russian  sceptre  had  passed  into  liasils 
well  fitted  to  promote,  in  every  way  possible,  (just  or  urijust.)  itf 
>mnndlgement  and  spleodoor.   Catneiine  IL  is  supposed  to  m^ 

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MODERN  HISTORY.  365 

baid  her  eyes  upon  Poland  before  the  demise  of  Angustiis,  and  lo 
have  been  prepared  not  only  to  set  aside  the  son  of  the  latter,  but  to 
advance  to  the  vacant  throne  some  creature  of  her  own ;  she  paid  no 
attention  therefore  to  the  solicitations  of  the  house  of  Saxony,  and  wrs 
very  shortly  relieved,  indeed,  from  all  competition  in  that  quarter, 
by  the  early  death  of  the  new  elector.  In  conjunction  with  Prussia 
she  succeeded,  but  not  without  a  spirited  opposition  on  the  part  of  a 
ftw  Polish  patriots,  in  bestowing  the  crown  of  Poland  on  count  Fo- 
lualowski,  one  of  her  favourites,  and  a  Pole  by  birth ;  a  man  of  talent, 
a:.<]  amiable  in  his  disposition,  but  likely  to  continue,  as  well  as  hli 
pri'decessor,  entirely  under  her  control. 

6.  Nothing  could  be  a  greater  mockery  than  the  care  which  the 
rzarina  and  the  king  of  Prussia  pretended  to  take  of  the  liberties  oi 
riand,  at  the  very  moment  that  they  were  forcing  upon  the  nation 
a  king  of  their  own  choice  and  nomination.  So  far  from  trying 
to  amend  their  faulty  constitution,  and  eradicate  the  seeds  of  future 
.i!uniosities,  they  particularly  entered  into  an  agreement  to  prevent 
I'le  king  rendering  the  crown  hereditary  in  his  family,  or  becoming 
.li-^olule  ;  that  is,  m  fact,  independent^  or  powerful :  for  this  was  their 
;ri  at  ol'ject.  And  when  it  was  to  be  submitted  to  the  diet  to  ap- 
prove llieir  nominee,  and  declare  count  Poniatowski  king,  a  Rus- 
>i  m  army  was  sent  to  Warsaw,  to  support  ihe^rtedom  of  the  election, 
'i'lie  choice  of  the  diet  of  course  was  soon  decided  to  be  in  favour  of 
r!»e  Russian  favourite,  who  became  king  accordingly,  September  7, 
l,7u4,  under  the  name  and  title  of  Stanii^laus  Augustus. 

7.  From  this  period,  the  three  neighbouring  powers,  Russia, 
Prussia,  and  Austria,  the  two  former,  however,  most  particularly, 
mny  be  said  to  have  been  interested  in  the  internal  dissensions  of 
/m.iI  unhappy  kingdom,  which  afforded  them  plausible  grounds  ot 
i.M'  rlbrence,  and  which  Ihoy  could  therefore  have  no  sincere  incli- 
■i  ttion  to  allay  or  adjust  till  they  had  cftectually  gained  their  own  ends : 
'Uo  object  of  Russia  probably  was  to  maintain  her  own  power  and 
Ascendancy  over  the  whole  country ;  but  Pni?eia  meditated  a  parti- 
tion, which  might  put  her  into  possession  of  Polish  or  Westem  rrus 
^.1,  a  district  of  much  importance  in  every  point  of  view. 

0.  Whatever  may  have  been  originally  the  distinct  views  of  the 

«*\oral  parties,  it  is  very  certain  that  they  derived  peculiar  advan- 

'  i*'ii  from  the  extremely  unsettled  state  of  the  coimtry,  which  was 

at  tilts  lime  torn  to  pieces  by  the  contests  and  disputes  between  the 

■  .ahoUcs  and  dissidents^  or  dissenters  from  the  established  religion : 

iAt  latter,  who  since  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  had  ac- 

I'ured  many  privileges,  were  supported  Ivv  several  diflerent  foreign 

'•*»crs;  those  of  the  Greek  church  by  Russia,  and  the  protestanls 

I    all  persuasions  by  Prussia,  Denmark,  and  Great  Britain,  all  of 

.^iioin  ivere  called  upon  to  interpose  as  guarantees  of  the  famous 

. '  iiy  of  Oliva,  1,660.    The  diet^  Instigated  by  the  court  of  Rome 

.  mI  heads  of  the  church,  judged  it  right  to  uphold  the  established 

nil,  and  Stanislaus,  though  his  principles  were  more  tolerant  and 

'.  leral,  appeared  to  take  the  same  side,  being  jealous  also  of  the  too 

j:«  At  power  of  Russia,  of  which  he  could  not  fuil  to  be  contlnualy 

; '  intoded,  not  only  by  the  open  favour  shown  to  the  dissidents  by 

itiierioe,  but  by  the  insolent  superiority  assumed  by  her  general, 

•  'mmaiMiing  in  Poland,  prince  Repnin,  and  the  extremely  arbitrary 

'  <  1  sanguinary  manner  m  which  tne  empress  sought  to  msuntain  her 

;  i^-'ponderance. 

^^  la  the  mewi  while  confederacies  were  forming  In  all  parti  ol 

"**'  Digitized  by  V^OOgie 


366  '  MODEliN  HISTORY. 

the  kingdom  to  restore,  if  possible,  the  independence  of  tUeft 
coiin'.ry,  (such  at  least  was  the  object  of  the  catholics,)  or  to  nm 
cure  for  the  protestaats  all  the  rights  and  privileges  to  which  they 
laid  daim,  and  of  some  of  which  they  had  been  onjust]^  deprived 
The  latter,  under  prince  liadzivil,  supported  by  Russian  lrooj>s 
compelled  the  diet  of  Warsaw,  in  the  year  1,767,  to  accede  lo 
their  demands :  this  hastened  the  grand  confederacy  of  the  cattu*- 
lics  at  Bar,  in  Podolia,  in  1^768^  whose  objecl  was  to  throw  off  iUr 
Russian  yoke,  with  the  aid  ot  Turkey,  wh6  bad  been  induced  !  t 
France  to  declare  war  against  the  Russians  in  that  very  year,  upt»M 
the  occasion  of  the  latter  having  passed  their  frontier  in  pursrun^ 
a  Polish  party,  and  committed  considerable  depredations. 

10.  Though  the  confederate  catholics  had  clearly  the  good  r  f 
their  country  in  view,  yet  such  was  the  influence  of  Russia,  tKai 
the  king  anci  senate  were  compelled  by  Catherine  to  declare  wur 
against  the  Porte,  and  so  far  to  counteract,  as  much  as  poAsihli:, 
the  eflorts  that  were  making  to  accomplish  their  own  independeiict- . 
In  Austria,  indeed,  during  this  stage  of  the  business,  the  confede- 
rates at  Bar  had  a  friend  in  Maria  Theresa,  who  espoused  lh«* 
claims  of  the  Saxon  family,  and  who  sent  them  both  arms  aiui 
money,  to  enable  them  to  check,  if  jpossible,  the  domineering  pro- 
ceedings of  the  czarina,  of  which  incfeed  she  had  good  cause  lo  be 
jealous.  Hut  the  time  was  approaching  m  which,  notwithstanding 
the  most  striking  and  formal  declarations  to  the  contrary,  Polan^i 
was  to  become  a  prey  to  her  three  more  powerful  Deighbours,  and 
when  all  other  feelings  were  to  give  way  to  that  of  duly  apportion- 
ing  and  dividing  the  spoils  of  that  mihappy  country. 

11.  It  seems  now  to  be  pretty  generally  a|;reed.  that  the  plan 
ot  dismembering  this  unfortunate  kmgdom  originated  with  the  kmg 
of  Prussia,  or  his  brother,  prince  Ilenry ;  and  that  it  was  owing  to 
particular  cux^umstances  that  they  were  able  to  brine  the  two  o&er 

forties  so  readilv  to  acquiesce  in  their  measures  ofpartiticD.  Had 
rederick  himself  been  more  rapacious,  it  wouM  prooably  not  have 
been  so  easily  accomplished,  but,  fai  order  to  gain  what  he  ino«t 
coveted,  for  his  own  snare,  l^e  appeared  willing  to  allow  the  other 
two  partitioning  powers  to  acquire  rather  more  than  feQ  to  bis  lot, 
both  in  extent  of  territory  and  amount  of  population.  In  admitting 
Austria  to  any  share  at  all,  he  made  no  scruple  to  assert  that  Kl-* 
principal  motive  was,  that  she  should  bear  her  part  in  the  blamM 
that  must  attach  to  so  arbitrary  and  rapacious  an  act 

12.  Though  the  Polish  king  and  nation  were  compelled  to  ai- 
quicsce  in  these  proceedings  of  the  three  powers,  they  did  not  (\r 
no  without  remonstrating  in  terms  the  most  striking  and  dignified ; 
accompanying  their  remonstrances  and  manifestoes  with  an  opt'i. 
appeal  to  the  several  states  which  had  guarantied  the  integrity  oi 
Poland ;  but  all  in  vain.  They  obtained  no  assistance  from  foreigu 
states,  no  abatement  of  their  demands  on  the  part  of  the  pai- 
titioning  powers,  and  were  at  length  obliged,  by  a  solemn  diet,  to 
iKinction  this  gross  dismemberment  of  their  country.  In  two  sew- 
i-al  discussions  of  the  case,  however,  in  the  senate,  and  assembly 
of  Nuncios,  the  minority  on  the  division  was  most  numerous  m^\ 
respectable.  In  the  former,  the  question  was  carried  by  a  major- 
ity of  six  only,  in  the  latter  by  one.  The  motive  alleged  by  the 
partitioning  powers,  for  this  extraordinary  proceeding  was,  that  tiie v 
were  anxious  to  amend  th6  constitution,  to  preserve  tiie  libertie» 
of  Poland,  and  to  appease  the  disorders  which  bad  for  so  long  a 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  367 

rpace  of  time  distaTbed  tbe  country,  but  they  fulfilled  none  of  these 
pretended  patposes.  They  did  uothing  to  amend  the  constitution, 
nut  ioipoaed  a  new  one  upon  them,  fraught  with  those  rerv 
imperfections,  of  which  they  might  for  ever  continue  to  take  ad- 
\;intage.  They  perpetuated  Uie  elective  monarchy,  abridged 
more  than  ever  the  authority  of  the  king,  and  continued  the  fU/c- 
mm  veta^  a  sort  of  tribunitial  privilege,  exceedingly  inimical  to 
ttie  peace  of  the  country.  So  rar  from  upholding,  they  trampled 
»ipou  their  liberties  in  every  way  they  could,  and  promoted  the  di^ 

•  •rJers  they  pretended  to  remove,  by  encouraging,  rather  tlKin 
inpcklog,  the  licentious  conduct  of  their  soldiery.  In  fact,  a 
^( eater  act  of  atrocity,  or  a  more  bare&ced  mockery  of  natiunal 
:i'elin^  never  perhaps  took  place,  or  was  even  attempted,  than  in 
"lo  dismemberment  of  the  kingdom  of  Poland.  Austria  and  Prus- 
-in  did,  indeed,  make  an  attempt  to  vmdicate  their  claims  to  llu: 
'  «>iintries-tbey  took  possession  of;  but  Russia  scarcely  jucige(i  it 
1 «  cessary  to  make  any  declaration  to  that  effect.  The  archives  oC 
(vus^ia  and  Hungary  were  ransacked,  and  titles  revived  and  in 
^i<kui  upon,  which,  to  say  the  least,  had  been  in  abeyance  for  many 
» ♦  nturies.  How  far  this  measure  may  justly  be  said  to  have  affecU'd 
I'r.ti  balance  of  power  in  Europe,  is  a  distinct  case.  For  a  long  scries 
vf  yeai^  if  not  of  ages,  Poland  had  been  so  ill  governed,  or  so  weak, 
;iv  to  hiive  had  little  influence  on  that  balance,  though  ner  situation 
-"eioed  to  point  her  oat,  and  still  appears  to  do  so,  as  capable  of  ma- 
tt ri;iJly  ionuencing  or  counteracting  the  operations  of  her  many  pou- 

•  rtul  and  ambitious  neighbours,  Russia,  Prussia,  Austria,  and  Turkey, 
i  he  worst  consequence,  however,  arising  from  the  confeder.ti'y 
.•gainst  Poland,  seems  to  nave  been  the  countenance  thereby  gix^^n 
(i  the  Dartitionmg  system  in  general 

13.  It  was  in  the  year  1,773  that  the  division  was  finally  agreed 
u\  and  settled,  and  even  sanctioned  by  the  Polish  diet  Of  bonK*- 
wUat  more  than  tkirieen  thouund  square  German  leagues  ot^  tenj- 
\  ir>',  the  partitioning  powers  took  a  good  thin],  takine  at  the  siitn^ 
u:n^  no  measures  to  lessen  the  evils  arising  from  the  detective  ci<n> 
<  -  tution  of  Poland,  in  the  portion  allotted  to  the  natives.  It  tu\\>l 
!.«•  acknowledged,  that  they  bestowed  great  pains  on  the  impro\t«- 
T.M'rit  of  their  respective  shares;  but  no  benehts  of  this  nature,  coih 
,  rred  on  particuuir  parts  of  the  country,  could  compensate  lor  ilm 
<.t;t'eelinf  depredations  committed  upon  the  whole. 

14.  The  iollowing  has  been  given  as  a  fair  representation  of  thtt 
{virts  allotted  to  the  several  powers,  by  the  delegates  appointt>d  U> 
.)  ijiist  tbe  resnective  claims.  Other  accounts,  indeed,  are  extari;, 
^v)lich  it  would  be  difficult  to  attempt  to  reconcile  with  the  vue 
v>t?  are  about  to  give;  a  very  exact  statement,  however,  may  mt 
iH'  necessary.  The  Russian  allotment  consisted  of  Polish  Li\oni;i. 
f>iru  of  the  palatinates  of  Witepsk,  Polotsk,  and  Minsk,  and  tiitr 
tvliole  pabtinate  of  liicislaw,  containing  a  population  of  I,500^0lH.» 

•  ouls.  The  king  of  Prussia  obtained  the  district  called  Royal,  cr 
Western  Pnasla,  excepting  the  towns  of  Dantzic  and  Thom,  with 
a  popobtioD  of  860,000  souls.  Austria  gained  a  large  territory  ii« 
I  lie  south  of  Poland,  comprismg  Red  Russia,  Gallicia,  and  parl<<  ol 
iie  palatinates  of  Cracow.  Sandomir,  Lublin,  Bezk,  V^olhynia,  and 
Po«iolia,  containing  a  population  of  2,500,000  souls,  and  the  vatuatd^- 
fi;ilt'WokBof  Vielitzka,  wnich  produced  an  annual  revenue  of  jC(K),(m)u. 

I'his  district  was  annexed  to  the  Austrian  territories,  under  the  nn- 
4,.cat  appellation  of  tbe  kingd)ms  of  GaUicia  and  Lodomcria.    bucif 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


36H  MODERN  HISTORY. 

were  the  results  of  what  is  now  distingubhed  bj  the  name  of  Om 

FIRST  partition  of  Poland. 

15.  The  little  assistance  Poland  received  to  ward  off  the  disgrace 
and  misery  of  this  first  partition,  the  extraordinarj  apathy  with 
which  it  seemed  to  be  beheld  by  the  other  powers  of  Europe,  l^^i^ 
little  hopes  of  her  regeneration,  or  escape  from  the  tolb  into  wliich 
she  had  fallen ;  nor  mdeed  has  she  ever  escapied  from  them,  or 
recovered  the  smallest  degree  of  independence.  AAer  the  iii< 
partition,  the  object  she  had  most  to  dread  was  some  accidcniil 
disunion  of  the  partitioning  powers,  who  would  be  sure  to  wrc.k 
their  vengeance  upon  her:  and  an  event  of  this  very  nature  seciM 
b  have  been  the  cause  of  what  has  been  called  the  second  parti- 
tion, in  1,793.  Russia  and  Austria,  in  the  years  1,787  and  1,788,  <  v 
too  close  an  alliance,  having  given  umbrage. to  the  king  of  Pru^;^i:i, 
he  insisted  that  the  constitution  formed  for  Poland,  in  U773,  n.is 
void,  and  offered  to  assist  the  Poles  in  framing  a  new  one,  whkL 
was  completed  under  his  auspices.  May  3,  1,791.  Had  this  con-:i>- 
tution  been  able  to  keep  its  ground,  Poland,  so  much  of  it  at  lea^: 
as  remained  to  the  natives,  might  have  recovered  some  degree  <•! 
credit  and  freedom ;  it  was  in  a  great  measure  the  work  of  real 
patriots,  enlightened  and  moderate  reformers;  it  aboUsheJ  tii- 
liberum  veto^  and  the  elective  monarchy,  except  in  the  case  of  th" 
extinction  of  some  hereditary  dynasty ;  it  rendered  the  person  i  ( 
the  king  inviolable,  but  gave  hini  responsible  ministers ;. it  pro vi.!- 
ed  a  representative  senate,  not  much  differing  from  the  EDglMt 
house  of  commons.  Unhappily,  this  good  work  found  eneniie> 
amongst  the  ancient  nobles,  who  did  not  like  to  give  up  their  pit  - 
tensions  to  royalty,  and  who  had  recourse  to  the  old  and  ruiooiH 
expedient  of  inviting  foreign  help,  always  at  hand  to  avail  itsoii* 
of  the  internal  commotions  of  that  devoted  country.  Russia  wy< 
called  in,  by  the  confederates  of  Targovitz,  and  a  renewal  of  Icssi^ 
and  calamities  ensued  of  course.  The  king  of  Prussia,  so  far  I'rin 
^pporting  the  new  constitution^  the  diet,  or  the  king,  as  he  seem- 
ed absolutely  bound  to  do,  by  his  own  acts,  eagerly  seized  upon  tiie 
towns  of  Dantzic  and  Thorn,  which  had  been  specially  except*  <1 
in  the  last  partition,  joined  the  czarina,  in  her  elTorts  again^i  il.«' 
patriots,  under  the  orave  Kosciusko,  and  finally  succeeded  in  pro- 
vailing  over  a  country,  which,  from  the  enthusiasm  and  spirit  (\\:- 
played  on  this  occasion  in  her  defence,  deserved  a  better  fate,  i'-y 
the  secoTid  partition,  in  1,793,  Russia  is  said  to  have  acquired  4.()  > 
German  square  miles  of  territory,  in  Volhynia,  Lithuania,  Podoi..:. 
and  the  Ukraine ;  and  Prussia,  besides  the  towns  of  Dantzic  w\  t 
Thorn,  1,000  square  miles  in  south  Prussia,  with  all  the  Hanseaii: 
towns*.  A  ^rt2  and  last  partition  soon  followed,  in  the  year  K7J<', 
between  Russia.  Prussia,  and  Austria,  which  may  be  said  to  iiav>i 
put  an  end  to  tne  kingdom  and  republic  of  Poland ;  Stanislau$<»  ii^ 
unhappy  monarch,  being  removed  to  Russia,  where  he  soon  aUcr 
died,  February  16, 1,798.  In  this  last  partition,  Cracow  was  gi^tii 
to  Austria,  and  Warsaw  to  Prussia.  From  the  resistance  of  tlu 
natives,  who  gained  greater  advantages  in  many  engagements  tli.::* 
could  have  been  expected  from  the  nature  of  their  force,  the  slau^l^ 
ter  accompanying  these  latter  revolutions  was  dreadful,  and  on  int.' 
part  of  the  Russians  attended  with  circumstances  of  cruelty  too 
much  resembling  what  had  taken  plate  in  1,772. 

16.  It  would  he  difficult  to  describe  the  state  of  Poland^  fmra 
the  period  of  the  loft  parlUion^  m  1,795,  to  tl^e  treaty  of  Vieonan  lu 

•      ■  •  Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


MODEIIN  HISTORY.  3C9 

l^t5»  Tlie  injanes  the  natives  had  experienced  at  the  hands  of 
the  three  partitioning  powers  very  naturally  disposed  them  to  ac- 
cept any  offers  from  the  enemies  of  their  oppressors ;  and,  as  Boo- 
nnparte  had  freaaent  opportunities  of  makine  such  offers,  it  is  not 
to  nc  wondered  tnat  he  snould  have  obtained  their  assistance,  nnA 
Mibjectcd  them,  more  or  less,  to  his  government  and  control ;  but 
ats  he  was  only  at  times  in  opposition  to,  and  as  often  allied  with 
one  or  other  of  the  three  powers,  Russia,  Austria,  or  Prussia,  h* 
ims  never  able  to  propose  their  entire  emancipation,  even  if  he  had 
ilcsired  it.  Thus  continually  deceived  and  mortified,  they  derived 
no  advantage  from  the  aid  they  gave  to  France,  if  we  except  that  ten- 
dency towards  the  recovery  of  a  separate  existence,  (for  it  fan 
8c«ircely  be  called  more,)  the  creation  of  the  grand  duchy  of  W«r- 
•nw,  in  1,807,  which,  by  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  and  with  tlie  coniitcnt 
of  Buonaparte,  was  consigned  to  the  king  of  Saxony ;  the  emperoi 
of  Russia  at  the  same  time  acquiring  much  of  Poland  from  Prussia. 
In  1,812,  the  kingdom  was  declared  oy  the  diet  of  Warsaw  to  bo  v^* 
C5tablished;  and  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  in  1,816,  being  fonnallt 
delivered  up  by  the  king  of  Saxony,  it  became  annexed  to  Rut^^xi. 
and  was  declared  to  be,"  irrevocably  attached  to  it  by  its  conjitilulim. 
to  be  possessed  by  his  majesty  the  emperor  of  all  the  Russia?,  iii> 
heirs  and  successors  in  perpetuity.'^  The  part  assigned  to  Pruw-ia 
Took  the  name  of  the  grand  duchy  of  Posen.  The  sjilt-mines  of 
V  ieiilzka  were  confirmed  to  the  emperor  of  Austria,  find  such  dis- 
tricts as  had  been  acquired  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  in  1,809.  The 
tdwn  of  Cnicow  was  declared  to  be  for  ever  a  free,  independent,  und 
strictly  neutral  city,  under  the  i)rotection  of  Austria,  Kiisjjin,  i\jy\ 
Prusi-ia.  The  navigation  of  tlie  rivers  and  canals,  in  all  parts  of  an- 
cient Poland,  (as  it  existed  in  the  year  1,772,)  was  by  pjirticnlar 
treaties,  between  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  declared  to  be  fn-e, 
so  as  not  to  be  interdicted  to  any  inhabitant  of  tlie  Polish  proviiic%>, 
beloogiog  to  either  of  the  three  powers. 


SECTION  XX. 

GREAT    BRITAIN,  FROM  THE  PEACE  OF  AMIENS,    1,802.  It) 
THE  DEATH  OF  GEORGE  III.^  1,820. 

1.  Bfj^ore  one  year  had  passed  from  the  conclusion  of  the  pe«io« 
of  Amiens,  circumstances  took  place  which  too  plainly  indicated  a 
!»trong  probability  of  the  renewal  of  hostilities,  and  so  eariy  as  the 
month  of  May,  lu(X.\  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal  were  again  ii^ 
ciied  against  the  French,  by  tlie  British  government,  apparently 
with  the  full  consent  of  the  people  at  large,  notwithstanding  tlie 
rothosiastic  joy  which  had  been  expressed  on  the  termination  of 
the  war  io  the  year  preceding.  It  was  upon  this  occasion  that  tlm 
(irst  consul  had  recourse  to  a  measure,  singular  in  its  nature,  and 
which  exposed  many  persons  and  faoiilies  to  great  inconvenience^ 
He  forcibly  detained  afl  the  English  who  happened  to  be  in  Franoti 
not  ooly  for  purposes  of  businemy  but  of  pleasure  or  eariosity ;  nor^ 
with  very  few  exceptions,  were  any  of  ttiem  able  to  return  to  thotr 
natire  coantry,  for  ttie  long  space  of  ten  or  eleven  years.  Prepa- 
ratiooa  also  were  made  for  the  invasion  oC  Eneland,  whkfa  only  ax* 
cUed  a  stnusir  diqpoiitioii,  od  the  part  of  the  mttec  couoVry,  (o  jy* 

47 

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3TO  MODERN  fflSTORY. 

pare  against  such  attempts,  in  a  way  well  calculated  to  destror  it 
once  aU  the  enemj^s  hopes  and  pros^cts  of  success;  in  Lrebnd. 
indeed,  a  new  conspiracy  was  set  on  foot,  which  was  supposed  to 
rest  on  some  promised  support  from  France ;  but  this  was  denied  bj 
the  conspirators  themselves,  and  the  disturbance  soon  quelled,  witt 
oQt  spreading,  in  fact,  beyond  the  capital. 

2.  Though  the  king  of  Great  Britain  had  declared,  that,  with 
regard  to  his  electoral  states,  he  should  remain  neuter,  Buonaparte 
did  not  neglect  such  an  opportunity  of  wounding  his  feelings,  bj 
the  speedy  occupation  of  Hahoverj.  under  circumstances  pecuuarlj 
aggravating  to  the  people.  Early  m  the  month  of  June,  1,803,  the 
llsmoverian  troops  were  made  to  lay  down  their  arms,  and  engage 
not  to  serve  against  the  French  without  a  previous  exchange. 

3.  Holland  was  still  too  much  under  subjection  to  France,  to  be 
permitted  to  remain  at  peace ;  letters  of  marque  were,  therefore, 
also  issued  against  the  Batavian  republic,  on  its  refusal  to  ngrce  to  a 
perfect  neutrality. 

4.  In  1,804,  a  change  of  ministry  in  England  brought  Mr.  Pitt 
again  into  power,  at  a  moment  when  the  afiairs  of  the  contineoL 
and  the  increased  power  of  the  first  consul,  who,  in  the  course  ol 
^e  same  month,  assumed  the  imperial  dignity,  demanded  ail  bis 
attention.  Before  the  conclusion  of  the  year,  the  aid  which  Spaiu 
was  compelled  to  render  to  the  French,  together  with  certain  ap 
pearances  of  hostile  preparations  in  her  norts,  exposed  her  to  an 
attack  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain,  which  soon  cire  w  from  her  a 
declaration  of  war,  very  fatal  to  her  interests,  though  scarcely  tu 
be  avoided,  considering  the  circumstances  in  which  she  had  been 
placed  by  the  extraordinary  proceediDgs  and  demands  of  the  British 
government^  which  was  supposed  to  have  violated  the  strict  rule.^ 
of  justice,  it  not  of  international  law,  by  arbitrarily  and  prematurtly 
seizing  her  treasure-slaps^  on  their  passage  to  her  ports,  in  an  action 
peifectly  unforeseen  and  unexpected,  and  in  which  many  lives  were 

5.  But  if  the  character  of  the  British  nation  or  government  sul- 
l^red  in  any  respect  from  errors  or  mistakes  ia  the  commencement 
of  the  war,  its  naval  power  and  credit  were  nighiy  advanced  bf?- 
fore  a  vear  had  passed,  by  the  splendid  victory  obtamed  over  tb« 
Spanish  and  French  fleets  combined,  off  cape  Trafalgar,  in  Oclo- 
bcr,  1,805;  a  victory  not  achieved,  however,  without  a  correspon- 
dent loss,  as  has  been  before  stated,  in  the  death  of  the  very  cele- 
brated lord  Nelson,  commander  of  the  British  squadron,  who  till 
early  in  the  action,  and  whose  body,  being  afterwards  brought  to 
England^  was  buried  with  very  unusual  honours  in  the  centre  ot' 
St  PauFs  cathedral. 

6.  In  1,806  died  Mr.  Pitt ;  a  minister  whose  extraordinary  talents 
and  integrity  of  life  attached  to  him  many  friends  and  adherents 
by  whom  he  was  ably  supported  through  a  very  arduous  contest ; 
«  contest  which,  though  some  thought  it  mi^ht  have  been  avoided, 
others  as  confiuently  regarded  as  entirely  just  and  necessary,  ami 
m  timely  security  a|;ainst  the  propagation  of  revolutionary  princi 
ples^  more  threatenmg  and  dangerous  than  any  aggressions  purely 
Bostile.  It  is  always  easy  to  say,  such  and  such  events  would  nut 
bave  happened,  had  a  different  course  from  the  one  actually  adopte^l 
been  pursued;  but  this  b  at  best  mere  matter  of  surmise.  It  Is  irn- 
poesiole  now  to  speak  decisively  of  what  might  or  might  not  have 
been  the  consequences  of  a  longer  forbearance  from  war  *  it  is  ei(- 

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MODERN  HISTORY  31 

tremely  certafai  that  many  untoward  circamstances  preyeoted  dm. 
accomplishment  of  all  that  Mr.  Pitt  had  in  yiew,  and  that  the  poirer 
uf  the  French  emperor,  instead  of  being  checked,  was  advancing 
with  rapid  strides  to  a  pitch  of  uncontrollable  and  extended  domirv 
ion,  when  the  former  was  seized  with  that  illness  which  terminated 
his  life,  in  the  forty-seventh  year  of  his  age.  On  his  death,  a  new 
sulmiDistration  was  formed,  including  his  great  parliamentary  oppo- 
nent, Mr.  Fox,  who  survived  him  for  the  short  space  of  only  seven 
months.  It  is  highly  creditable  to  the  character  of  the  British  nation 
to  record,  that  these  two  eminent  statesmen,  who  had  been  for  a  long 
tioie  so  much  opposed  to  each  other,  but  whose  abilities  and  sinceri- 
ty in  an  opposite  line  of  politics  appear  to  have  been  duly  acknowl- 
•~(lged  and  appreciated  by  all  parties  at  the  period  of  their  deaths^ 
wore  buried  at  the  public  expense,  in  Westminister  Abbey,  so  near 
to  each  othery  that  one  stone  might  have  covered  the  remains  o( 

7.  During  the  short  time  that  Mr.  Fox  was  a  member  of  admiui^ 
tratioD,  fresh  attempts  were  made  to  terminate  the  war,  by  negotiji- 
tioD,  but  in  vain.  Though  the  French  emperor  would  nave  agreed 
to  many  cessions  of  importance,  both  to  Great  Britain  and  hei 
ally,  the  emperor  of  Russia,  it  was  found  impossible  to  detach  from 
his  influence  and  usurped  authority  some  of  the  most  important 
})arts  of  Europe,  particularly  Holland,  Switzerland,  Italy,  and  Ger- 
niany. 

U  The  system  so  generally  adopted  by  the  tyrant  of  France,  of 
<-unverting  to  his  own  use  the  resources  of  all  other  countricji, 
which  could  in  any  manner  be  rendered  subsenient  to  his  piirpoM*, 
let]  the  administration  which  succeeded  that  in  which  Mr.  Fox  hiul 
a  share,  to  set  on  foot  an  expedition  which  has  been  judged  by 
m:ifiy  incapable  of  justification  on  any  principles  of  political  eipe- 
•licocy,  and  which  was  unfortunately  attended  with  more  iatnl  cow 
54>quences  than  were  at  first  perhaps  contemplated.  Upon  tvliat  io^ 
lormation  the  ministry  proceeded  did  not  fully  appear  at  the  tinnu 
tiut  it  was  alleged  that  they  had  reason  to  know  that  the  French  rulrr 
tloigned  to  occupy  Holstein,  and  convert  to  the  purposes  oi  an  in- 
\  a^ion  of  the  British  dominions  the  Danish  marine. 

y.  h  was  determined,  in  order  to  prevent  such  an  accession  to  the 
r^ival  power  of  France,  to  obtain  possession  of  the  fleet  on  which  tlie 
oiK^mv  had  thus  tixed  his  view,  and  though  it  might  periiaps  have 
U'eo  l)0th  honed  and  expected  by  the  British  government,  that  tt(«; 
Danc*»  would  be  brought  peaceably  to  surrender  into  their  haiuls 
f.ir  a  time  a  fleet  thus  devoted  to  the  ruin  of  a  friendly  powir,  ytt 
tlie  result  turned  out  to  be  far  otherwise.  The  Danes  resisteti  iiui 
liemand,  and  though  quite  unable  effectually  to  defend  a^inn-«l  ihe 
forces  opposed  to  them  cither  their  fleet  or  their  capitaL  did  n^t 
oipitutate  till  about  two  thousand  persons  had  lost  their  liveii,  und 
many  houses  been  burnt  in  a  manner  that  threatened  the  entire  d« 
sr  ruction  of  the  city.  The  end,  it  is  true,  was  accomplished,  c^f  gcl- 
Ijng  into  the  power  of  the  Knglish  all  the  Danish  ships  of  war,  (eiglv- 
teen  ships  of  the  line  and  fifteen  frigates^)  and  naval  stores :  hut  it  is 
to  be  feared  that  it  will  be  long  before  the  irritation  caused  by  this 
sudden  and  unexpected  attack  on  a  brave  people^  not  at  war  with 
£nglamd,  will  be  allayed  or  forgotten. 

10.  In  vindication  of  the  suspicions  of  the  British  ministry,  it  was 
averted  that  the  Danish  marine  and  arsenals  were  found  m  a  state 
which  left  nodoobt  of  the  intrigues  and  agency  of  the  Fj^ocb,  ac< 

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7ft  MODERN  HISTORY. 

ording  to  thejudgment  of  the  officers  and  seamen  employed  ta  the 
xpeditioD.  The  general  designs  of  France  seem,  iDdeed,  to  haTo 
een  decisively  manifested,  in  the  measures  they  now  openly  jmip- 
iied,  about  the  same  time,  of  appropriating  to  themselves  tHe  neet 
f  Portugal,  and  for  similar  purposes,  but  which,  fortunately  without 
9  melancholy  a  catastrophe,  was  rescued  from  the  grasp  nf  Ura 
'reuch  ruler,  by  its  timely  removal,  under  the  protection  of  a  British 
rmament,  to  the  ports  of  Brazil.  The  difference  between  the  two 
ases  seemed  to  be  this ;  that  in  getting  possession  of  the  latter  fiecl 
/e  were  actually  assisting  an  ally ;  in  the  former,  we  wcie  com- 
eliing  a  neutral  to  adopt  a  measure  judged  to  be  unnecessary  on  her 
•art,  and  on  suspicions,  the  grounds  of  which  she  disavowed ;  but  th<i 
tate  of  Europe,  at  that  period,  appears  to  have  been  such,  especiallv 
rlth  regard  to  the  minor  states^  as  to  justify  precautions  again&t 
Vench  power  and  French  intrigue,  seldom,  it  ever,  resorted  to  in 
Iher  instances :  it  may  also  be  added,  that  Portugal  unreservedly 
ommunicated  to  England  the  avowed  designs  of  France ;  Denmark, 
0  say  the  least,  acted  with  a  reserve  far  from  friendly,  and  resisted 
11  negotiation ;  the  consequences  to  the  latter,  however,  were  cer- 
ainly  deplorable. 

U.  It  was  in  the  year  1,807,  that  the  royal  family  of  France, 
7hose  situation  on  the  continent  became  every  day  more  alarmiog 
md  insecure,  took  refuge  in  England ;  they  iixed  tneir  residence  at 
^artwell,  m^ucklnghamshire,  liis  majesty  styling  himself  the  counl 
le  Lisle,  and  modestly  declining  all  honours  and  attentions,  beyond 
uch  as  might  be  due  to  a  private  nobleman 

12.  l*he  vmdictive  measures  adopted  by  the  French  government 
o  ruin  the  trade  and  commerce  of  Great  Britain,  naturally  drew 
rom  the  latter  retaliatory  expedients,  which  were  more  or  Je9sap> 
iroved,  as  affecting  neutral  and  friendly  powers,  but  which  could 
carcely  have  been  avoided,  without  surrendering  her  maritime 
ights,  and  submitting  to  a  pretence  of  blockade  on  the  part  of  a 
)ower,  whose  ships  had  been  fnirly  driven  from  the  sea  by  the 
British  fleets.  Orders  in  council  were  issued  in  the  months  of  Janua" 
7  and  November,  1,807,  not  only  prohibiting  all  trade  between  tb« 
jorts  of  France  and  its  allies,  but  ultimately  compelling  all  neutrals, 
lading  to  France,  to  stop  at  a  Britis^h  porlfand  pay  a  duty  in  propor- 
ion  to  the  value  of  the  cargo.  These  embarrassments  to  trade  in 
general  could  not  fail  to  excite  great  uneasiness  in  all  parts  of  the 
ivorld ;  but  the  commencement  of  them  is  justly  to  be  imputed  to  the 
?xtraordinary  decree,  issued  by  the  French  niler  at  Berlin,  (the  basis 
Dftlie  "continental  system,'')  November,  1,806,  an  account  of  which 
«  given  in  Sect.  XVI. :  unfortunately  the  impossibility  of  satisfactorily 
t-xempting  other  states  from  the  effect  of  these  prohibitory  anil 
regulating  decrees,  on  the  part  of  the  two  rival  countries,  involved 
luigland  m  a  very  unpleasant  dispute  with  the  United  States  ot 
America. 

13.  Of  the  part  England  took  in  the  affairs  of  Spain  and  Portugal, 
from  1 ,803  to  1,8 14,  an  account  is  to  be  found  elsewhere  (See  SecL 
XVIl.)  It  may  be  sufficient  to  say,  that,  during  the  whole  contest, 
the  emancipation  of  those  two  ancient  kingdoms  from  the  power  of 
tlie  French  seemed  to  be  contemplated  by  the  whole  mass  of  British 
subjects  as  their  own  cause.  The  people  of  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land, on  the  first  application  for  assistance  from  Spain,  appeared 
ready  to  rise  in  a  body.  They  hailed  the  dawn  of  liberty  on  th« 
coatment  with  the  most  cothusiastic  feeJiog&    The  deputies  from  tfaa 

"Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  375 

fiipreme  ionta  of  Seville,  did  not  arriTe  in  England,  on  their  miflfiion 
to  the  Bntish  government,  till  the  24th  of  July,  1,808 ;  but  lone  be- 
fore that,  other  deputies  from  the  principality  of  Asturias  had  been 
received  in  London,  with  the  most  cordial  tokens  of  esteem  and 
triondship.    They  were  splendidly  entertained  by  the  City  of  Lon- 

<  1(^11^  the  Bank,  and  other  public  bodies,  as  well  as  by  individuals  oi 
thi',  highest  distinction.  Subscriptions  were  opened  inXondon,  Liver- 
\>oo\^  Bristol,  Glasgow,  Edinburgh,  Dublin,  Cork,  Waterford,  ami 
I!. .Hiy  other  places,  for  supporting  the  cause  of  Spain;  and  seven;l 
iiiiiiiary  cor[^,  militia, and  volunteers,  offered  their  services.  Goverr- 
iii«  r.t  supplied  them  immediately  with  three  hundred  thousimd  pouiu!.^ 

I.  (!< 'liars,  five  thousand  muskets,  thirty  thousand  pikes,  and  an  in.- 
rp«  liie  quiintity  of  powder  and  ballsj  with  promises  of  more  eficctn;ii 
i.'l,  which  were  ultimately  amply  fulfilled.  The  spirit  thus  di?})l:'v 
f'i  by  tlie  British  public,  on  the  first  certain  intelligence  received  i  \ 
t't.^  aiiii-^nllican  insurrection  in  Spain, may  be  said  to  have  contin)Tv\i 
'  •  H/aK'd  till,  through  the  matchless  skill  and  valour  of  the  conledi- 
r  !••  armies  under  the  duke  of  Wellington,  the  French  were  firi;)iiy 
«...wn  Irom  the  peninsula  in  1,814,  as  related  in  our  accouia  i.l 
:  ;Min. 

l'\.  His  majesty  George  111.,  having,  in  the  month  of  Oclclfr, 
I.  ..Ji),  i^ntered  upon  the  50th  year  of  his  reign,  the  event  was  o<lt  - 
'  ..itr<l  throughout  the  nation  in  a  very  striking  manner,  by  seniii  •♦ 
...  Uiank^giving  in  all  the  churches  and  chapels,  with  siiital'lc  r.i- 
I .  ii!>c.'»,  illuminations,  feasts,  and  other  testimonies  of  jov,  b"t  p.:»ii- 
.  '{..iriy  by  liberal  benefactions  to  the  poor.  In  the  montfi  ol  IVovti.i 
.  r  m  the  following  year,  his  majesty,  much  troubled  and  afljirttd  I  y 
;•'«  long  illness  and  death  of  his  daughter  the  princess  Amelia,  lu.i 
r.i  atannidg  return  of  his  former  complaint,  which  terminaleJ  in  a 
•.«"«. ml  su^jHinsion  of  bis  regal  functions,  and  from  which  be  iicvor  ro 
M..iir.ioiitly  recovered  as  to  be  able  to  tran.^act  any  business  of  stiii-  . 

<  Ml  the  5^0th  of  December,  his  royal  highness  the  prince  of  WaUi 
^\;is  appointed  regent,  subject  for  a  period  to  restriclions  similar  U> 
ihose  which  had  been  proposed  in  1,788-9.  This  plan  was  violom.y 
*»pposed,  as  unconstitutional  and  impolilic,  but  finally  carried  in  W-h- 
rnary,  1,811.  The  bill  was  completed  and  presented  to  bib  ro>al 
highness,  who  did  not  hesitate  to  accept  the  trust,  though  not  without 
ri^nioostrating  against  the  limitations  and  restrictions  imposed  on  him. 
r^irly  in  1,812,  however,  these  restrictions  were  to  cease.  Groat 
i  hanges  in  administration  had  been  contemplated,  and  many  negolia- 
tioiLH  were  carried  on  to  this  eflbct,  but  without  accom|)li£fhini;  thut 
iniion  and  coalition  of  parlies,  which  the  regent  himself  sccmod  u» 
I  losire.  Not  being  disposed  to  withhold  his  confidence  there  lb  re  (i  oni 
those  who  had  so  long  served  his  royal  father,  most  of  them,  on  the 
t.-i-minalion  of  the  restrictions,  were  continued  in  their  places.  A 
•jK-j^t  melancholy  catastrophe,  which  occurrcci  in  the  month  cf  May, 
;  .Jil2.  deprived  the  nation  of^  the  services  of  Mr.  Percival,  who  was 
r\  -sissinated  in  the  lobby  of  the  house  of  commons,  by  a  person  of 
c.e  name  of  BelUngham,  in  revenge,  as  he  himself  stated,  of  a  pri 
vate  injury ;  a  denisil  of  justice,  as  he  called  it,  on  the  part  of  go  tern 
rneoL  It  seemed  to  be  accidental  that  the  premier  happened  to  b« 
liie  individaal  diBt  presented  to  his  notice  on  that  fatal  day. 

[The  paragraphs  15  and  16  of  Dr.  Nares'  work,  giving  a  very 

»hoTt  accoaot  of  the  differences  between  the  EngUsti  and  American 

l^ovenimeois  in  1,81!^  13,  U,  and  15,  are  omitted.    For  a  more  pai>> 

ucitkri  and  wo  trust  more  impartial  account  of  the  war  betwees 

Ift 

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574  MODERN  HISTORT.    . 

Great  Britain  and  (he  United  States,  the  reader  is  referred  to  SectSon 
VI.  of  Part  Fourth,  near  the  close  of  tliis  volome.] 

17.  The  year  1,814,  will  erer  be  memorable  in  the  English  histo- 
ry, for  the  very  extraordinary  infloence  of  foreigners  of  the  highest 
distinction,  from  the  opposite  shore,  on  the  downful  of  Buonaparte, 
and  the  conclusion  of  a  war,  which  had  agitated  the  whole  of  Eu- 
rope. The  list  of  visitors  invited  to  the  grand  civic  feast  given  by 
the  corporation  of  London,  and  all  of  whom  were  present,  but  a 
very  few,  whom  illness  kept  away,  may  convey  some  idea  of  the 
splendid  scenes  that  took  place  in  different  parts  of  the  kingdom 
in  honour  of  these  illustrious  guests.  It  was  on  the  18th  of  June, 
that  the  dinner  was  given  to  the  following  very  exalted  pers^on- 
ages : 

The  Phinck  Regent  ;  the  Emferor  of  Russu ;  his  sister,  the  GiLKnn 
Duchess  of  Oldenbureh,  (afterwards  Queen  of  VViRTiacBURo ;)  the 
KsHd  of  Prussu  ;  the  Royal  Dukes  of  England :  the  Prince  Royal  of 
Prussia ;  Prince  William  of  Prussia,  son  of  the  king ;  Prince  Freder- 
icjbj  nepliew  of  the  king ;  Prince  Henry^  brother  of  the  king ;  Prina- 
tVUliatn^  brother  of  the  king;  Prince  ^ufti^,  the  king%  couAiu; 
the  Prince  of  Orange  ;  the  Prince  Royal  otlVirtemburg ;  the  Prlnl*. 
Royal  of  Bavaria ;  the  Prince  of  Oldenburg ;  the  Prince  of  Coboorg ; 
Prince  Charles  of  Mecklenburgh;  Duke  of  Saxe  Weimar;  Fv'nwe 
Gagarina;  Prince  Czeretorioke:  Prince  Radzivil;  Marshid  FnncA- 
Blucher;  Prince  Hardenburg;  Prince  Mettemicb;  Prince  Licbtr:)- 
stein;  Prince  and  Princess  Volkouske;  his  highness  the  Duke  »( 
Orleans. 

These  illustrious  foreigners  were  entertained,  at  great  cost  and  ex- 
pense, during  their  stay,  both  by  the  court  and  public  bodies:  the 
])rince  regent  accompanied  them  on  a  visit  to  the  univer^itj  of  Ox- 
ford; and  to  Portsmouth,  where  they  had  an  opportunity  ot  wiUK>^ 
log  a  naval  review. 

13.  In  May,  K816,  the  heiress  to  the  British  crown,  princess  Cha^ 
lotte,  only  chila  of  the  regent,  was  married  to  his  serene  highae>i 
Leopold  George  Frederic,  prince  of  Cobourg.  This  marriage  \r.n« 
contemplated  by  the  nation  as  an  object  of  the  highest  hopes;  arl 
for  several  months  the  amiable  and  exemplary  conduct  ol'  her  ro>.ii 
highness  cheered  the  people  with  the  bnghtest  pros]iects  ol"  future 
^ood ;  but  a  very  sudden  and  unexpected  disappointment  took  plucc 
m  the  month  of  November,  1817;  the  princess  was  delivered  ot' a 
still4>om  male  infant,  and  survived  her  delivery  only  a  few  hour^. 
Nothine  could  exceed  the  concern  maniiested  by  the  public  on  tin* 
melancholy  and  distressing  occasion. 

In  the  month  of  November,  in  the  following  year,  her  nruije^^tf 
queen  Charlotte  died  at  Kew,  after  a  long  and  painful  ilhiess ;  and  ou 
(he  29th  of  January^  1820,  was  followed  by  ner  royal  consort  klni; 
George  ill.  His  majesty  died  at  the  castle  of  Windsor,  at  a  ven 
advanced  a|;e,  and  in  the  sixtieth  year  of  his  rei^n ;  greatly  beloved 
by  his  subjects,  and  umversally  respected  for  his  many  amiable  aoJ 
royal  rirtues. 


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MODERN  HISTORY.  376 


SECTION  XXI. 

RANGE,  FROM  THE  ENTRANCE  OF  THE  ALLIES  INTO  PAR. 
IS,  MARCH,  1,814,  TO  THE  FINAL  EVACUATION  OF  IT  BY 
TUE  FOREIGN  TROOPS,  1,818. 

1.  Soon  af\er  Baonaparte  departed  for  Elba,  Louis  XVIII  was 
It  ely  recaUed to  the  throne  of  his  ancestors ;  he  had  been  resident  in 
>  my  places  since  his  first  emieration,  and  been  driven  fron)  alm(y$( 
I),  by  the  approach  of  republican  trooiw,  the  dread  of  republican 
^n^ednce  io  toose  who  afforded  him  a  refuse,  and  not  unseldom  tlie 
•ir  uf  poison  or  assassination.  England,  at  length,  afforded  him  the 
-vltim  ne  sought  in  vain  elsewhere:  there  he  lived  secure  agiiinst 
i^ncb  armies,  French  influence,  and,  as  far  as  Englishmen  could 
r^k'ct  him,  the  poisonous  drug,  or  the  sword  of  the  assiissin.    When 

•  way  was  opened  for  him  to  return  to  his  native  country,  and  re- 
'!ve  the  crown  and  the  throne,  which  his  people  now  offertd  him, 
it  tvhich  had  been  so  insulted  and  abused,  it  was  characteristic  of 
n^lnhmen  to  rejoice  at  his  restoration,  and  at  the  great  change  pre  • 

led  for  him,  from  a  state  of  banishment^  outlawry,  and  dependence^ 
» ilie  recovery  of  one  of  the  most  brilliant  thrones  of  Europe,  uikI 

•m  which  his  unhappy  brother  had  fallen  in  a  way  to  excite  the 

uiipathy  of  every  feeling  and  generous  mind:  his  departure  from 

^it;(und  to  France  was  accompanied  with  the  acclamations  and  sin- 

Hi  gnitulations  of  all  ranks  of  peonle    the  prince  regent  personally 

^~  »rLed  him  not  only  to  London,  but  from  London  to  Dover ;  and 

•ii  leave  of  him,  m  sight  of  the  French  coast,  in  a  manner  the; 

•*t  affecting  and  impressive.  White  flags  were  exhibited  on  almost 
'  -ho  churches,  near  which  he  had  to  pass,  and  nothing  could  ex- 
♦J  the  joy  expressed  upon  the  overthrow  of  Huonaparte,  and  the 
'•'  r.ilion  of  the  Bourboa-j,  both  in  England  and  Franco. 
'J.  In  the  latter  country,  however,  it  may  be  naturally  supposcil, 
"*  joy  could  not  be  general,  nor  much  of  what  was  expressed  out- 

j.liv,  sincere :  Louis  XVIll.  returned  to  France,  not  ;is  it  was  when 
.  lift  it,  but  revolutionized;  it  had  undergone  great  changes,  and  a 

4e  proportion  of  the  population  was  deeply  interested  in  those 

iiizfs;  yet  many,  who  returned  with  him,  were  quite  as  deeply 
t  rented,  in  absolutely  reversing  what  had  passed,  restoring  what 
»I  bven  abolished,  reclaiming  what  had  been  tUicnated,  it  not  even 
•''i«hing  and  degrading  those  who  had  participated  in  or  been  Ih'h* 

•d  by  such  revolutions. 

•.  in  the  mean  while  the  exiled  emperor  was  not  quiet;  he  was 
"  iM»ar  to  the  French  coiist  to  be  kt*pt  in  ignorance  of  what  was 
-iig,  and  of  the  sentiments  entertained  towards  him,  by  those  who 

1  (^rticjpiVed  in  his  many  glorious  and  tiiumphant  achievement!:, 

J  who  could  ill  brook  the  degradation  to  which  tliey  might  be 
'  Ji^d  by  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons ;  the  army,  in  particular, 
'vliom  uideed  he  had  behaved  not  only  ill,  but  cruelly,  in  his  re- 

it  from  Russia  and  I^ipzig,  had  yet  been  raiseil  by  him  to  such  a 
•  !i  of  glory  and  pre-eminence,  as  might  reasonably  account  for  it^ 
•  ung  both  dbgust  and  resentment,  at  having  been  compelled  to  sub 
::  to  the  mtrusion  of  strangers  into  their  country  and  metropolis » 
.If tgen,  whom  they  had  previously  been  able  not  only  to  defy  and 
^ij  but  in  tome  instancesi  to  trHunph  over  io  their  owo  capital 


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S76  MODERN  HISTORY. 

4.  The  situation  of  the  king  of  France,  therefore^  on  his  reton  to 
his  dominions,  however  acceptable  to  the  greater  part  of  Europe, 
could  scarcely  be  such  as  he  might  himself  wish  or  desire:  itnn^ 
impossible  for  him  to  return  to  the  ancient  state  of  things ;  and  hr 
must  have  foreseen  how  difficult  it  would  be  to  render  any  new  c>:u 
stitution  agreeable  or  suitable  to  all  parties.    The  senate,  m^< '  . 
nad  prepared  a  new  constitution  before  his  arrival;  one  which  L-i  - 
a  considerable  analogy  to  that  of  England ;  the  legislative  power  tf- 
ing  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  king,  the  senate,  and  the  repre?'e:i':< 
tivcs  of  the  nation  at  large ;  and  the  amount,  nature,  and  distrit"r. 
of  the  public  taxes,  left  exclusively  to  the  decision  of  the  latter*  '. 
•deputies  were  to  exercise  their  functions  for  the  space  of  live  ye  > 
/he  dignity  of  senator  to  be  hereditary,  and  to  be  conferred  L>  li 
King,  though  with  a  limitation  as  to  numbers,  which  were  not  to  ♦^ 
ceed  200;  religious  freedom,  and  the  liberty  of  the  press,  were  d'-} 
provided  for:  this  constitution  was  to  be  presented  to  him,  to  b** .  • 
jcpted  previously  to  iiis  inauguration ;  but  on  his  arrival  at  Pari-,  i 
Jid  not  choose  to  bind  himself,  further  than  to  promise  his  pt 
juch  a  constitution  as  they  would  have  no  reason  to  disapprovr: : 
£rst  care  was,  to  arrange  mattei-s  with  the  foreign  potentates  v.- 
occupied  his  capital,  so  as  to  be  able,  as  speedily  as  possible,  to  s," 
rid  of  their  numerous  armirs ;  whose  presence  could  not  fail  to  h 
subject  of  uneasiness  to  his  own  armies,  as  well  as  to  the  pec  {jIv 
general:  to  the  credit  of  the  troops  themselves,  under  such  ext  v  ■ 
dinary  circumstances,  it  should  be  observed,  that  nothing  could 
ceed  the  order  and  forbearance  with  which  they  conducted  ti  •  . 
selves,  as  victors,  in  a  capital,  which,  in  the  way  of  simple  ron 
lion,  stood  fairly  exposed  to  plunder,  exaction,  and  dcvastiition. 

5.  Though  it  was  soon  settled  to  refer  to  a  convention  at  Vii  r* 
tlie  final  adjustment  of  matters,  and  arrangement  of  peace;  ■ 
France  was  quickly  made  to  undci-stand,  that  her  boundaries  m\r. 
greatly  contracted,  and  that  the  intlcpendence  of  most  of  the  i-  ^  • 
annexed  states  and  territories  must  he  freely  acknowledged ;  to  i. 
terms  both  the  king  and  his  minir,ter,  prince  Talleynind,  plainly  • 
the  necessity  of  yielding,  though  the  pride  of  the  French  was  uu 
to  be  wounded  by  it. 

C.  On  the  4th  of  June,  the  kin^  prosonied  to  the  senate  and  li  - 
lative  body  his  own  new  constitution,  which  differed  in  sever.:!  |  -     • 
from  that  submitted  to  him  on  his  arrival ;  it  reserved  to  bim^ti! 
right  of  proposing  laws,  and  the  assembly  could  only  request  to  .^ 
permitted  to  discusii  particular  points;    instead  of  an  nerc^!: 
senate,  peers,  chosen  by  the  king  tor  life  were  to  compose  that  I  • 
without  limitation  of  numbeis  ;  the  popular  representatives  wen 
consist  of  262,  not  under  40  yeai's  ot  age  :  they  were  to  be  con\  i  ^ 
every  year,  and  were  to  have  the  power  of  impeaching  the  ha 
ters  tor  treason  or  extortion ;  the  king  was  to  appoint  the  judges,  - 
trial  by  jury  was  to  be  continued :  the  press  wos  places!  under  a  c  -| 
worship,  and  an  order  was  given  for  closing  the  theatres  and  shopi  • 
the  sabbath ;  an  order  not  only  extremely  unpopular  at  the  tin^ 
bat,  as  it  would  seem,  ineffectual.    In  nominating  the  senate,  some  c ' 
Bnonaparte^s  courtiers  and  marshals   were  iocluded,  partlcubr} 
TaHeyrand,  who  became  minister  for  foreign  affiiirs. 

7.  The  king,  who  from  the  6rst  commencement  of  the  revolot:'  ''^ 

had  displayed  a  disposition  to  favour  the  rights  of  the  people,  mci  1 

.  than  others  of  his  fiiraih^^  or  the  chiefs  ot  the  emigrants,  was  lit::' 

ilkely  of  himadf  t9  deviate  from  the  principles  of  the  omiiMiOh 

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'     MODERN  HISTORY. 

or  to  cfittarb  oimede»ariljr  the  existing  state  of  thbga,  in  i 
many  interests  were  involved,  but  he  was  supposed  to  havi 
him  persons  still  bigotted  to  the  ancient  system,  and  anxio 
cover  all  that  they  had  forfeited  by  the  course  of  the  re 
These  things^  together  with  the  dissatisfied  state  of  the  arm 
the  way  for  the  return  of  Buouaparte. 

8.  The  probability  of  such  an  event  seems  to  have  been  s 
ovprlooked  bj  those  who  were  most  interested  in  preventini 
popularity  of  the  deposed  emperor  had  been  miscalculated. 
\A  of  March)  ],815,  he  landed  once  more  on  the  shores  of 
with  only  1,140  attendants;  an  attempt  which  many  judg 
:'.  I  together  hopeless,  yet,  to  the  utter  surprise  of  those  who 
►o,  his  progress  towards  PariSj  though  not  unmolested,  affoi 
fvrry  hour,  from  the  defection  of  the  troops  sent  agai 
^^ironger  hopes  of  recovering  his  authority.  On  the  SOth  o 
liie  king  was  persuaded  to  retire  from  Pans ;  and  on  the  ev 
that  very  day  Buonaparte  entered  it,  being  hailed  by  the  p 
>vhich  had  so  lately  saluted  the  return  of  Uie  Bourbons  in  t 
manner,  with  the  loudest  acclamations. 

^,  He  was  soon  convinced,  however,  that  he  was  not  ret 
liii  ancient  power,  and  that  he,  quite  as  much  as  Louis  XV 11 
now  be  expected  to  gratify  the  people  with  a  free  constitu 
speedily  therefore,  issued  some  popular  decrees,  establi^l 
fi>iedom  of  the  pres8 ;  abolishing  the  slave-trade ;  and  reguh 
tixes  which  weighed  most  heavily  on  the  people;  he  aU 
Sf:ended  to  oflTer  to  them  the  plan  of  a  constitution,  veiy  differ 
the  system  of  despotism  upon  which  he  had  before  acted,  : 
t.uaiQg  many  excellent  regulations:  he  had,  however,  but  li 
to  spare  for  legislative  measures.  A  manifesto  of  expulsior 
tennination  had  been  issued  against  him  by  the  congress  at 
figned  bv  the  plenipotentiaries  of  Austria,  France,  Great 
Russia^  Prussia,  Swecfcn,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  and  it  was  indisj 
hccessary  for  him  to  prepare  for  war.  Ix)  this  manifesto  on 
«^f  the  allied  powers,  nuona{)arte  wiis  not  slow  in  dictating  and 
i'ig  to  Europe  a  counter  manifesto,  asserting  in  the  strongc 
the  right  of  the  French  to  adhere  to  the  dvnasty  they  had  cl 
tiie  expulsion  of  the  Bourbons ;  and  decfaring  that  the  con 
^hnccs  bad  been  the  tirst  to  violate  the  treaty  of  Fontaii 
t/'it  it  is  remarkable  that,  though  Buonaparte  so  peremptoril 
^l,  in  his  manifesto,  the  right  of  the  French  freely  to  cho< 
I'rnasty  tbcy  pleased  to  reign  over  them,  he  had  inserted  in 
^•institution  an  article,  totally,  and  for  ever,  to  exclude  the 
I  iniJy  from  the  succession  to  the  throne. 

10.  It  was  not  till  June  that  the  several  armies  were  pre 
'^ke  the  field,  and  between  the  15lh  and  19th  of  that  month, 
'  I  Europe  seemed  once  more  to  become  dependent  on  the 
•fthe  sword.  The  battle  of  Waterloo,  which  took  place  on 
«f  Juoe,  and  in  which  the  British  and  Prussian  armies,  u 
<'(ike  of  Wellington  and  nKirshal  Biucher,  totally  defeated  the 
•  STcctually  put  an  end  to  all  the  hopes  and  prospects  of  Buc 
Oq  thf  20th,  he  arrived  at  Piiris,  the  first  of  his  fugitive  an 
u  a  very  few  days  aAer,  was  compelled  a  second  time  to  r 
u-)*irped  dominions.  On  Ins  retirement  from  Paris,  his  dc 
cppe^red  to  l>e  a  matter  of  extreme  doubt,  till  on  the  15th  of 
P  It  himself  into  the  hands  of  the  English  by  going  on  board 
lorophon  man  of  war,  and  surrendetmg  himself  and  suit  unc 
12  48 

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378  MODERN  HISTORY. 

ally  to  captain  Maitlaod,  the  commander  of  that  ship,  who  ndled  im- 
mediately to  Torbay  with  his  prisoDers^  none  of  whom  were  per- 
mitted to  land. 

1 1.  On  the  3d  of  July,  not  however  without  a  struggle  on  the  part 
of  the  French  army,  raris  had  formally  surrendered  to  the  duke  of 
Wellington  and  prince  Blucher,  who  took  possession  of  it  on  the  7th, 
and  on  the  8th  the  king  returned,  greeted,  as  before,  with  the  cheer- 
ing and  acclamations  of  the  fickle  multitudes  who  thronged  the  roudi 
by  which  he  had  to  pass.  By  the  terms  of  capitulation,  the  French 
troops  under  Davoust  had  been  made  to  retire  beyoxid  the  Loirt-, 
which  they  did  with  sullen  indignation ;  but  on  the  arrival  of  ih^^ 
Austrians  and  Russians  at  Paris,  came  over  to  the  king.  It  wasi  vcn 
obvious,  that,  having  Buonaparte  once  more  in  their  power,  the  allies- 
could  not  fail  to  provide  ail  possible  precautions  against  his  return 
into  any  situation  which  might  afford  him  the  means  of  commu* 
nicating  with  his  old  adherents,  and  thereby  resuming  the  station  he 
had  occupied  for  so  many  years,  to  their  extreme  annoyance.  The 
small,  rocky,  and  totally  detached  island  of  St  Helena^  in  the  Atlantic 
ocean,  seemed  the  only  secure  place  of  abode  to  which  be  could  be 
assigned.  It  was  therefore  agreed  to  send  him  thither,  under  the 
onstody  of  the  British  government,  but  under  the  eye,  also,  of  cont- 
tnissi oners  appointed  to  reside  there,  on  the.  part  of  the  Austrifin, 
Russian,  and  French  governments.  On  the  17th  of  October,  Ifiiby 
he  arrived  at  his  destined  residence. 

12.  Amongst  the  measures  adopted  by  the  military  commanders  of 
the  foreign  troops  at  Paris,  none  seemed  more  to  occupy  the  atten- 
tion of  Europe  than  the  determination  thev  formed  to  restore  to  the 
places  which  h^d  been  robbed  of  them  tiie  valuable  works  of  art, 
which  the  victories  of  the  French  armies  had  put  into  their  posses- 
sion, not  merely  in  the  wa]p  of  plunder,  but  tipon  a  regular  system  ol 

purloining  every  thing  which  could  add  to  the  splendour  and  great- 
ness of  their  own  capital,  however  gratiog  to  the  feelings  of  iboJe 
from  whom  they  were  taken,  and  however  severely  it  must  have 
added  to  the  mortifications  they  had  been  doomed  to  suffer  from 
weakness  or  defeat  The  justice  of  such  a  step  could  not  -be  de- 
puted, though  nothing  was  more  likely  to  excite  the  resentment  ant! 
indignation  of  the  French,  in  whose  hands,  it  must  be  acknowiedgeJ, 
had  they  been  properly  acquired,  they  were  likely  enough  to  I* 
preserved  and  exhibited  to  the  world,  in  a  manner  the  most  condu- 
cive to  the  glory  and  immortality  of  the  illustrious  artists  to  whom 
they  owed  their  origin ;  but,  as  an  act  of  honourable  restitution^  in 
many  instances,  to  persons  and  places  whose  claims  would  otherww 
have  been  mocked  and  deridecf,  the  interposition  of  the  two  victoh* 
aus  chiefs  upon  this  occasion  may  be  justly  admired.  Pnnce  Blucber, 
indeed,  had  a  direct  Interest  in  reclaiming  the  spoils  of  Berlin  and 
Potzdam,  but  the  duke  ol*  Wellington,  while  he  had  nothing  to  re- 
cover for  his  own  country,  freely  assisted  those  whose  pretensions  re- 
quired the  support  of  such  paramount  authority. 

13.  By  the  second  general  pacification  of  Paris  with  the  allien, 
-November  20th,  1,815,  it  was  agreed  that  an  army  of  occupation, 
amounting  to  150.000  men,  and  to  be  niaintained  in  a  great  measure 
by  France,  should  for  the  space  of  five  years  be  put  in  possession  ol' 
her  frontier  fortresses,  while  her  boundary  should  be  farther  reduced 
Chan  on  the  former  occasion ;  terms  sufficiently  mortifying,  but  justi- 
fied by  the  turbulent  and  unsettled  principles  of  the  French  natioa 
Though  the  period  of  &ve  years^  however,  had  been  specificullt 

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MODERN  HlSl  DRY.  S71» 

agreed  to,  the  sUte  of  things  aftcrivards  appcarlnjg  such  as  to  jostiff 
he  allies  in  departing  from  the  exact  letter  o2  the  tieaty,  intbe 
spring  of  the  year  1,817  they  consented  to  reduce  the  army  of  oo- 
r.iipation  one  filth,  and  in  the  autumn  of  1,818,  It  was  wholly  witb- 
liruwn  from  the  French  territories,  and  the  Ibrtres^jcs  on  the  frontier 
restored. 


SECTION  XXII. 

.NORTHERN  STATES  OF  KUROPE,  FROM  THE  CLOSE  OF  THE 

SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY. 

1.  Though  much  has  been  said  of  the  northern  courts  In  the  pre 
r«*  ling  sections,  as  bearing  a  part  in  the  transiictions  on  the  continent. 
<!tinns;  the  last  and  present  centurios,  yet  as  they  have  not  been 
nioniiooed  distinctly  and  particularly,  some  brief  account  of  them 
may  be  necessiiry,  to  give  a  clearer  view  of  tlie  course  of  events 
iliirine  the  period  under  consideration. 

'i.  retcr  the  great,  of  Russia,  who  died  in  1,725,  (see  Sect.  LXVf, 
^  J.)  was  succeeded  by  his  widow.  Catherine  1.,  wno  survived  him 
only  two  yeara.  It  is  remarkable,  tnat  though  Peter  had  taken  par 
tiruiar  care  to  secure  to  the  reigning  monarch  a  power  of  naming 
J I  is  successor,  he  should  himself  neglect  this  precaution;  and  foi 
fctich  an  omission  the  law  had  made  no  provision.  Catherine,  how- 
over,  bad  little  or  no  difficulty  to  take  his  place.  She  was  a  woman. 
:i  not  of  a  superior,  yet  of  rather  an  extraordinary  character;  had 
'tt<»nded  Peter  in  his  travels  and  campaigns ;  been  serviceable  to  him 
HI  his  greatest  extremities ;  often  ctiecked  the  violence  of  his  pas- 
^isffis ;  and  manifested  a  disposition,  during  her  short  reign,  toencour 
ai»e  a  spirit  of  liberty  amongst  her  subjects,  and  to  promote,  in  every 
V,  ay  she  could,  the  progress  of  improvement  and  civihzation.  Her 
^it'ntb  %vas  little  expected,  and  excited  some  suspicions  against  the 
}>rince  Mcnzicofl,  who  had  just  negociated  a  treaty  with  Austria,  and 
«-.)tered  into  a  stipulation  to  raise  the  son  of  the  unfortunate  prince 
.\i**xi*4  to  the  throne,  upon  the  condition  of  his  marrying  his  daughter. 

X  The  empress  died  in  1,727,  and  was  succeeded  by  Peter  H., 
»T.ind>on  of  reter  I.  Menzicoff,  however,  seemed  to  take  into  his 
««*vn  hands  the  reins  of  government,  till  he  was  supplanted  by  one 
v(  the  Dolgorouki  lamily,  and  banished  to  Siberia,  with  his  wife  and 
rliildren.  The  new  favourite  designed  to  marry  his  sister  to  the 
/•Tiiperor;  but  on  January  29,  1,730,  Peter  died  of  the  small^pox. 
Ill  Dim  the  male  issue  of  the  line  becoming  extinct,  Anne,  duchess  ot 
(\Mirtand,  was  called  to  the  throne  through  the  influence  of  Dolg* 
rwuki,  contrary  to  the  order  of  succession  established  by  Peter  I;;  and 
ill  prejudice  of  her  elder  sister,  the  duchess  of  Mecklenburg.  They 
«%'ere  both  of  them  the  daughters  of  Iwan,  the  eldest  brother  of 
Peter. 

4.  The  reign  of  Anne  ^as  prosperoos  and  glorious ;  she  showed 
{ireat  sagacity  and  firmness  in  resisting  the  intrigues,  and  balancing 
the  credit  of  rival  statesmen,  counsellors,  and  generals,  Russian  and 
turei|;n ;  maintaining  her  prerogatives  against  tnose  who  sought  Xo> 
iiivude  them,  to  further  their  own  ambition,  particularly  DolgoroukL 
«%  ho,  though  he  had  placed  her  on  tlie  throne,  was  disgraced  and 
b»ni?ihed  to  Siberia.  Anne  died  in  1,740,  leaving  the  crown,  by  her 
w  i)i|  to  tacr  g^and-nepbew  Iwan,  son  of  her  niece,  Anne)  priacev  of 

DigitizedV^OOgie 


380  MODERN  HISTORT. 

Mecklenbarg,  married  to  the  duke  of  Branswick  Bevern;  bat  she 
appointed  her  favourite,  f:ouQt  Biren,  whom  she  had  brought  with 
her  from  Courland,  regeot. 

5.  This  last  arrangement  threw  thin^  into  the  utmost  confosion. 
Biren  was  deservedly  no  favourite  with  the  Russians,  more  than 
20,000  of  whom  he  is  said  to  have  sent  into  banishment ;  he  ba!. 
besides,  a  powerful  rival  in  count  Munich,  the  conqueror  of  Oc?^v 
kow,  a  German,  and  a  man  of  singular  bravery  and  resolution;  \\\^ 
latter  succeeded  in  dispossessing  the  regent  of  his  authority  in  favojr 
of  the  mother  of  the  emperor.  Biren  was  sent  to  Sibena;  and  tho 
princess  of  Mecklenburg  (duchess  of  Brunswick)  assumed  the  reif.> 
of  government ;  but  not  attending  sufficiently  to  the  duties  oflir 
high  station,  and  appearing  to  give  too  great  encouragement  ( • 
foreigners,  a  new  revolution  was  set  on  foot,  to  place  on  the  thrcr.-* 
the  youngest  daughter  of  Peter  the  great,  the  princess  Elizabt^iiK 
This  party,  supported  by  French  gold,  and  headed  by  Lestocq,  :• 
physician,  quickly  becoming  strong,  seized  upon  the  emperor  Ivtut 
and  his  parents,  and  proclaimed  Elu^beth  empress  of  all  the  Rossi.:-. 
The  life  of  the  infant  I  wan  was  preserved  by  the  clemency  and  t\- 

f>ress  interposition  of  Elizabeth ;  but  only  to  undergo  a  harder  fatL. 
See  below,  §  8.)  Munich  was  banished ;  and  other  foreign  gener;.! . 
who  had  favoured  the  foimer  government,  either  shared  the  sm.. 
destiny,  or  contrived  to  escape  from  the  Ffussian  dominion!^  1 1^* 
people  were  well  pleased  to  see  the  throne  rescued  from  the  han.  h 
of  foreigners  in  favour  of  so  direct  a  claimant  as  the  daughter  •  i 
Peter  the  great.  This  revolution  took  place  in  the  mouth  of  Ni- 
vember,  1,741. 

6.  Russia  flourished  under  the  sway  of  Elizabeth,  whose  reigti  (\- 
hibited  an  uninterrupted  career  of  glory  and  success ;  her  numw  - 
was  courted  by  some  of  the  greatest  powers  in  Europe.  Before lur 
death,  which  happened  in  1,762,  she  took  care  to  restore  the  natc^.J 
order  of  succession  in  her  family,  by  declaring  the  duke  of  Hokt  i.i 
Gottorp.  her  heir,  son  of  her  eldest  sister,  and  who  became  cmpen  r. 
on  her  demise,  by  the  title  of  Peter  III. 

7.  This  unfortunate  prince  was  not  suffered  to  reign  long ;  he  \\U'\ 
married  a  princess  of  Anhalt-Zerbst ;  a  woman  of  singular  character, 
peculiarly  fitted  to  avail  herself  of  any  opportunities  that  might  orl'i 
in  so  unsettled  a  country,  to  gratify  her  ambition,  and  give  scope  i  ^ 
her  abilities.  The  prince  had  not  behaved  well  to  her,  and  many 
things  concurred  to  render  him  unpopular,  if  not  hateful  to  his  sut»- 
ject^;  particularly  un  enthusiastic  attachment  to  the  king  of  Pru^^Jn. 
then  at  war  with  the  Russians,  and  projected  innovations,  well-mean! 
but  ill-timed,  some  particularly  affecting  the  clergy.  He  proposed  5o 
circumscribe  the  power  of  the  nobles,  and  seemed  to  prefer  the 
Holslein  troops  to  his  Russian  guard.  As  these  things  rendered  his 
removal  probable,  according  to  the  ordinary  course  orproceedings  in 
that  semi-barbarous  country,  the  sagacious  Catherine  willingly  gave 
Herself  up  to  a  party  who  bad  conspired  against  her  husband.  It  is 
generally  conjectured  that  she  connived,  not  only  at  the  dcjpositiout 
but  at  the  death  of  Peter,  who  survived  his  elevation  to  the  imnerial 
dignity  nit  many  months ;  wlrile  Catherine,  by  her  superior  aodresi 
and  intrepidity,  not  only  succeeded  in  establishing  herself  upon  the 
vacant  throne,  but  in  emancipating  herself  from  the  domination  of  tba 
party  to  whom  she  stood  iwfehted  for  it,  (the  Orloflfe.) 

8.  One  competitor  still  seemed  to  stand  in  her  way^-^th^  anforto* 
»>ate  Iwao,— who  had  been  deposed  by  Elizabeth,  and  now  lanyaibc^ 

'        *  Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  S81 

h  confioement,  at  the  age  of  twenty-rour.  Sood  after  Catherine's 
iccessiOQ  he  was  slain  in  prison,  on  a  pretence  of  his  attempting  ta 
escape,  bat  under  circumstances  so  mysterious  as  to  icvolve  the  em- 
press in  suspicion.  She  reigned  under  the  title  of  Catherine  IL  for 
ihe  long  space  of  upivarJs  of  thirty-four  years,  continually  occupied 
in  advancing  the  glory  of  her  people,  in  augmenting  her  dominions, 
ind  rewarding  merit.  She  obtained  many  signal  advantages  over  the 
'i'urks«  and  succeeded  (1 J84)  in  wresting  from  them  the  whole  dis- 
trict or  the  Crimea ;  but  her  designs  extended  much  farther,  even  to 
the  expulsion  of  the  Ottomans,  and  restoration  of  a  Grecian  empire, 
t Living  for  its  capital  Athens  or  Constantinople :  she  contemplated.  In 
Mh)rl,  the  complete  triumph  of  the  Cross  over  the  Crescent  An  ex 
{it^'lition  was  even  undertaken  for  the  liberation  of  the  Greeks,  in 
(ho  year  1,770;  but  it  proved  meilbctual,  though  it  might  have  been 
MticTwiiie,  had  the  Russian  commanders  consented  to  follow  the  ad- 
\  .ce  of  the  Scotch  admiral,  Eiphinstone,  who  commanded  one  of  the 
JiH^ions  of  the  fleet. 

'J.  Catherine  bore  a  large  sliare  in  the  partition  of  Poland,  and 
e<*t'ms  to  have  been  restniined  by  no  principles  of  justice,  humanity* 
n.  Tality,  or  virtue,  from  furtliering  the  purposes  oi  her  ambition  ano 
j'^icy:  her  prodigality  was  great,  her  largesses  enormous,  and  her 
i  ve  of  magniliccncc  little  proportioned  to  the  smallne^  of  the  im- 
:  r::il  revenue:  her  abilities  and  her  resolution  were  remarkable, 
• ':  J  she  may  be  considered  as  having  contributed  largely  to  the  im- 
'  N'vement  and  glory  of^the  country  over  which  she  was  permitted 
- '  io.ijT  to  bedT  unlimited  rule,  iier  domestic  regulations  savoured 
.'  l  •  ot*  the  despotism  displayed  in  her  foreign  enterprises :  she  miti- 
L  ii  •.!  the  rigour  of  the  penal  laws,  abolislied  torture  and  slaverr, 
;  ••t  'Cted  the  arts  and  sciences,  and  endeavoured  to  elevate  the  mid- 

•  '  •  cl.iss  to  a  proper  degree  of  importance. 

10.  Catherine  11.  was  succeeded  in  1,796  by  her  son  Paul  L,  a 

•  .':uige  character,  unsettled  in  his  principles,  dissolute  in  his  manners, 
\ '  ilxH,  vindictive,  and,  in  his  last  days,  scarcely  in  possession  of  his 
*"uses.  On  his  first  accession,  however,  he  wisely  endeavoured  to 
provide  against  the  evils  arising  from  an  unsettled  inheritance,  by 
'  nacting  a  law  to  secure  the  crown  to  his  lineal  and  direct  desceiy 

•  nts,  not  absolutely  excluding  females,  but  admitting  tliem  only  into 
U:o  line  of  succession  on  a  total  failure  of  male  heirs. 

11.  The  emperor  appeared  to  be  extremely  eager  to  secure  an 
''itnmce  into  the  Mediterranean,  and  was  highly  gratitied  with  being 
-riiisen  patron  of  the  order  of  Malta,  which  he  consented  to  take 
iiiiier  his  protection  in  the  year  1,798.  He  had  been  induced  to  take 
ft  r^rt  In  the  war  against  the  French,  and  succeeded,  in  conjunction 
>  .th  the  Tnrks^  in  getting  possession,  lor  a  short  time,  of  the  Ionian 
^l.mds ;  a  Russian  army  was  also  sent  to  co-operate  with  the  Austrir 
I! IS,  under  the  command  of  the  celebrated  Souwarow,  (or  Souvarofi^) 
viio,  after  having  achieved  ^reat  victories  in  Lombardy,  seems  to 
Kive  been  cruelly  abandoned  m  Swiaserland,  and  to  have  unjustly  in 
urred  the  displeasure  of  his  capricious  master.  A  mbundentandlng 
I'tweea  the  English  and  Paul  on  the  subject  of  Malta,  entlrel;f 
'ionated  the  latter  from  the  coniederacy.  In  the  mean  while^  hji 
liilent  coodoct  had  induced  the  great  officen  of  stale  and  the  nobditt 
0  conspire  to  dethrone  him.    He  was  slain  in  defending  himpeu^ 

jfin^  a  oonflkt,  in  his  own  chamber,  March  24, 1|801 ;  and,  greatly 
iOieJoy  of  his  oppcened  people,  succeeded  by  his  •OQAkiaiMk% 


y  Google 


MODERN  HISTORY. 

resent  emperor,  of  whose  accession,  and  share  in  the  coatiiunbl 
an  account  has  already  been  given. 

Frussu.  as  a  kingdom,  is  not  older  than  the  eighteenth  centarv, 
intlrely  belongs  therefore  to  the  period  under  discussion,  h 
T,  as  connected  with  the  electorate  of  Brandenburgh,  asceo^ 
;n,  perhaps,  as  that  of  any  sovereignty  in  Europe.  Its  present 
r  may  be  said  to  have  taken  its  rise  from  the.wisdom,  juogineni. 
cod  sense  of  the  elector  Frederic-William,  commonly  called  lit. 

elector,  who  had  Ducal  Prus«ia  confirmed  to  him  in  1,657,  sni! 
e  convention  of  Walau  and  Bromberg,  rendered  independent  r\ 
rown  of  Poland,  of  which,  till  then,  it  had  been  a  fief.  In  th' 
of  the  great  elector,  advantage  was  taken  of  the  unsettled  stale 

1  rope,  to  increase  the  population,  and  thereby  advance  iu^ 
h  and  improvement  of  the  country  in  every  re««i>ect.  Tii** 
alion  of  the  edict  of  Nantes  in  France,  1,685,  contributed  br-:<- 
Ihcsp  ends,  the  Prussian  stales  being  freely  set  open  to  the  n  I- 
\  of  all  descriptions;  an  act  of  mere  policy,  as  the  elector  liim 
liough  tolerant,  was  extremely  devout  and  careful  of  tlie  pr.vi 
,  and  even  exemptions  of  the  clergy. 

The  elector,  Frederic-William,  died  in  1,688,  and  was  sncc»^pi'. 

his  son  Frederic,  who,  through  the  influence  of  the  prote«t;i  i 
,  and  the  good-will  of  the  emperor  Leopold,  to  whom  he  Ir  < 

of  service  in  his  contest  with  France,  but  who  seems  to  hau 

such  a  step  with  little  judgment  or  considenition,  became  kl".* 
01,  and  died  in  1,713,  at  the  very  period  ivhen,  by  the  Xixtniy  » ■ 
;ht,  his  regal  title  was  confirmed  and  generally  acknowleiii: 

2  other  states  of  Europe.    Frederic  1.  was  generous,  but  Ixki- 
stitious.  and  vain:  he  Ibunded  the  University  of  Hall,  the  Ko\  ' 
ty  of  Berlin,  and  the  Academy  of  Nobles,  but  without  taly:  ■ 

interest  in  their  concerns,  and  chiefly  at  tlie  instigation  of  hi« 

learned  consort,  the  princess  Charlotte  of  Hanover;  he  r5j;j; 

however,  to  augment,  by  many  acquisitions,  purchaser,  -j^^ 
mges,  the  extent  of  his  dominions. 

His  successor,  Frederic- William  IL,  is  judged  to  have  dw^ 

more  to  raise  the  credit  and  character  of  his  new  kingdom,  Iv 
sive  prudence,  and  good  management,  and  the  utmost  atlentio: 

army ;  whereby  he  not  only  repaired  the  losses  occasioned  !•> 
ther's  extravagances,  but  amassed  great  treasures,  and  laid  lb« 
ation  for  those  stupendous  military  achievements,  which,  ia  0*^ 
reign,  advanced  Prussia  to  that  high  state  of  glory  and  emioenct? 
1  has  given  it  such  weight  in  tne  political  scale  of  Europe, 
trie  abolished,  in  1,717,  all  the  fiefs  in  his  kingdom;  he  invii'M 
ies  from  all  parts  to  settle  in  his  dominions.  Like  his  great  }^n  •'.- 
}r  and  namesake,  he  established  military  schools  and  hospiui'N 
e  was  no  friend  to  literature ;  unpolished  in  his  manners,  ;.5. 
cable  in  his  resentment.  He  added  to  the  dominions  of  Pnis^ni, 
1  and  the  greater  part  of  Swedish  Pomerania. 

On  the  <feath  of  Frederic-William  II.,  in  1,740,  his  son,  (whc 
letimes  called  Frederic  IL,  to  distinguish  him  from  the  Frederic- 
ims,  and  sometimes  Frederic  III.,)  came  to  the  throne.  Of  tb» 
rch  so  much  is  known,  and  so  much  has  already  been  notioHi 
ecorded  in  the  other  sections  of  this  work,  that  we  have  little 
'  here,  but  that  be  managed  to  raise  a  scattered,  il!-6orted,  d» 
id  kingdom  into  the  first  rank  of  power  and  renown ;  that  be 
2d  himself  incessantly  to  promote  the  welfare  and  improveiiiau 

•  ^  Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  383 

Yhis  dominioM.  to  augment  the  wealth  and  advance  (be  civllizatioo 
of  hh  people,  tnoagh,  in  many  of  his  regulations  and  measures  to 
'h«  end,  he  erred  occasionally  as  his  predecessors  had  done,  for  want 
of'  a  due  knowledge  of  some  of  the  hrst  principles  of  political  econ- 
nmy,  a  science  at  Oiat  |)eriod  little  cultivated.  Frederic  died  August, 
1,786,  in  the  seventy-filth  year  of  his  age,  and  forty-seventh  ol  his 
p'j^n,  more  admired  than  esteemed ;  more  distinguished  for  bravery 
n  ihe  field,  wisdom  in  the  cabinet,  and  literary  attainments,  than  lor 
iny  virtues  or  qualities  of  a  nobler  nature.  He  has  had  the  repulH- 
ficii  of  lieing  the  author  of  two  very  important  measures,  tlie  parrj- 
Jioii  of  Poland,  and  the  armed  neutndity.  The  credit  of  the  tiist 
!fMV  probably  be  very  fairly  divided  between  himself  and  Catherine 
«'!  Ku^sia;  the  second,  as  a  matter  of  self-defence,  and  a  jealous  re 
L'  Jii  for  the  liberty  of  the  sea«,  retlecls  no  dishonour  on  his  character 
I'  i>a  point  that  should  be  better  settled  than  it  seems  to  bo,  by  the 
►  uri  niles  of  international  and  maiiiime  law. 

111.  Frederic  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew  Frederic-William.  0/ 
"»♦•  part  taken  by  this  monarch  in  support  of  the  hou<e  of  Orange, 
.1  1,787,  of  his  opposition  to  the  French,  in  1,792,  and  of  the  share 
n»»  had  in  the  two  last  partitions  of  Poland,  in  1,79:^^  and  1,795,  by 
vWjjrh  he  gained  the  territories,  first  of  South  Prussia,  and,  secondly 
"'.'  South-eastern  Prussia,  an  account  has  been  given  elsewheiti. 
1 1  (1  eric-William  II.  died  in  1,797,  aged  filly-three,  leaving  the  crown 
'  •  his  son,  the  present  king,  Frederic  ill.,  who,  as  he  came  to  Uie 

none  at  the  moment  that  Buonaparte  began  his  extraordinary  c 
r"i»r,  in  disturbance  of  the  peace  of  the  continent,  was  nccesjiarily 
»  \olved  in  all  the  ditliculties  and  confusion  of  those  limes,  as  has 
'm  (^11  already  shown  :  he  joined  the  armed  neutnility  in  l,oO(J,  caused 
i.tniburgh  to  be  shut  against  the  English,  and  occupied  the  states  of 
M.ujover,  1,801,  which  being  annexed  by  France  to  Prussia,  in  1,805, 
.'\  exchange  for  a  part  of  the  duchy  of  Cleves,  Anppach,  Bareuth, 
^♦  ulcliatel,  and  Valengin,  provoked  the  resentment  of  England  and 
>»vcden.  In  1,806,  the  king  rashly  engaged  in  war  with  France,  and 
'Mi^  nearly  deprived  of  his  kingdom:  the  losses  he  sustained  by  the 
'-'  aty  of  Tilsit,  have  been  mentioned.  (Sect.  XVI.)  In  1,812,  Fred- 
'  nc  was  compelled  by  France  to  furnish  an  auxiliary  force  against 
?i'H<ia,  but  was  afterwards,  on  the  retreat  of  the  French  from  Mos- 
""  n\,  able  to  break  througli  this  engagement,  and  conclude  a  treaty 
^•1  neutrality  with  Russia.  From  this  time  to  the  abdication  of  Na- 
p 'lean,  Prussia  acted  in  close  confederacy  with  the  allies,  the  king  • 
w.  i'jg  constantly  with  his  army  till  their  entrance  into  Paris,  March, 
l.Hi4.  On  the  return  of  Buonaparte,  1,815,  the  Prussians  were  tl»e 
ti:^l  to  take  the  field,  under  their  celebrated  genend,  piincc  Blucher, 
li.d  in  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  reaped  the  splendid  glories  of  that  day 
\:i  conjuDction  with  the  British.  i>ince  that  time,  Prussia  has  enjoyed 
I  <nie  of  peace,  though  not  undisturbed  as  to  her  internal  concerns. 
17.  The  crown  of  Swfjjex,  on  the  demise  of  Charles  XII.,  Ij718, 
-*.-e  Sect.  LXVl.  §  9.  Part  11.)  was  conferred  on  his  youngest  siste^ 
irica  Eleanora,  by  the  free  election  of  the  states.  On  tlie  death  olT 
:{i;irles,  whose  strange  proceedings  had  greatly  exhausted  the  kin^ 
iom,  and  occasioned  the  actual  loss  of  many  provinces,  an  opportune 
y  WHS  taken,  once  more,  to  limit  the  kinglj  power,  which  had  been 
t'udered  ahnost  absolute  in  the  reign  ofCliarles  XL,  and  to  make 
ne  crown  elective.  The  new  queen,  who  was  married  to  the  bered 
ary  prince  of  Hesse  Cassel,  and  who  had  been  offered  the  crown  in 
•rejudioe  of  the  son  and  lepreseotative  ol  her  elder  sifter,  the 

Digitized  by  V^OOQl- 


S84  MODERN  fflSTORT. 

dachess  of  Holstein  Gottorp^  readily  submitted  to  toe  conditions  pro- 
posed by  tbe  states  for  limiting  the  royal  authority,  but  soon  after  her 
accession  resigned  the  government  to  her  royal  consort,  who  was 
crowned  by  the  title  of  Frederic  I.,  1,720. 

18.  The  new  king  ruled  the  nation  with  little  dignity  and  less  spir* 
ft;  submitting  to  every  thing  imposed  on  him  by  the  states,  till  the 

fovemment  became  more  republican  than  monarchical  .  The  Sw^- 
ish  territories  were  also  mucn  reduced  during  the  early  part  of  hii 
reign.  In  the  course  of  the  years  I^^IQ,  1,720, 1,721,  Sweden  cet^*'l 
to  Hanover,  Bremen,  and  Verden;  to  rrussia,  the  town  of  Slelun; 
and  to  Russia,  Livonia,  Esthonia,  Ingria,  Wiburg,  a  part  of  Carci..., 
and  several  islands. 

19.  It  was  during  this  reign  that  the  rival  factions  of  the  Hatf  nr.:i 
Cap*  had  their  origin,  and  which  caused  great  trouble ;  the  former 
being  generally  under  the  influence  of  France,  the  latter  of  Uu-u^. 
To  deter  the  latter  from  assisting  the  queen  of  Hungary,  in  the  wv.t 
that  took  place  on  the  death  of  Charles  VL,  France  made  use  of  \\% 
Influence  with  the  Hais^  to  involve  Sweden  in  hosiiiitics  with  Rl;^'>{  *, 
for  which  she  was  ill-prepared,  and  from  which  she  sufiered  con-Ln 
crably.  Her  losses  were  restored  to  her  in  some  roe;isure  by  iUh 
peace  of  Abo,  1,743,  but  upon  the  positive  condition  that  FrcJ':  uc 
should  adopt  as  his  heir  and  successor,  at  the  instance  of  the  czurirt... 
Adolph US-Frederic,  bishop  of  Lubec,  uncle  to  the  duke  of  Holriei; 
Gottorp,  presumptive  heir  to  the  tlirone  of  Russia,  and  nephc^v  !• 
the  queen  of  Sweden,  who  would  moro  willingly  have  had  (he  )aiU:r 
for  her  successor. 

20.  Adol{>hus-Fredenc  came  to  the  crown  in  1^751.  The  s^nr 
factions  which  had  disturbed  the  former  reign  continued  to  give  lii'  * 
trouble,  and  though  he  made  some  endcavoura  to  get  tbe  U?tt€r  <  t 
^reign  influence,  and  recover  his  lost  authority,  all  his  cflbrts  werj 
Tain.  Nothings  could  exceed  the  anarchy  and  confusion  that  prev.i.- 
ed,  encouraged  and  fomented  both  by  Russia  and  France,  to  furtfi.i 
their  private  ends.  The  king  k  supposed  to  have  lidlen  a  sacri::va 
to  these  disturbances,  dying  whoUv  dispirited  in  the  year  1,771. 

21.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son  Gustavus  ill.,  twenty-liva 
Tears  old  at  the  time  of  his  accession ;  a  Swede  by  birth,  and  an  nc- 
tive  and  spirited  prince,  who  was  bent  upon  recovering  what  hii 
predecessors  had  too  tiimely  surrendered  oi  their  rights  and  ))rcroc- 
atives;  in  which,  being  supported  by  France,  he  had  Uie  good  fortune 
to  succeed.  Having  lound  means  to  conciliate  the  army,  and  to  rrc- 
oncile  the  people  to  an  attack  upon  the  aristocrats,  who  were  betMV- 
ing  the  interests  of  the  country,  he  estibiished  a  new  con^^titnli*  r^ 
1,772,  with  such  good  management  and  address,  that  the  public  ir.r*- 

auiOity  was  scarcely  for  a  moment  disturbed.  This  new  airangeroent 
irew  great  power  into  the  hands  of  the  king,  by  leaving  him  tti 
option  of  convening  and  dissolving  the  states,  with  the  entire  dispu>;i 
ot  the  army,  navy,  and  all  pubuc  appointments,  civil,  military,  aiii: 
ecclesianiical ;  some  alterations  were  made  in  1,789,  but  nothing 
could  reconcile  the  party  whom  be  had  superseded;  at  least  it  » 
probable  that  this  was  the  occasion  of  the  catastrophe  which  lermi 
nated  the  life  of  the  unfortunate  monarch.  Towards  the  conomence* 
ment  of  the  French  revolution,  in  the  year  1,792.  when  he  was  pre- 
jMrin^  to  assist  Lewis  XVI.,  (an  unpopular  undertaking.)  he  w?« 
assassinated  at  a  masquerade  by  a  person  encoaragcd,  if  not  directly 
employed,  by  the  ducootented  party  «f  1,772. 

22.  GttstaTiu  IIL  was  brayOf  gpoUtei  weil-infonnedf  and  of  a  n»dr 

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MODERN  HISTORY.  Mb 


ilo^oRice  J*  bot  i«t»fligate  in  his  habits  of  life,  and  carelen  u  to  i^ 
rrs  o(  religion.  He  promoted  letters,  agricultnre,  and  commerco, 
A  fur  as  his  means  would  enable  him  to  do  sa  His  measures  appear 
0  have  been  more  arbitrary  than  his  disposition. 

23.  His  son  Gnstavus  IV.  beinz  only  fourteen  years  old  at  the  time 
if  iiis  father^s  death,  the  duke  of  Suae rniania^  brother  of  the  deceas- 
(1  king,  became  regent  for  a  short  time.  1St>  monarch  in  Europe 
manifested  a  greater  zeal  in  the  cause  of  the  French  royal  family, 
ir  disgust  at  the  arbitrary  proceedings  of  Buonaparte,  than  Gustavus 
v.,  bot  he  was  little  able  to  |;ive  enect  to  his  wishes;  his  judgment 
King  weak,  and  his  forces  inadequate  to  contend  with  the  French* 
-peciaHy  after  the  latter,  by  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  (see  Sect.  XVI.) 
lad  found  means  to  detach  and  conciliate  the  em^Meror  Alexander. 
Viter  this  disastrous  treaty,  Gustavus  became  not  onlyihe  o)>ject  of 
rench  resentment,  but  of  Russian  rapacity,  lie  was  peremptorily 
*>rl)idden  to  admit  the  EkiElish  into  his  ports^  and  Finland  was  quickly 
V rested  from  him.  The  Danes  also  attacked  him.  In  tliis  dilemma, 
c^nc^land  would  have  assisted  him  if  she  coukl  have  trusted  him,  but, 
n  truth,  his  rashness  and  incapacity  were  become  too  apparent  to 
justify  any  such  confidence.  A  revolution  was  almost  necessary,  nor 
*as  it  lone  before  a  cofwpiracy  was  formed,  which,  in  the  year  1,809, 
occeeded  so  far  as  to  induce  him  to  abdicate-  His  uncle,  the  duke 
.'!  Sudermania,  bein^  appointed  protector,  and  very  soon  afterwards 
king,  by  the  title  oi  Charles  Xlll.,  tlie  states  carrying  their  resent- 
f^nt  against  Gustavus  IV.  so  far,  as  to  exclude  his  posterity  also  from 
iie  throne. 

S4.  Charles  XIIL  submitted  to  new  restrictions  on  the  kingly  au'* 
hority,  and  having  no  issue,  let^  it  to  the  nation  to  nominate  an  heir 
0  the  crown.  Their  first  choice  fell  upon  the  prince  of  Augustcn- 
'urg,  a  Danish  subject,  but  his  death  happening  soon  aftcnvanls,  not 
fvithout  suspicion  of  foul  play,  Bemadotte,  one  of  Buonaparte's  gen- 
erals, was,  in  a  very  extraordinary  manner,  nominated  in  his  room  by 
be  kio|,  and  approved  by  the  states.  As  crown  prince  of  Su  cden« 
•empted  by  the  offer  of  Norway,  he  joined  the  confederacy  against 
Huooanarte  in  1,813,  and  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Leipzig.  (See 
^ectXX.)  On  the  death  of  Charles  Xlll.,  1,818,  he  succeeded  to 
he  crowiL  and  still  reigns,  having,  by  tlie  treaty  of  Vienna,  1,8 15| 
Stained  Norway,  and  the  island  ot  Guadaloupe. 

25.  The  histoiy  of  DfstiCAiix  during  the  eighteenth  century,  and 
>tgioQiDg  of  the  nineteenth,  is  very  uninteresting,  in  a  politkuil  point 

t  view.  Incapable  of  taking  any  leading  or  conspicuous  pnrt  hi  the 
^natn  of  Europe,  all  that  we  know  concerning  her  relates  rather  to 
to  countries,  as  Russia,  Sweden,  Prussia,  Fnuice,  and  England ;  in 
vliose  fiiendsbips  and  hostiUties  she  has  been  compelled,  by  circum* 
"^-inces,  to  take  a  part,  little  advantageous,  if  not  entirely  detrimental, 
AherowDinterestB. 

26.  Five  kings  have  occupied  the  throne  since  the  dose  of  the 
«venteentb  centnn^,  but  it  will  be  necessary  to  say  very  little  of 
^«m>  FVederic  IVI,  who  came  to  the  crown  in  1,699,  died  io  :,73ti, 
^^  WBSSQoeeeded  bj  Christian  VI. ;  a  monarch  who  pnki  great  at* 
£ntion  to  the  weUare  of  bis  subjects,  hi  lightening  the  taxes,  and  et^ 
'bunging  trade  and  manufiictures.  He  reigned  sixtoon  years,  and 
^iocoeeded  by  his  son  Fred'^ric  V.,  hi  the  year  1,746.  Fredctic 
rod  in  the  footsteps  of  his  father,  by  promotaig  kncwledge,  encoiv^ 
[^  themanu&ctores,  and  extemiinj^  ihe  coaMnerce  of  his  country* 
^  had  Desff^  been  embroUed  with  Russia  during  tiie  six  months^ 


:k  49 


y  Google 


MET  MODERN  HISTORT. 

leigQ  of  the  imfi>rtui»ate  Peter  III^  who,  the  momeiit  he  became  em* 
peror,  resolved  to  revenge  on  the  court  of  Denmark  the  mjuriea 
which  had  been  committea  on  his  ancestors  of  the  house  of  HusteiQ 
Gottorp.  In  these  attempts  he  was  to  be  assisted  by  the  king  of 
Prussia.  The  king  of  Denmaric  prepared  to  resist  the  attacks  with 
which  he  was  threatened,  but  the  oeposition  and  death  of  the  em- 
peror fortunately  relieved  him  from  all  apprehensions,  and  be  was 
able  to  compromise  matters  with  Catherine  IL,  br  a  treaty  that  wm 
not  to  take  effect  till  the  grand  duke  Paul  came  of  age.  By  this  con- 
vention, the  empress  ceded  to  Denmark,  in  the  name  of  her  son,  the 
docby  of  Sleswick,  and  so  much  of  Holstein  as  appertained  to  the 
Gottorp  branch  of  that  family,  in  exchange  for  the  provinces  of  Oi- 
denburs  and  Dalmenhorst. 

S7.  1*  rederic  V.  died  in  1,766,  and  was  succeeded  bv  his  son  Chiii- 
rinn  Vn.,  who,  in  1,768,  married  the  princess  Caroline  Matikla  of 
England,  sister  to  his  majesty  king  George  III.  The  principal  event 
in  this  reign  was  one  which  involved  the  unhappv  queen  in  inextric- 
able difficulties,  and  probablv  hastened  her  death ;  bat  which  seems 
still  to  be  enveloped  in  considerable  mystery.  A  German  physician 
of  the  court,  (Struensee,)  who  had  risen  from  rather  a  low  statioo  io 
life  to  be  first  minister,  having  rendered  himself  extremely  obnoxioist 
bjr  a  most  extensive  reform  in  all  the  public  offices  of  state,  civil  ami 
military,  and  which,  had  they  succeeded,  tmgfxt  have  done  nim  great 
credit  as  a  statesman,  was  accused  of  intriguing  with  the  yoon? 

gueen.  and  by  the  violence  of  his  enemies,  headed  and  encoorageil 
y  Juliana  l^Iaria,  the  queen-dowager,  and  her  son  prince  FrederK, 
brought  most  ignominiously  to  the  scaffold.  The  unfortunate  ^ue^n 
Caroline,  whose  life  was  probably  saved  only  by  the  spirited  inten 
position  of  the  British  minister,  quitted  Denmark  after  the  executioo 
of  Struensee  and  his  coadjutor  Brandt,  and  having  retired  to  Zell  ir 
Germany,  painfully  separated  from  her  children,  there  ended  her 
days,  May  10, 1,775,  in  the  twenty-fourth  year  of  her  age. 

28.  During  the  latter  part  of  his  life.  Christian  VIL,  whose  under- 
standing had  always  been  weak,  fell  into  a  state  of  mental  derange 
ment,  and  the  government  was  carried  on  by  the  queen-dowaeer  anJ 
prince  Frederic,  as  co-regents,  with  the  aid  of  Baxnstoff,  an  able  aii^i 
patriotic  minister.  In  1,773,  tne  cession  of  Ducal  Holstein  to  Deri- 
mark  by  Russia  took  place,  according  to  the  treaty  above  spoken  of 
this  was  a  very  important  acquisition,  as  giving  her  the  command  of 
the  whole  Cimbrian  peninsula,  and  enabling  her,  by  forming  a  canul 
from  Kiel*  to  connect  the  Baltic  with  the  German  ocean,  in  the 
continental  wars  of  1,788. 1793,  Denmark  remained  neuter,  but  by 
joining  the  armed  neutrality  in  1,800^  she  excited  the  suspicions  acil 
resentment  of  Great  Britain,  and,  being  supposed  to  favour  not  onU 
Russia  but  France,  became  involved  in  a  contest,  which  was  attend  cm 
with  losses  and  vexations  the  most  melaticholy  and  deplorable.  (Sec 
Sect  XX.  §9.) 

29.  Christian  VIL  died  in  1,788,  and  was  succeeded  bv  his  se^ 
Frederic  VI.,  the  present  monarch,  who  had,  a  few  years  beibre,  cq 
entering  the  seventeenth  year  of  his  age,  been  admitted  to  his  proper 
share  in  the  government,  having  with  singular  moderation  ami  pru- 
dence succeeded  in  taking  the  administration  of  affidn  out  of  thv 
hands  of  the  quecn^^owager  and  her  party.  Denmaik  appean  tu 
liBve  suffered  greatly  from  the  peculiarity  of  her  situation  during  the 
strageles  arising  out  of  the  French  revolution,  bemg  continualh 
fercea  into  alliances  contrary  to  her  qwd  interests,  and  made  at  last  to 

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MODERN  HISTORI.  381 

Kmtribate  more  largely  than  almost  any  state,  to  the  establishment 
r  peace,  llie  cession  of  Norway  to  Sweden,  which  had  been  held 
>it  by  the  allies  as  a  boon  to  the  latter  power,  to  induce  her  to  join 
le  last  confederacy  against  FYance,  beinr  a  severe  loss  to  Denmark} 
nd  very  ill  requited  by  the  transfer  of  Pomerania  Snd  the  Isle  oi 
ugen,  which  were  all  that  she  received  in  exchange^ 


SECTION  XXUL 

OUTHERN  STATES  OF  EUROPE,  FROM  THE  CLOSE  OF  THE 
SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY. 

1.  Thk  southern  states  of  Enrope  underwent  such  extraordinaiy 
evolutions  durine  the  preponderance  oi'  the  French  under  Buona- 
nrtp,  that  what  nappened  to  them  during  the  eighteenth  century^ 
"t'MOusiy  to  these  surprising  events,  seems  comparatlTely  of  very 
"lo  consequence ;  of  the  changes  and  disturbances  to  wliich  thev 
(ere  subject  through  the  interterence  of  the  Frencii)  an  account  b 

•  be  found  in  the  sections  relating  to  France. 

2.  Swn2CRLA5D  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  In- 

•  hed  in  disputes  l>etween  the  protestants  and  catholics,  which  weie 
ivnded  witn  very  unpleasant  circumstances.  These  differences, 
I  wever,  were  brought  to  an  end  by  a  convention  in  1,717,  which 
-tablished  an  equahty  of  religious  rights.  Things  remained  very 
,Miot  in  most  of  the  cantons  from  this  ame  to  the  French  revolution, 

•  til  the  exception  of  the  towns  of  Geneva  and  Berne,  and  a  fbw 
ther  places,  where  a  disposition  was  manifested  to  limit  and  restrain 
ic  aristocratical  governments,  but  which  only  led  at  that  time  to 
i:h  iadicioiis  reforms,  as  were  sufficient  to  appease  the  ardour  of  the 
>^(Pie.  These  disputes,  however,  may  be  held  to  have  contributed 
•*  the  evib  which  befel  the  countiy  afterwards.  Though  the  states 
'KJeavoured  to  preserve  their  neutrality  during  the  progress  of  ths 
rench  revolotion,  it  was  not  possible,  while  revolutionary  principles 
^cre  afloat,  to  keep  the  country  so  free  from  internal  disputes  and 
t  mmotions.  or  so  united,  as  to  deter  the  French  from  interfering. 
'i  rie\*a  had  already  been  cajoled  out  of  her  independence,  but  tub 
-^t  decisive  occasion  afibrded  to  the  French  of  takmg  an  active  part 
1  the  affidrs  of  Swisserland,  arose  out  of  the  disputes,  m  1,798,  reh 
'  ve  to  the  Pays  de  Vaud;  the  gentry  and  citizens  of  which,  not 

M,!iiDg  themselves  sufficiently  fevoured  by  the  rulers  of  Berne  and 
•;  ►oure,  began  to  be  clamorous  for  a  change.  The  peasantry  of 
i-Ip  a&o,  instigated  by  an  emissary  of  the  Frencli  directory,  de- 
.•T)dpd  a  new  constitution.  These  disputes  opened  the  way  for  the 
♦ri'ductioo  of  French  troops,  first  under  the  orders  of  the  directory, 
'•<\  utterwards  under  Buonaparte,  as  has  been  shown  in  owr  account 
t  Fnince;  and  from  that  period  to  the  concV  sion  oi  ihe  war  in 
win,  Switzerland  can  scarcely  be  said  to  ha\e  known  u  year  of 

^.  Of  the  condition  of  Venict  during  the  eighteenth  centT.ryi  much 
*^  be  ooDected  from  the  foregoing  feeclions.    She  lost  the  Moroa  in 

^'  1 8,  but  acquired  in  exchange  ..ome  towns  in  Albania  nud  Dalmatia. 
tim  ecclesiastical  reforms  took  place  in  the  middle  of  the  In^l  cerv 
^ .  at  which  period  many  convents  were  suppressed,  and  the  Jesuits 

iiM.liQd     Venke  endeavoured  to  remain  neuter  during  the  fint 

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MS  MODERX  fflSTORT. 

iMnr^meDtt  of  the  French  revolntioD,  bat  was  soon  draim  faito  (he 
Tortex  when  Boooaparte  assumed  the  conunaod  of  the  French  orm^. 
By  the  treaty  of  Campo  Fonnio,  1,797,  {see  Sect  XV.)  her  doom 
was  sealed,  and  this  celebrated  republic  entirely  OTerthrown. 

4.  In  RoBiE,  since  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  there  has 
been  a  succession  of  many  popes,  though  the  last  two  haye  filled  the 
papal  chair  longer  than  nuent  be  expected,  in  a  sovereignty  where 
the  election  is  generally  made  from  persons  advanced  in  years.  Lit- 
tle more  than  tne  ^  magni  nmninit  umbra^'*  remained  to  the  popes  at 
the  beginnmg  of  the  eighteenth  century,  of  that  temporal  power 
which  at  one  time  or  other  had  shaken  every  throne  in  Europe. 
The  clergy  of  France  in  particular  had  efifectuaUy  asserted  that  kin^^ 
and  princes,  in  temporal  concerns,  were  independent  of  the  ecclesi 
astical  authority.  Cflement  XL,  who  was  of  the  family  of  the  Albani, 
and  assumed  the  tiara  in  the  year  1,700,  opposed  the  erection  of 
Prussia  into  a  kingdom ;  an  extraordinary  measure  of  interposition, 
and  which  had  so  little  weight  as  almost  to  expose  his  court  to  h:)i- 
cule.  He  espoused  the  French  interests  in  the  contest  coDcem^i^ 
the  Spanish  succession,  though  in  1,708  he  was  compelled,  by  lUa 
vigorous  proceedings  of  the  emperor,  to  acknowledge  Charles  !U 
king  of  Spain.  From  this  pope  the  famous  bull  unigenihtt  u-as  e\' 
torted  by  the  Jesuits,  to  tne  great  disturbance  of  France,  and  ih^ 
whole  Romish  church ;  and  the  conseauences  of  which,  indeed,  mar 
be  traced  even  in  the  present  state  and  circumstances  of  Europe. 

5.  Pope  Clement  XI.  died  in  1,721,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  raz 
dlnal  Michael  Angelo  Conti,  who  took  the  name  of  Innocent  5un.,  but 
beins  far  advanced  in  years,  lived  a  very  short  time,  dyinj^  on  the  'M 
of  March,  1,724,  and  on  the  39th  of  May  following,  cardinal  l}i>l:i!, 
Benedict  XIU.,  was  chosen  his  successor.  During  bis  papacy,  Com 
machio,  which  had  been  lost  to  the  Roman  see  in  the  time  of  Clcn- 
out  XI.,  was  recovered;  Benedict  was  zealous  ibr  the  honour  of  tk 
bull  onigenitus,  and  in  conjunction  with  cardinal  Fleury,  succeed-  i 
m  procuring  the  cardinal  de  Noailles,  one  of  the  most  respectable  ia  i 
Eealoos  opposers  of  it  in  France,  to  subscribe  it  He  had  a  disp**v 
tion  to  unite  the  Roman,  Greek,  Lutheran,  and  reformed  church«^, 
but  coakl  not  succeed.  He  died  1,730,  more  admired  for  his  viiiu^i  i 
md  talents,  than  praised  for  his  wisdom  in  the  manafement  of  affair*  I 

^  Beneaict  XIIL  was  succeeded  by  Clement  XII.,  JLauience  Cor^i 
ni,  a  Florentine,  whose  public  acts  were  of  little  unportance.    Hf 
had  disputes  with  the  king  of  SardiniiL  the  republic  ot  Venice,  with 
the  empire  and  Spain ;  but  much  of  hb  pontificate  was  passed  m 
tranquUlity.    He  died  on  the  6th  of  February,  1 ,740.    He  made  co%  ' 
aidenble  and  valuable  additions  to  the  Vatican  library.    On  t> 
death,  a  struggle  arose  between  the  Albani  and  Corsini  families^  ar^ 
tiie  conclave  was  much  agitated.    The  former  prevailed,  and  ^u. 
oeeded  m  elevathig  cardinal  Prosper  Lambertini  to  the  papal  ch^i    | 
who  took  the  title  of  Benedict  XlV.    His  government  of^  the  cbna^ 
was  extremely 'mild,  and  he  was  regarded  as  no  favourer  of  th% 
Jesuits,  who,  durine  his  pontificate.  Tell  into  disrepute  in  Portug  t..  j 
the  first  symptom  oftheir  decline  and  ialL    This  pope  was  a  man  c: 
noat  amiable  mannem,  a  great  writer,  and  possessea  of  coosiderai:^- ' 
kamhig^,    He  corrected  several  abuses,  particularly  such  as  ha.' 
arisen  out  of  the  privileges  of  asylum.    He  carefully  endeavoured  v> 
keep  dear  of  disputes  and  contests,  thinking  the  times  uD&voanbMi 
to  t&epapal  authority.    He  died  in  the  year  1.758.  { 

T  The  cardiDal  Rezzooico  succeeded  fieneaict  XiV.i  aad  took  lbs 

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MODERN  HIS1X)RY.  380 

dtle  of  Clement  XI1L  His  pontificate  is  memorable  for  being  tbe 
«ra  of  the  expulsion  of  the  order  of  Jesuits,  (in  some  instances  un- 
der circumstances  of  very  unjustifiable  precipitation^)  from  Portugal, 
France,  Spain,  Naples^  Sicily,  Parma,  Venice,  and  Corsica,  notwith- 
standing the  utmost  efforts  of  the  ]>ope  to  uphold  them ;  many  of 
them  were  actually  landed  from  Spain,  Portugal,  Naples,  and  Sicily, 
on  the  pope^s  territories,  as  though  it  belongea  to  him  to  maintain 
t!ieni  when  abandoned  by  the  catholic  sovereigns.  The  pope  re- 
D)onstrate<i  but  with  little  effect  The  French  seized  upon  Avignon, 
ami  the  Neapolitans  upon  Benevento,  to  induce  him  to  abandon  the 
order,  but  he  would  not  Clement  XIII.  died  suddenly,  on  February 
i!,  1,769,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  celeorated  Ganganelli,  who,  in 
compliment  to  his  predecessor  and  patron,  took  the  litJe  of  Clenent 
XIV.  This  enlightened  pontiff  was  sensible  of  the  dechne  of  the 
pipal  authority,  and  of  the  prudence  of  concilial\ng,  if  not  of 
humouring,  the  sovereiens  of  Europe,  against  whom,  he  was  accus- 
tomed to  observe,  the  Alps  and  the  ryrenees  were  noi  sufficient  pro- 
lection.  It  was  in  consequence  of  this  leaning  towards  the  temporal 
princes,  that  he  secured  their  concurrence  to  his  beitg  made  pope, 
his  freedom  of  thought  and  manners  being  otherwise  obnoxious  to 
U»e  court  of  Rome.  The  conclave,  by  which  he  was  elected,  was 
tumultuous ;  bu^.  at  length  the  cardinal  de  Bemis  succeeded  in  pro- 
•'iring  him  to  be  chosen  pope.  May,  1,769.  It  is  well  known  that 
5his  accomplished  pontiff,  in  the  year  1,773,  after  much  deliberation, 
suppressed  the  order  of  Jesuits;  and,  dying  in  the  next  year,  suspi- 
<"i  ns  were  raised  that  he  had  been  poisoned,  but,  on  opening  nis 
^»*Hjy,  in  the  presence  of  the  French  and  Spanish  ministers,  enemies 
to  tbe  JesuitSi  it  was  pronounced  otherwise.  There  is  littie  doubt 
tint  that  he  regretted,  as  head  of  the  church,  the  step  he  bad  been 
impelled  to  take ;  it  procured  for  him,  indeed,  the  restitution  of 
^vi^on  and  Benevento,  which  had  been  taken  from  his  predecessor; 
'"'U  in  consenting  to  the  dissolution  of  ah  order  so  essential  to  the 
pi  pal  dororaion,  he  must,  in  all  probability,  have  yielded  to  the  power 
<'t  irresistible  circumstances.  He  was  of  an  amiable  dispositix>n, 
iii'ich  given  to  literature,  indefatigable  in  business,  and  highly  re- 
^]K'ciedby  foreign  nations,  plain  and  simple  in  his  manners,  and  very 
'li>mterested. 

a.  Eariy  in  the  year  1,775,  Angiolo  Braschi,  a  descendant  of  ihm 
n«'hle  family  of  Cesena,  was  chosen  to  fill  the  chair  vacated  by  th» 
vieatb  of  GanganellL  The  new  pope  took  the  title  of  Pius  VI.  Br 
i«  «aid  to  have  been  elected  contrary  to  the  wishes  and  intentions  oS 
(Tio^t  of  tbe  members  of  the  conclave,  a  circumstance  not  unlikely  U 
^i  ippeo  amidst  such  a  contrariety  of  interests,  and  the  complicat.v 
i  *nns  of  proceeding.  As  he  had  thus  risen  to  supreme  power,  h^ 
tcted  ailerwards  more  independently  of  the  cardmals,  than  any  u» 
his  predecessors. 

9.  He  had  taken  the  name  of  Pius  VI.,  in  acknowledged  defiaoc* 
of  a  prevailing  superstition,  expressed  in  tbe  following  verses,  and 
applied  to  Alexander  VI.  particulariy,  if  not  to  others, 

^^  Sextttj  Tarqainias,  Sextai  Nero,  leztuf  ^i  iitt 
Semper  nib  lextis,  perdita  Roma  fult.^' 

he  Is  known  to  have,  in  his  troubles,  reflected  on  thki  rather  sb- 
gular  circumstance,  with  sorrow  and  dismay.  Certainly  no  pope  bad 
(neater  lodi^ities  to  sustain,  nor  could  any  have  greater  caiMe  1o 

***  Digitized  by  V^OOgie 


390  MODERN  HISTORY. 

appuT  to  themsehes  the  ominous  presages  conyeyed  In  the  lines  jnst 
cited;  for  in  the  year  1,798  his  government  was  overthrowiu  and 
home  lost.  The  French  took  possession  of  It  and  proclaimed  the 
restoration  of  the  Roman  republic. 

10.  The  pope's  troubles  be^  in  1*796,  when  he  was  compelled 
to  cede  to  Buonaparte  the  cities  of  Bologna,  Urbino,  Ferrara,  and 
Ancona,  to  pay  twenty-one  millions  of  francs,  and  deliver  to  tha 
French  commissioners,  sent  for  the  purposes,  pictures,  busts,  statue^ 
and  vases,  to  a  large  amount.  He  aflerwaros  endeavoured  to  raise 
an  army  to  recover  what  he  had  lost ;  but  he  had  formed  a  ver; 
wrone  estimate  of  the  power  of  his  ojj^onent  He  was  soon  con^ 
pelled,  February  12,  1{797,  to  sue  for  peace,  and  submit  to  further 
sacrifices  at  the  will  of  Buonaparte,  whom  he  had  certainly  very  in- 
cautiously provoked.  By  the  peace  of  Tolentino,  he  renouncecl  all 
right  to  Avignon  and  the  Vanaissin,  Bologna,  Ferrara,and  the  Romag- 
lUU  On  the  entrance  of  the  French  in  1,798,  the  Vatican  and  Quit- 
inal  palaces,  and  private  mansions  of  the  obnoxious  amongst  the 
nobihtv,  were  stripped  of  all  their  ornaments  and  riches.  The  peo- 
ple wno  had  invited  the  French,  fancied  themselves  free,  but  bad 
very  little  cause  to  thank  their  deliverers.  The  pope  was  forcibly 
removed  from  Rome,  at  the  age  of  eighty,  and,  by  order  of  the 
French  directory,  transferred  from  place  to  place,  as  the  course  of 
events  dictated,  from  Rome  to  Florence,  from  Florence  to  Bnancork 
and  from  Briancon  to  Valence.  Another  removal  to  Dijon  is  said  tt. 
haye  been  in  contemplation,  had  not  the  decline  of  his  health  become 
too  visible  to  render  it  necessary.  He  died  at  the  latter  place  on  the 
29th  of  August,  1^799,  in  the  eighty-second  year  of  his  age,  and 
twenty-fourth  of  his  pontificate. 

1  \^  Pius  VI.  was  correct  in  his  manners,  and  a  patron  of  genius^ 
particularly  of  the  fine  arts.  He  spent  much  money  on  buildiDgss 
notwithstanding  the  distressed  state  of  the  finances,  and  devoted  larg« 
sums  to  the  (kaining  of  the  Pontine  marshes,  in  which  almost  im- 
practicable undertaking,  he  partly  succeeded.  He  endeavoured  to 
correct  the  abuses  of  sanctuary,  which  had  been  carried  so  far  as  to 
give  impunity  to  hired  assassins,  much  to  the  disgrace  of  those  who 
protected  them.  It  deserves  to  be  recorded  of  him,  that  he  dis[4nT- 
ed  great  ma^nimity,  as  well  as  pious  resignation,  when  dragged 
from  his  dominions  ,*  and  though  he  ielt  severely  the  wrongs  that  had 
been  committed  against  him  by  the  French  and  the  infatuated  Ro- 
mans, he  died  tranquilly  and  serenely. 

12.  It  is  remarkable  that  he  had  scarcely  been  dead  a  month,  when 
Rome  was  delivered  from  the  hands  of  its  oppressors,  and  given  up 
to  the  British,  whose  fleets  under  commodore  Trowbridge,  liad  block- 
ed up  the  port  of  Givita  Vecchia.  Those  who  had  favoured  the  re- 
pubbcan  cause  were  permitted  to  retire,  and  the  French  garrisoo 
marched  out  with  the  honours  of  war. 

13.  In  the  month  of  March,  1,600,  a  conclave  of  cardinals,  rnvter 
the  protection  of  the  emperor  and  other  catholic  powers*  met  «i 
Venice  to  elect  a  successor  to  Pius  VI.,  and  was  not  long  m  fixirij^ 
upon  the  cardinal  Chiaremonte,  bishop  of  Tlvoli,  the  present  pop^- 
Pius  VII.  In  a  few  weeks  afler  his  election,  he  set  out  for  his  neiv 
dominions,  and  arrived  at  Rome  on  the  9tti  of  July.  In  the  monm 
of  September.  1,801,  he  had  the  satisfaction  of  concluding  a  coiifli»r^ 
AUwn  with  the  French  republic,  by  which,  under  the  auspices  of 
Buonaparte,  then  first  consul,  the  Roman  catholic  religion  was  r^- 
isitabUahad  there.    Not  only  heresyi  but  infidelity  and  atbetsmt  ^«>4 

Digitized  byVjOOQlC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  d91 

be«n  10  openlj  encoaraged  and  avowed  by  the  French  reTolndoofelSi 
(bat  Piua  appears  to  have  thought  no  concessions  t»o  great  to  ac 
complish  this  end ;  for  the  tenns  of  the  agreement  undoubtedly  sub- 
jected the  Crailican  church  entirely  to  the  ci?il  goTemment,  canoni- 
ci\l  imtitQtion  being  almost  the  only  privilege  reserved  to  the  pope, 
and  every  possible  encouragement  being,  at  the  same  time,  given  to 
the  protestant  churches,  Lutheran  and  Calvinislic. 

13.  It  was  very  soon  discovered,  that  the  new  head  of  the  Uemen 
church,  was  to  be  made  to  bow  as  low  to  the  authority  of  Buonaparte 
as  his  predecessor.  In  1,804  Pius  VII.  was  summoned  to  Paris  to 
officiate  at  the  coronation  of  the  French  emperor ;  and  though  in 
the  year  following  he  declined  attending  a  similar  ceremony  at 
Milan,  as  has  been  already  shq.wn,  it  seems  only  to  have  exposed  him 
to  greater  sacrifices.  In  1,808  he  was  deprived  of  Urbino,  Ancooa, 
Macerata,  and  Camerino,  and  soon  aAer  his  temporal  sovereignty 
was  formally  dissolved,  and  the  papal  territories  annexed  to  France. 
Rome  was  declared  to  be  a  free  and  imperial  citv ;  the  court  of  irw 
quisitioo,  the  temporal  jurisdiction  of  the  clergy,  the  right  of  asylum, 
and  other  privileges  were  abolished,  and  the  tiUe  of  king  of  Rome  a^v 
propriatea  to  the  heir  of  the  French  empire.  Pius  was  conveyed 
first  to  Grenoble,  afterwards  to  Savona,  and  finally,  in  1,812,  to  l-on- 
tiiinebleau,  where,  for  reasons  unknown,  he  was  once  more  acknowl- 
(Mlged  as  a  sovereign,  till  the  advance  ot  the  allies  upon  Paris,  at  lasU 
prifcured  him  his  liberty;  and  in  1,814  he  was  reinstated ;  he  made 
his  solemn  entrance  into  Rome  on  the  24th  of  May ;  and  in  1,8 Ids 
Uy  the  arrangements  of  the  congress  of  Vienna,  his  forfeited  estates 
nere  re-annexed  to  the  papal  dominions.  His  restoration  of  the 
(unler  of  Jesuits  and  of  the  court  of  inquisition,  on  his  rettim,  occa- 
<^iooed  some  concern  to  the  greater  part  of  Europe ;  but  his  holiness 
hiis  generally  bad  the  credit  of  being  a  man  of  sense,  prudence,  and 
modeiatiOD. 


SECTION  XXIV. 
or  INDIA,  OR  HlNDOOSTAJf. 

1.  Ixnu  or  HIndoostan  having  largely  engaged  the  attention  of 
r.urope  since  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  may  deserve 
•ome  distinct  notice,  though  little  is  to  be  added  to  what  has  already 
^K?en  related  in  former  sections,  of  the  political  events  and  transoc- 
rions  which  have  occurred  m  that  remote  region  of  the  globe,  during 
the  period  alluded  to. 

2.  The  celebrated  Anrungzebe,  who  occupied  the  throne  of  Del- 
^'-i,  at  the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth  century,  lived  to  the 
><=^iir  1,707.  In  him  the  spirit  of  the  great  Timor,  from  whom  he 
was  the  eleventh  in  descent,  seemed  to  revive.  He  was  brave,  but 
rrueL  He  attained  to  a  great  age,  being  nearly  a  hundred  yeare 
•jl<i  when  he  died,  having  succeeded  in  rendering  almost  the  whole 
'^  the  penkisiila  suqject  to  his  sway,  from  the  tenth  to  the  thiriy-iifth 
•le^ree  of  latitude,  and  nearly  as  much  m  longitude. 

3.  Bat  if  Anninfzebe  thus  raised  in  his  own  person  the  credit  of 
the  mogul  throne,  Its  glory  also  perished  with  him.  A  sad  scene  of 
roafuflion  ensued  upon  his  death.  He  had  himself,  indeed,  wnded  to 
OiB  throne  through  the  blood  of  his  own  kindred.  After  deposmg 
tj/5  fillber,  two  of  bis  brothers  were  slaki  in  contending  for  the  crown. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


JSfi  MODERN  HlSTORr. 

But  such  was  the  nature,  geoerally,  of  the  political  reTolatiomot 
those  countries,  that  had  not  this  heen  the  case,  the  Me  of  Aurungze* 
be  himself  might  probably  have  been  sacrificed  to  similar  views  and 

gjrposes.  He  is  said  to  have  bitterly  repented  of  his  misdoings  be- 
re  he  died. 

4.  No  sooner,  however,  was  he  dead,  than  the  most  violent  con- 
tests arose  between  his  own  sons,  two  of  whom,  Azem  and  Kaum 
fiuksh,  perished  in  their  opposition  to  their  elder  brother,  who  be- 
came emperor,  under  the  title  of  Bahader  Shah.  The  torone,  in- 
deed, was  such  an  object  of  contention,  that,  in  the  small  space  of 
eleven  years,  five  princes,  who  attained  to  the  throne,  and  six,  wbo 
were  candidates  for  it,  successively  fell  victims  to  the  lusts  aund  pas- 
sions of  their  semi-barbarous  competitors.  It  was  in  the  reifn  of 
Feroksere,  who  was  deposed  in  1,717,  that  the  English  East  imih 
Company  obtained  the  famous  firman  or  grant,  by  which  their  goo(fe 
of  export  and  import  were  exempted  from  duties,  and  which  has  Decn 
regarded  as  their  commercial  charter  in  India ;  no  other  European 
companies  being  similarly  indulged. 

6.  In  the  time  of  Mahmud  or  Muhammed  Shah*  who  c^me  to  the 
throne  in  the  year  1,718,  and  who  was  engaged  in  disputes  with  some 
di  his  most  powerful  neighbours  and  dependents,  the  celebrated 
usurper  of  the  Persian  throne,  Nadir  Shah,  encouraged,  or  even  irv 
vitea,  as  it  has  been  said,  by  some  of  the  discontented  princes^  partici)- 
larly  the  subahdar  of  the  Deckan,  invaded  the  dominions  of^tne  Mo- 

Sd,  and  with  such  success,  as  in  the  year  1,739,  to  seize  upon  Delhi, 
e  capital,  with  all  its  treasures,  and  compel  the  unhappy  sultan^  tu 
surrender,  with  the  utmost  ignominy,  his  crown  and  sceptre,  lie 
was,  indeed,  afterwards  restored,  but  with  the  loss  of  aU  his  domin- 
ions west  of  the  Indus,  together  with  jewek  and  treasures  to  an  to- 
cak^ulable  amount;  some  indiscreet  insult,  offered  to  the  PenEiaoN 
having  been  the  alleged  provocation  for  delivering  the  city  up  K 

Sunder,  and  the  inhabitants  to  the  sword,  with  every  cruelty  and  in- 
gnity  attendant  upon  such  misfortunes.  This  miserable  capital 
arftenvards  underwent  a  second  visitation  of  the  same  description* 
from  one  of  the  followers  of  Nadir  Shah,  Abdallah,  who  bad,  indeed « 
been  forced  into  his  service^  but  found  means  to  take  advantage  ot' 
his  master's  victories,  by  seizing  upon  the  territories  west  of  ti^  In- 
dus, ceded  to  Nadir  by  the  uolortunate  mogul,  and  erecting  a  sovc- 
reignty  for  himself  at  Candahar.  Nadir  Shau  was  assassiBated  in  he 
tent,  in  1,747. 

6.  By  the  invasion  of  the  Persians,  the  power  and  glory  of  the 
moguls  may  be  said  to  have  been  brought  to  an  end.  From  thai 
period  the  subordinate  states,  princes,  and  viceroys,  began  to  aspire 
to  a  degree  of  independence^  and  to  acquire  a  consequence  bcJoi« 
unknown;  the  mogul  himself  becoming  a  mere  nominal  sovereign. 
Those  who  were  most  raised  at  this  time  by  the  depressioD  of  Uk? 
toltanic  authority,  appear  to  have  been — 

The  Nizam  or  Subahdar,  of  the  Deckan ;  the  Nabot  of  Arcot,  or 
the  Camatic;  the  Subahdar  of  Beujgal ;  the  Nabob  of  Oude;  the 
Rsdahpoote  Princes  of  Agimere;  the  Mahrattas;  the  Seiki;  tbi 
Rohillas.  and  the  Jats. 

The  disputes  and  differences  that  took  place  between  these  aevenJ 
powers,  ailer  the^  had  shaken  off  the  yoke  of  the  mogul,  openeri 
the  door  for  the  interference  of  the  European  settlers,  towftrds  tbe 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century-  (See  Sect  VL  $  2.)  The  French 
firsli  and  aflerwards  the  Englisbi  contrived  to  take  advantage  of  \i\^ 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


jLvIODERN  HISTORY.  SM 

rtni  claiois  set  up  by  the  different  native  powers,  and  by  ren- 
dering them  assistance  against  each  other,  and  it  is  to  be  feared 
greatty  fomenting  their  quarrels,  soon  became  acquainted  with 
the  manifest  superiority  of  their  own  tactics,  and  the  influence 
this  must  give  them  in  such  contests.  The  French  went  far- 
ther, and  first  hit  upon  the  expedient  of  training  the  natives  in 
the  European  manner,  and  incorporating  them  with  their  owa 
armies;  these  were  called  Sepoys. 

7.  it  was  not  lone  oetore  the  French  and  Lngiish.  who  had  at  first 
only  taken  the  fie B  as  auxiliaries,  became  opposed  to  each  other  as 
principali;  in  which  conflicts  the  English  succeeded  beyond  ail  ex- 
pectation, and  instead  of  being  driven  out  of  the  peninsula  themselves, 
which  was  evidently  in  the  view  of  the  French  under  Dupleix,  in 
Che  year  1,751  and  1?'7^2^  found  means  to  establish  themselves  there, 
throogh  the  victories  of  Clive,  to  the  exclnsion  of  all  other  European 
nations,  except  for  purposes  purely  commercial. 

8.  Clive  has  justly  been  ref;anled  as  the  founder  of  the  British 
empire  in  India ;  he  was  the  first  to  procure  for  the  company  grants 
of  territory  and  assignments  of  revenue,  which  totally  changed  tho 
character  of  our  connexions  with  that  country,  and  rendered  the  na- 
tive princes,  even  the  moeul  himself,  subservient  to  our  purposes. 
The  English  had  received  great  provocation  from  the  subahdar  of 
Bengal,  in  an  attack  upon  Calcutta,  and  Clive  was  selected  by  admiral 
Watson  (b  recover  from  Sourajud  Dowlah  the  town  and  fort,  which 
had  been  surrendered  to  him.  At  the  battle  of  Flassey,  1,757,  he 
Dot  only  succeeded  in  the  recovery  of  Calcutta,  but  in  tlie  deposition 
of  the  subahdar,  and  having  appointed  his  general  In  his  room,  ob- 
(AUied  arrant  of  all  the  eflects  and  factories  of  the  French  in  BengaU 
Bahar,  and  Orissa,  and  money  contributions  to  the  immense  amount 
of  jS2,7dO,000  sterling,  exclusive  of  private  gratuities. 

9.  it  would  have  been  well  if  these  advantages  could  have  been 
acquired  with  less  loss  of  credit  to  the  nation  than  was  actually  the 
case ;  but  there  was  too  much  in  these  first  steps  towaitlsa  territorial 
establishment,  to  feed  the  ambition  and  cupidity  of  those  intrusted 
with  the  management  of  affairs,  to  render  it  probable  that  they  would 
keep  clear  of  abuses*  The  opportunities  that  occurred  of  intermed- 
dling  with  the  native  powers,  were  eagerly  seised  upon  as  occasions 
Ibr  enriching  the  servants  of  the  company,  (drawn  from  home  in  ex^ 
pectation  ofmakmg  rapid  fortunes,)  at  tne  exnense  of  the  company 
itseU^  whose  aflhirs  were  in  danger,  not  only  er  becoming  more  cn> 
bamssed  by  the  extraoniinar^  expenses  of^Btteh  interference,  but  by 
the  alienation  of  the  minds  of  the  native^  under  circumstances  littJr 
short  of  the  most  detennined  plunder  ana  persecution.  In  the  mai^ 
agement  of  the  new-acq\iired  territories  and  inland  tnule,  it  is  no 
longer  to  be  doubted  that  the  natives  suflered  in  every  possible  maiw 
ner,  froat  the  most  aBrea<«onable  monopolies,  exorbitant  duties  in>> 
poeed  on  aitides  at  general  consumption,  abtises  in  regard  lo  leasesii 
and  fitcd  oppreflnons;  so  thai  the  BriliMh  name  became  dishonoured^ 
and  it  was  nmnd  to  be  absolutely  expedient  that  some  change  shoola 
take  tkuot  \n  the  administration  of  aflairs  so  remote  from  the  seal  of 
a&  rale  and  directiott,  and  which,  from  simply  commercial,  were  mm 
clearly  become  political  and  military. 

la  The  charter  of  the  company  being^  subject  to  periodkal  !«• 
newals^aibrded  opportunities  for  the  interlerence  of  the  legialatuiet 
■lor  was  the  coniuDj  Itself  backward,  under  any  pressure  of  peco- 
Biary  eraharraisments,  to  apply  to  government  for  assistance.  On 
€Mm  ef  these  occarions,  the  great  chuige  thai  bad  taken  plaoe  In4he 


384  MODERN  HISTORY. 

•late  of  things  m  India,  indaced  the  government  at  home  to  claim  for 
the  crown  all  revenues  arising  from  any  new  acquisitions  made  by 
military  force,  and  in  order  to  repress  the  inordinate  proceedings  of 
the  company's  servants*  of  which  the  natives,  the  public  at  home, 
and  the  company  itself^  had  but  too  much  reason  to  complain,  gov- 
ernment also  insisted  upon  taking  into  Its  own  hands  tiie  pcmtical 
jurisdiction  of  India. 

1 1 .  These  claims  and  regulations  were  first  proposed  in  paiiiament, 
November,  1,772,  and  may  be  said  to  have  laid  the  foundation  for 
that  enlarged  system  of  administration  and  control  which  has  prerail- 
ed  since,  mough  under  different  modifications,  from  lord  North^s  bifl 
in  1,773  to  Mr.  Pitt'a  in  1,784.  By  this  latter  biU,  a  board  of  control, 
composed  of  certain  commissioners  of  the  rank  of  privy  couDseUora, 
was  established,  the  members  of  which  were  to  be  appointed  by  the 
king,  and  removable  at  his  pleasure.  This  board  was  authorized  to 
check,  superintend,  and  control  the  civil  and  military  government 
and  revenue  of  the  company ;  a  high  tribunal  also,  for  the  trial  of 
Indian  delinquents,  was  proposed  at  the  same  tune.  The  manage- 
ment of  their  commercial  concerns  was  lefl  in  the  hands  of  the  cooh 
nany ;  the  political  and  civil  authority  only  transferred  to  the  crown. 
in  1,786,  some  alterations  were  made  in  the  bill ;  the  offices  of  com- 
mandei^m-chief  and  governor-general  were  for  the  future  to  be  unit- 
ed in  the  same  person,  and  a  power  given  to  the  governor-general  in 
decide  in  opposition  to  the  majority  of  the  council  The  presidettcies 
of  Madras  and  Bombay  had  been  previously,  by  lord  North^s  bill 
l^ced  under  the  superintendency  of  the  governor  and  council  of 
Bengal,  but  by  this  bill  that  point  also  was  confirmed. 

12.  When  this  bill  was  passed,  it  appeared  from  the  preamble,  tc 
be  decidedly  the  opinion  or  parliament,  of  government,  as  well  as  of 
the  court  of  directors,  whose  orders  had  for  some  time  breathed  tb< 
same  spirit,  that  ^  to  pursue  schemes  of  conquest  and  extension  of 
dominion  in  India,  were  measures  repuenant  to  the  wish,  the  honoQi« 
and  the  policy  of  the  nation.'^  It  had  previously  been  resolved  by 
the  house,  ^  that  the  maintenance  of  an  inviolable  character  for 
moderation,  good  faith,  and  scrupulous  regard  to  treaty,  ought  to 
have  been  the  simple  grounds  on  which  the  British  government 
should  have  endeavoured  to  establish  an  iafluence  supenor  to  otiier 
Europeans,  over  the  minds  of  the  native  powers  in  India ;  and  that  the 
danger  and  discredit  arising  from  the  forfeiture  of  this  pre-eminence, 
could  not  be  compensated  by  the^temporary  success  of  any  plan  of 
violence  and  injustice.^' 

13.  Such  was  the  tenor  of  the  resolutions  of  the  house  of  commons 
in  K782,  recognised  as  the  principle  of  the  bill  of  1,784,  and  larthtr 
connrmed  by  an  act  passed  in  1 ,793.  In  all  we  perceive  an  evident 
allusion  to  those  mal-practices  of  the  company's  servanlSL  which  will 
for  ever,  it  is  to  be  feared,  remain  on  record,  to  tarnish  the  lustre  of 
our  first  victories  and  territorial  acquisitions  in  India,  and  to  detract 
from  the  reputation  of  persons,  whose  names  might  olherwifie  ha^c 
justly  stood  nigh  on  the  list  of  those,  from  whose  pre-eminent  taleois 
and  abilities,  the  nation  has  derived  both  glory  and  advantage. 

14.  The  English  system  of  jurisprudence  had  been  extended  to 
Inctia  by  lord  North's  bill  of  1,773,  but  under  disadvantages  extreme- 
ij  embarrassing.  The  difference  of  manners,  hahits,  customs ;  th« 
difficultv,  if  not  impossibility,  of  mingling  two  codes,  so*  very  dissimi- 
lar as  those  of  Britain  and  Hindoostan ;  the  forms  and  technicalitjet 
of  the  English  hwy  totally  unknown  to  the  native  cooits^  the  ap> 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  S^b 

parent  k^jastke  of  sub^ctlng  a  people  to  laws  to  which  they  were 
no  parties,  and  to  wbich^  of  course,  they  had  given  no  sanction; 
these,  aad  other  difficulties  have  been  acknowledged  by  those  who 
have  had  to  administer  the  laws  under  the  new  system,  in  India, 
as  having  prevented  those  happy  effects  taking  place,  which  might 
otherwise  have  been  expected  from  the  introduction  of  the  English 
jurisprudence.  Since  the  passing  of  Mr.  Pitt's  bill,  however,  much 
beneht  has  certainly  been  derived  from  the  residence  and  superin* 
tendence  of  noblemen  of  the  highest  rank  and  abilities,  as  governors- 
general,  and  of  judges  the  most  enlightened,  to  preside  in  the  Indian 
4  onrts.  The  first  reforms  that  were  attempted  under  the  new  system, 
though  not  so  successful  as  might  be  wished,  proceeded  from  those 
two  most  amiable  and  nighly  respected  personages,  the  marquis 
Comwallis,  and  sir  William  Jonc). 

15.  From  the  conduct  of  lord  Comwallis,  and  his  successors  lord 
Teignmouth.  and  lord  Momington,  now  marquis  Wellesley,  it  is  e»- 
cremelv  evident  that  the  system  of  neutrality  and  forbearance  pre- 
scribed by  the  resolutions  of  parliament,  and  preamble  of  the  act  of 
1 ,784,  would  have  been  scrupulously  adhered  to  had  it  been  possible, 
coosistentlv  with  the  security  of  our  settlements;  but  towards  the 
rlose  of  the  eighteenth  century^  the  English  were  compelled  to  de- 
lend  themselves  from  the  most  formidable  designs  of  the  celebrated 
1  iyder  Ally  and  his  son  Tippoo  Saib,  who  unquestionably  liad  it  in 
y  lew  to  eztenninate  the  ffritish,  and  probably  ail  other  Luropeana, 
from  the  peninsula  of  India. 

16.  The  result  of  these  conflicts,  which  took  place  in  Mysore,  and 
the  Cam«itic,  was  the  total  overtnrow  of  a  Manomedan  dynasty  of 
only  two  sovereigns,  commencing  with  a  mere  adventurer  of  most 
•oingolar  character,  who  having  waded  through  crimes  to  his  object, 
succeeded  in  pkicing  himself  and  his  son  on  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
thrones  of  the  east,  and  in  a  condition  to  give  veiy  considerable 
trouble  to  the  English  government  there. 

17.  Hyder  Ally,  the  father  of  Tippoo,  was  bom  in  t<,722,  and  died 
in  1,782.  Tippoo  was  bom  m  1,753,  and  lost  his  life  in  the  celebraK 
ed  MBBult  of  the  capital  of  his  new  dominions,  Seringnpatam,  in  1 ,799 
Xliey  were  very  different  men,  having  been  dinerently.  educated. 
1*he  former  had  strong  natural  powers,  which  compensated  for  hi* 
want  of  acauired  knowledge ;  the  latter  was  vain  ot  his  scanty  pro- 
liciency  in  Persian  literature,  and  a  few  other  attainments,  to  a  degree 
of  abaurdity ;  fancying  himself  the  greatest  philosopher  of  the  aga, 
the  wisest,  bravest,  and  handsomest  of  men.  Hyder  was  tolerant  in 
neiigious  concerns  to  a  degree  of  kidifference ;  Tippoo,  a  bieoted 
moBSolman.  to  the  utmost  pitch  of  intolerance  and  persecution.  The 
^omer  meddled  little  with  religion.  The  latter  contemplated  changa 
m  latemisra,  as  in  every  thing  ^be,  having,  as  a  preliminary,  substi^ 
luted  A  new  era  in  his  coins,  dating  from  the  birth  instead  of  the  flighi 
oT  Mahomet  Both  father  and  son  were  devoid  of  principle,  but  the 
ibctner  was  nmch  the  greatest  man. 

18.  It  was  owing  to  the  vigiteoce  and  prompt  measurea  of  lord 
l^ellefliey,  that  Tippoo  was  so  opportunely  overthrown;  though  hit- 
proceedlofB  were  weak,  they  were  earned  on  with  much  duplicity 
axid  deoetti  and  upon  principles  of  alliance  which  in  other  cuDCump 
^^,w>^  might  have  become  very  alarming.  Under  the  most  positive 
^od  repeated  assoraiices  of  peace  and  amity,  he  had  Intrigued  with 

e.  Turkey,  the  klnc  m  Candahar,  (a  descendant  of  the  cele* 
iAIVinchlrfitt£tla^ 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


IM  MODERN  HISTORT. 

■ahrattaA,  for  the  express  object  of  formio^  a  stroDg  coofiedency  Is 
extirpate  the  English :  in  his  negotiatioiis  with  the  courts  of  Canda- 
har  and  CoDstaDtinopIe,  indeed^  he  had  declared  TeogeaDce  agaiiot 
the  infidels  generally,  whence  it  has  been  reasonably  conclnded  tb»t 
bis  schemes  of  destruction  embraced  all  the  European  powers,  the 
French  not  excepted,  had  his  projects  but  been  soccessfuL  Forto- 
nately,  lord  Weliesley  detected  all  his  plots,  and  when  it  became 
impossible  to  treat  farther  with  him  on  any  fair  eroonds,  by  the 
most  decisive  measures,  and  rapid  movements,  eSectually  avert' 
ed  the  blow  that  had  been  decidedly  aimed  at  the  firitish  empira  b 
India. 

19.  On  the  fall  of  Serineapatani,  the  Mysorean  dommlons  wens 
by  allotments  to  the  allies,  the  British,  the  Nizam,  and  the  MahrattiL-s 
nearly  reduced  to  the  limits  by  which  they  were  bounded  before  the 
usurpation  of  Hyder,  and,  a  survivmg  representative  of  the  Hindoo 
dynasty,  a  child  only  five  years  old^  placed  on  the  throne«w)th  an 
acknowledged  dependency  on  the  British  government  The  d&> 
acendants  of  Tippoo  being,  however,  liberally  provided  for.  aD<i 
settled  in  th^  Camatic,  disturbances  in  tne  northern  and  north-westei  u 
parts  of  the  peninsula,  among  the  Mahratta  chleflainS|  occupied  the 
attention  of  tne  English  army,  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  cen- 
tury, when  a  fresh  opportiinity  was  afforded  of  triumphiog  over  tlic 
ktngues  of  the  French,  who  headed  the  adverse  forces,  mud  endeav- 
oured to  procure  for  that  government  a  cession  of  the  districts  iih 
trusted  to  their  care ;  but  the  issue  of  the  contest  was  entirely  in 
favour  of  the  British.  From  this  time  the  ascendancy  of  the  British 
in  the  peninsula  has  continued  so  decidedly  established,  as  to  render 
it  needless  to  say  any  thing  of  the  other  European  settlements. 

20«  The  acquisition  oi  territory  in  India^  together  with  the  new 
system  of  government  and  control,  by  rendering  it  necessary  for  per- 
sons of  learning  and  talent  to  reside  there,  have  had  the  efiect  ofiin- 
proving  our  knowledge  of  tho!$e  remote  countries,  and  opened  to  u:: 
a  field  of  inquiry  and  research,  peculiarly  interesting  and  curioo^ 
Among  those  who  may  be  considered  as  having  most  particularly 
contributed  to  these  ends,  we  may  reckon  Mr.  Wilkins  and  sir  WUilam 
Jones:  the  former  by  having  first,  with  any  real  success,  pursued  the 
study  uf  the  Sanscrit  langunee,  the  root  ot  ail  the  vernacular  dialects 
of  tiie  peninsula,  and  thereby  opened  to  the  cootemplatioD  of  \iit 
historian,  the  antiquarian,  the  philosopher,  and  the  poet^  whatever  n 
interesting  in  the  literature  ot  all  the  nations  east  of  the  Indus ;  and 
the  latter,  by  instituting  the  first  philosophical  society  in  those  pan?, 
and  inviting  the  learned,  in  all  Quarters  of  the  globe,  to  propose  quo^ 
ries  in  every  branch  of  Asiatic  nistory,  natural  and  civil,  on  the  phi- 
losophy, mathematics,  antiquities,  and  polite  literature  of  Asia,  ami 
oa  eastern  arts,  both  liberal  and  mechanic,  as  fuides  to  the  investig'> 
tioos  of  the  persons  resident  in  the  peninsula,  qualified  to  pursue 
fucb  inquiries  on  the  spot,  and  commonlcate  to  the  world  in  ge&ei^ 
i)w  results  of  their  discoveries. 

tX.  To  this  learned  society,  first  established  in  Bengal,  under  the 
presidency  of  sir  Wilham  Jones,  we  are  indebted  for  all  those  carious 
papers  preserved  in  the  several  volumes  of  the  Asiatic  Researches 
and  the  Indian  Annual  Register,  and  which  have  so  lanrely  cootrib' 
uted  to  enlarge  the  boundaries  of  oriental  literature.     To  the  i 


akeady  mentioned,  as  having  taken  the  lead  in  this  curious  branch  of 
science,  we  may  add  those  of  our  countrymen^Halhed,  Vansittart, 
Bhoic,  (lord  Tel^nmputh,  the  Seconal  president,  ah  the  «Mlh  of  ux 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODERN  HISTORY  8^ 

WiUiMn,  1  794,)  Davie,  CoIebrook,Wilford,ReiinclI,  Hunter,  BenUcy 
Marsdeo,  Onne,  Carey,  Buclianan,  Barlow,  Harrington,  Edmonstont* 
Kirkpatricky  &c. 

*2,  At  the  connnencement  of  the  present  centuiy,  it  became  ob 
▼ious  to  the  marquis  of  Wellesley,  then  governor-general,  that  tiie 
state  of  the  British  empire  in  India  absolutely  required,  that  the  per- 
sons sent  out  to  dischaige  the  important  functions  ofmagistrates,  judges, 
ambassadors,  and  governors  of  provinces,  should  have  some  bettei 
means  of  qualifying  themselvies  for  such  high  stations  and  complicated 
duties,  tlian  were  then  in  existence.     His  lordship's  view  of  these 


credit  on  his  wisdom  and  discernment,  though  the  latter  has  not  been 


€  arried  into  execution  in  the  way  his  lordship  proposed,  for  want  of 
kinds.  The  East  India  College,  since  establislied  in  Hertfordshire, 
mny  be  considered  as  entirely  owing  to  the  adoption  by  the  company 
of  the  enlighteiK'd  principles  contained  in  the  minute  alluded  to.  A 
sv%tem  of  oriental  education  is  i^w  effectually  established,  which, 
tliou^h  on  a  much  moi-e  contracted  scale,  and  in  a  great  measure  con- 
fined to  England,  bids  fair,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  to  accomplish  most  of 
the  ends  contemplated  by  his  lordship  in  his  original  design  of  foundii^ 
a  college  at  Fort  William,  in  Bengal,  namely,  *'  to  perpetuate  the  im- 
rionsc  advantages  derived  to  the  company  Irom  their  possessions  in 
liidia,  and  to  establish  the  British  empire  in  India  on  the  solid  founda- 
tions of  ability,  integrity,  virtue,  and  religion." 

23.  Of  the  studies  to  be  pursued,  according  to  lord  Wellesley '• 
f 'l.-ui,  a  competent  notion  may  be  formed  from  the  following  list  of 
j»r<»fessorships  and  lectures  :— Arabic,  Persian,  Sanscrit,  Himiostanee, 
t>«^ngal,  Teliiiga,  Mahratta^  Taniula,  and  Canara,  languages ;  lyiahom* 
idan  law;  Hindoo  law;  Ethics,  civil  jurisprudence,  and  tlie  law  of 
r^aions  ;  English  law ;  political  economy,  commercial  institutions  and 
iiilerests  of  the  East  India  Cony)any,  geography  and  malhematic* ; 
u.odem  languages  of  Europe;  Greek,  Xatin,  and  English  classics: 
priMrrai  hibtory,  ancient  ana  modem ;  the  history  and  antiquities  of 
ii  indoostan  and  the  Deckan  ;  natural  histor}' ;  botany,  chemistry,  and 
a.^'tronomy. 

t4.  Though  the  company  saw  reason  to  withhold  its  countenance 
froin  the  original  institution,  the  studies  alK)ve  chalked  out  have  been, 
in  a  great  measure,  adopted  in  the  Hertfordshire  college,  and  its  gen- 
eral success  hitherto  has  been  pronounced  answerable  to  the  expecta- 
tions d'  those  who  were  most  solicitous  in  eQ'ecting  its  cstaI)lishmenL 
The  education  of  the  young  men,  destined  to  till  the  civil  offices  in 
lrt<iia,  is  now  therefore  partly  European  and  partly  Asiatic;  for  sd 
nmcb  of  the  collegiate  establishment  in  India  may  be  said  to  remain, 
*  i.it  there  the  students,  who  have  been  taught  in  England  the  elemenls 
ff  A'iatic  languages,  are  enabled  to  advance  to  pertection,  and  lo  be* 
t  ■  »}ne  masters  of  the  several  dialects  prevailing  through  the  peninsuU. 
'i  liou^h  the  original  plan  of  the  noble  founder  of  the  college  of  Foil 
\\  lUiam  has  net  yett  been  adopted  by  the  East  India  Company,  yet  to 
»pply  the  words  of  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  our  orientalista, 
"'  Cwd  has  been  dooe»  wbich  cannot  be  undone  ;  sources  of  useful 
knnwledge^  moral  instnactioo,  and  poliUcal  utility,  have  been  opened 
lo  Ifao  naayas  of  lodiay  which  can  never  be  closed."  In  1,614,  a« 
ecetesiaitieal  Mtabinlnwiil,  under  the  immediate  awpices  ofj^ovem 
vwflla  was  fiarroed  for  Indian  the  righ}:  werend  Dr  Thomaa  fauiha!^ 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODERN  HISTORY. 

.dlelon  being  consecrated  at  the  archiepiscopal  palace,  at  Lambelhj 
'first  bfehop  of  Calcutta. 

tt  must  surprise  the  Engh'sh  reader  to  be  told,  that  the  populatioD 
of  the  Britbh  empire  in  India  has  been  lately  estimated  at  90,000,000! 


STATE   OF   ARTS,    SCIENCES,    RELIGION,    LAWS,     GOVERN- 
MENT,  &c. 

1.  The  historical  events  of  the  eighteenth  century  have,  we  mtst 
confess,  been  found  to  be  of  such  magnitude  and  importance,  as  to 
occupy  rather  too  large  a  space  in  a  work  professing  to  be  merely 
elementary  :  but  we  should  be  compelled  in  a  still  greater  degree  i> 
exceed  the  limits  assigned  to  us,  if  we  were  to  attempt  to  enter  into 
the  details  of  the  very  extraordinaiy  progress  that  has  taken  placR 
during  the  same  period,  in  arts,  sciences,  and  literature  ;  some  changrt^, 
indeed,  have  occurred,  and  more  been  contemplated,  in  religion,  la\7*, 
and  government,  but  in  regard  to  the  former,  almost  all  things  hav<; 
become  new :  we  have  new  arts  and  new  sciences  ;  and  in  literature, 
such  an  overflowing  of  books  upon  every  subject  that  could  possibly 
occupy  or  interest  tne  mind  of  man,  that  the  most  diligent  compiler  uT 
catalogues  would  fail  in  endeavouring  barely  to  enumerate  them. 

2.  ft  is  somewhat  extraordinaiy,  mdeed,  that  this  great  and  ntpi«i 
advancement  of  knowledge  has  after  all  been  confined  to  only  a  sm:ui 
portion  of  the  globe.  The  great  continent  of  Africa,  though  betl«r 
known  than  m  past  times,  has  made  no  advances  in  civilization.  A^ia, 
thoug^h  many  parts  have  been  diligently  explored  durii^  the  last  centu- 
jy,  and  a  large  portion  of  it  actually  occupied  by  Europeans,  rem.iini 
as  to  the  natives,  in  its  original  state.  The  vast  empire  of  China  Lil* 
made  no  progress  at  all.  Japan  has  effectually  shut  the  door  agair»t 
all  improvement.  South  America,  indeed,  though  labourir^  undtr 
difficulties  unfriendly  to  tlie  progress  of  knowledge,  is  yet  reported  to 
be  makii^  no  inconsiderable  advances,  particularly  in  Mexico,  wiiere 
both  the  arts  and  sciences  are  cultivated  with  credit  and  efiSect.  In 
North  America,  also^  the  arts  and  sciences  and  literature  may  certainly 
be  said  to  be  in  a  progressive  state,  but  under  circumstances  of  rather 
slow  and  partial  improvement.* 

3.  Civilized  Europe  is  the  only  part  of  the  world  that  can  claim  the 
credit  of  almost  all  that  has  been  done  towards  the  advancement  of 
Knowledge  smce  the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth  century,  aiiu 
only  a  few  parts  after  all  of  civilized  Europe  itself.  Turkey  has  stood 
still,  as  well  as  her  Grecian  dependencies,  till  veiy  lately.  Spain. 
Porti^l,  and  even  the  greater  part  of  Italy,  have  laboufed  under  dif- 
ficulties and  restrictions  exceedingly  inimical  to  their  advancemvni, 
and  which  have  greatly  arrested  their  progress  in  the  career  of  letters 
and  philosophy.  The  north  and  north-eastern  parts  of  Europe  have 
produced  many  learned  men,  have  been  diligendy  explored,  and  ma- 
terials at  least  collected  for  great  improvements ;  other  parts  are  al» 
upon  the  advance :  but  J&^wwi,  France,  and  Qtrmany,  are  undouLc- 

r*  The  writer  mait  be  under  a  miitake.  Ii  it  not  acknowledged  throogb- 
out  l^orope,  that  the  tJnited  States  of  North  America  are  not  only  &ith« 
advanced,  but  fiiiter  advaacingv  in  the  diseoveriet  of  acienct^  and  di&t 
their  progress  in  Uteraiiire  is  mora  rapid,  than,  any  oOier  aatkNs  of  th^  ] 
— '1  ?) 


y  Google 


MODERN  HISTORY.  3D9 

^  dly  the  principal  countries  to  which  we  must  look  for  the  most  strik* 
\ii<r  progress  in  every  branch  of  human  knowledge.  In  these  three 
uf  intries,  in  particular,  discoveries  have  now  certamly  been  made,  and 
M  inciples  estabiislied,  which  can  never  be  lost  a^ain,  and  which  must, 
i«  far  as  they  may  extend,  be  constantly  operatmg  to  the  lasting  im- 
jrovement  ot  the  world  at  laige. 

4.  It  would  be  quite  unnecessary  to  go  back  to  the  origin,  or  former 
Vtte.  either  of  the  arts  or  sciences,  now  known  and  cnltivated  in  Bd- 
«  pe.  It  is  pretty  generally  understood,  that,  comparative/^  with  t&* 
ir*^  of  the  world,  they  have Tbeen  only  veiy  recently  submitted  to  suck 
^•(jcesscs  as  bid  fair  to  bring  them  to  the  highest  state  of  perfection. 
>r.e  art  has  helped  another,  and  new  sciences  been  brought  to  li§:ht, 
!i  It  have  greatly  promoted  the  advancement  of  those  before  unaer- 
u-uyd  and  cultivated.    Galvanism  has  assisted  electricity;  and  gal- 

«nlsm  and  electricity  together  been  exceedingly  serviceable  to 
jcmistiy  ;  chemistry  to  mineralogy,  and  so  forth  :  new  systems  and 
rrMigements,  and  new  nomenclatures,  have  contributed  greatly  tli> 
'  r.'ier  eveiy  step  that  has  been  taken  more  accurate  and  certain,  and 
...  place  every  obiect  of  attention  or  inquiiy  more  exactly  in  the  rank 
:  'i  order  it  should  occupy  in  the  general  circle  of  arts  and  sciences  : 

it  tiie  thing  of  most  importance  of  all,  in  regard  to  the  improvemcBts 

A  have  taken  place  since  the  beginning  ©r  middle  of  the  eighteenth 

•r^lury,  b,  that  every  thing  has  been  conducted  exactly  upon  those 
rinciples,  which  the  great  lord  Bacon  so  strongly  recommended,  and 

-,  therefore,  been  found  conducive  to  all  those  great  ends,  the  ncg- 
.  it  of  which,  in  his  own  and  preceding  ages,  he  so  much  deploreol  : 
v<ry  thing  has  had  a  tendency  to  augment  the  powers,  diminiih  tlte 
.uti>>,  or  increase  the  happiness  of  mankind. 

T>,  Amongst  the  sciences  so  cultivated  and  advanced,  since  the  sev- 
•  tcenth  century,  as  justly  to  be  regarded  as  new,  we  may  rank  chtm- 
rri/.  botany,  electricity ,  galvanism,  vdneralogy,  geology^  and  in  many 
.  -  fleets,  geography :  every  one  of  these  sciences  has  been  placed  on  so 
.  ry  different  a  lootirig,  by  the  recent  manner  of  treating  them,  and  by 
»  w  di'5Coveries,  that  it  is  better,  perhap?*,  at  once  to  consider  them  as 
.•  w  sciences,  than  to  advert  to  former  systems,  founded  on  totally  c»- 
..;;cous  principles,  and  which  have  been,  on  that  account,  vejy  rea- 

:».^bly  exploded. 

r..  Chemistry,  however,  even  in  the  course  of  the  period  before  us 

«  undeigone  veiT  essential  changes  ;  it  is  now  not  only  a  very  difTep- 

•  -science  fipom  the  chemistry  that  pitjvailed  antecedent  to  tne  eigh- 
'  'jtli  century  ;  but  the  eighteenth  century  itself  has  wftnessed  a  re- 

. .  Ivable  revolution  in  its  leading  principle.^  :  some,  indeed,  of  the 
-t  important  changes  approach  nearer  to  tlie  nineteenth  than  the 

V  tf>nteenth  century,  if  they  do  not  actually  belong  to  the  former ;  at 
;  t -vonts,  it  was  not  till  towards  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century 

r  chemical  experiments  had  been  pushed  so  fer  as  to  displace  tw^ 
r    • '  ic  elements  of  the  old  philosophy,  and  totally  supersede  the  pre- 

'''r<  theory  of  heat,  lignt.  and  combustion;  a  theory  which  was 
- .  ir  not  much  more  than  half  a  century  old.  Stahl,  the  celebrate<l 
-r  ;jile  of  Bccher,  bom  in  1,660,  but  who  lived  to  1,734,  has  the  credit 

i .( ing  the  author  of  the  phlogistic  system,  which  b^ran  to  be  attack- 
!  late  in  the  last  century,  and  seems  rx>w  to  be  totally  exploded. 
.  ^<:ther  the  rival  theory  will  ultimatelj  maintain  its  ground  ki  all 
.  I  As,  may,  perhaps,  appear  still  doubtful  to  some :  the  French  claim 

h«  the  autnors  of  the  new  theoiy  ;  but  though  the  experiments  they 
rj  My  conducted:  were  highly  conduciTe  tp  the  establtsbmeBt  ef  il^ 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


400  MODERN  HISTORY. 

(ke  waj  seems  to  have  been  more  opened  to  tbem  by  othen  than  they 
are  wUling  to  acknowledge,  particularly  by  EnglL'b  obseirers.  The 
phl(^istic  system  was  a  plausible  theoiy  in  certain  respects,  but  io 
others  totally  indefensible  ;  and,  perhaps,  a  better  proof  of  the  utility 
of  repeated  experiments  could  not  be  produced,  than  that  which  as- 
oertamed,  that,  instead  of  the  extrication  of  a  particular  substance  hj 
combustion,  something  was  undoubtedly  added  to,  or  imbibed  by,  tw 
oombustible  body,  in  order  to  the  separation  of  its  parts :  that,  in  hcU 
•  in  the  actual  process  of  combustion,  affinity  produces  a  aouble  decon]> 
position,  and  that  a  certain  portion  of  the  atmosphere  enterixig  ir.to 
union  wilii  the  combustible  body  produces  all  those  appearances 
which,  under  the  former  system  had  been  attributed  to  the  et- 
tncation  of  an  unknown  principle  of  inflammability,  denomiDatoi 
phlogiston. 

7.  The  veiy  curious  experiments,  made  to  confirm  and  establish  tee 
latter  system,  have  been  of  the  greatest  importance  in  regard  to  otLt^i 
matters,  pju-ticularly  to  that  branch  of  the  new  chemistiy  which  li^? 
been  denominated  me  pneumatic  system.  The  discoveries  in  this  lir?' 
of  experiment,  which  has  the  air  tor  its  subject,  exceed,  perhaps,  al! 
others  in  importance  and  interest :  the  analysis  of  the  common  atiu»js- 
phere  has  opened  to  our  view  a  series  of  physical  operations  constaDt- 
ly  going  on,  the  most  wonderful  and  delicate  that  can  possibly  be  cor- 
ceived  :  the  respiration  of  animals  is  of  this  description.  The  alimr- 
phere  is  now  known  to  be  a  most  curious  compound  of  two  sort?  of 
air,  or  gases,  (as  thev  have  been  named  of  late,)  the  one  capab]<^  of 
supporting  life  and  name,  the  other  destructive  of  both  :  in  conibuj^ 
tion,  calcination  of  metals,  and  respiration,  the  process  is  the  same,— 
a  decomposition  of  the  atmosphere  :  the  pure  part  is  imbibed,  and  il* 
impure  part  left  subiect  to. further  contamination,  by  \\hat  is  given 
out  by  the  combustiole,  calcining,  or  respiring  bodies  during  the  ope- 
ration ;  for,  as  it  was  before  said,  tiie  decomposition  in  all  instance>  i^ 
a  double  one  ;  the  projjortion  of  the  two  parts  of  the  atmosplK?re  l»» 
been  ascertained  to  be  in  a  hundred,  twenty -two  of  pure  or  vital,  atsJ 
seventjr-eight  of  impure  or  azotic  gas. 

C.  The  discovery  of  ihe  vital  air  is  acknowledged  by  M.  LavoL^k/ 
to  have  been  common  to  himself  with  two  other  eminent  chemists,  Dz. 
Priestly  and  the  celebrated  Scheele.  Dr.  Priestly  discovered  it  in 
1,774,  Schecle  in  1,777,  M.  Lavoisier  in  1,775  :  the  foniier  seems  ur*- 
doubtedly  to  have  the  best  claim  to  the  discovery.  M.  Lavoisier,  al 
first,  called  it  "  highly  respirable  air ;"  afterwards,  as  entirely  essen- 
tial to  the  support  of  life,  "  vital  air :"  Dr.  Priestly,  who  lived  asA 
died  an  advocate  for  the  phlogistic  system,  '*  dephlc^isticated  air  :** 
and  Scheele  called  it  **  empyreal  air."  It  at  last  obtained  aoothcx 
name,  from  its  being  supposed  to  be  the  catise  of  acidity,  viz.  **  oxy- 
gen gas." 

9.  Who  is  justly  to  be  accounted  the  father  of  the  pneumatic  cbcro- 
istiyy  it  would,  peiiiaps,  be  hazardous  to  say :  Dr.  Black  of  Edinbur^ 
has  had  the  credit  of  being  so,  from  his  experiments  on  the  cartxwit 
acid.  It  has  been  claimed  ibr  Dr.  Priestley,  Scheele,  and  M.  Lavoi* 
sier :  the  discoveries  in  this  line  certainly  constitute  a  grand  era  in 
chemistiy.  The  many  various  kinds  ot  gases  that  have  beennow^ 
discovered;  the  veiy  ciuious  experiments  made  to  ascertain  theiv 
properties ;  the  instrumeaU  invented  to  render  such  experiments  ce^ 
tain ;  tbs  new  compounds  that  have  been  detected  by  their  measw 
and  theur  operatloo  and  effects  m  almost  eveiy  branch  of  plrjrsic^  it 
vmiU  fior  exceed  oiv  limits  to  desccibe ;  but  it  is  impossiole  not  (» 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  401 

»<>tice  Uie  extiaordinaiy  discoveiy  of  the  decomposition  of  Mitef, 
viiich  belongs  entirely  to  pneumatic  chemistry. 

10.  Till  within  less  than  half  a  centuiy  ago,  water  was  esteemed  to 
*c  so  certainly  an  elementary  principle,  that  but  few  ever  dreamed  of 
'<  being  otherwise  ;  and  it  was  almost  by  accident  that  it  was  at  last 
I  i: ml  to  be  a  compound.  In  the  course  of  certain  pneumatic  expcri- 
7, <  fits,  it  was  ascertained  by  Mr.  Cavendish,  that  water  was  produced 

V  a  combination  of  two  particular  g;ases  :  both  analysis  and  synthesis 
'.\  It*  rosorted  to,  to  render  this  curious  discovery  more  certain,  and  it 
A  .Ts  at  leng:th  ascertained,  not  only  that  those  two  gases  were  constont* 
V-  jTiKiuced  in  certain  proportions  fi cm  the  decomposition  of  water. 

It  that  water  was  as  constantly  the  result  of  a  judicious  mixture  o/ 
i.i«-L'  two  gases :  the  gases  thus  constituting  tlie  proper  principles  of 
. .  trr,  were  the  viicl  and  inflammable  airs  ol  the  first  chemical  nomen- 
1  ttire  of  modern  daj's,  lietter  known  now  by  the  names  of  oxygen 
-  '.^  and  hydrogen  gas ;  the  latter  evidently  so  called  from  its  iin- 
'.  'rtaiice,  as  a  constituent  base  or  radical  of  water  :  we  owe  the  (lis- 
.  .voiy  of  it  to  our  countryman,  Mr.  Cavendish.  The  proportion  he- 
.vr<n  the  two  gases  in  these  curious  experiments  has  been  tound  to  be 

^'Lly-five  of  oxygen  to  fifteen  of  hydrogen  :  both  oxygen  and  hydro- 
:»  n  boing  combustible,  their  combination  lor  experimental  purpc;?es 
.-  !>rought  about  by  inflammation,  through  the  means  of  the  electric 
;»..rk. 

11.  Flaving  given  this  short  account  of  the  leading  discoveries  in 
I  •«ijmatic  chemistry  ;  discoveries  which  have  opened  to  us  totally 

;.  \v  views,  of  certain  physical  operations  of  the  first  importance,  and 
'? »  aly  extended  our  knowledge  of  chemical  substances  and  their  prop- 
.:ir<,  simple  and  compound,  visible  and  invisible,  confineable  and 
.;4:<»nfineable  :  we  shall  be  compelled  to  be  much  more  brief  in  what. 
rrtlicr  relates  to  modem  chemistry. 

12.  Of  late  years  almost  all  the  substances  in  nature  have  been  ex- 
. .  ined  ;  and  probably  almost  all  the  combinations  of  them  exhausted : 

.  \T  metals  to  a  lar^c  amount,  new  earths,  and  new  acids  have  been 

.  -..'oveied  ;  tlie  fixed  alkalis  decomposed,  and  their  nature  ascertain- 

.  ;  the  whole  range  of  chemical  affinities  and  attractions  nicely  ar- 

•trt'J  and  determined,  as  far  as  experiment  can  reach ;  and  many 
.  -Mc  aeriform  fluids  brought  to  light,  distinguished  from  each  otner 
.   •iK'ir  diflferent  bases,  which  were  totally  unknown  before  to  natural 

ilo'jophers,  under  the  fonns  in  which  tney  are  now  obtained  ;  and 
I.kIj  have  been  thought  deserving  of  being  Formed  into  ^fonrih  class 

kingdom^  amongst  the  productions  of  nature :  the  proper  distinction 
:   these  elastic  fluids,  or  gases,  as  they  have  been  denominated,  (after 

♦»-nn  adopted  by  Vanhclmont,  signifying  a  spirit  or  incoerciblt 

[H>ur,)  bemg  that  of  some  base,  saturated  with  the  cause  of  heat  of 
.  ;i;msion,  called  in  the  new  nomenclature  caloric;  by  means  of  scnne 
:  thr«c  gases,  so  combined  with  caloric,  a  power  has  been  obtained 

tjtfinr  the  most  refractoiy  sul>stances  in  nature. 

1  J.  To  render  the  nice  and  delicate  experiments  necessary  in  this 
♦  \v  branch  of  chemical  science  more  accurate,  numerous  instrumenlj 
,  \  e  been  invented,  of  very  curious  construction  ;  such  as  the  eudiom^ 
ur,  to  measure  the  purity  of  any  given  portion  of  air ;  the  ^oromerrr, 
,  ;'ua.sure  the  (juantities,  &:c,  of  gases ;  the  calorimeter ^  for  measures 
;'  ileal ;  to  which  we  may  add  various  descriptions  of  thermomrtcrt 

.  1  />yn>m«f«rs^articularly  the  dijffererUial  thermometer,  invented  by 
I  r.  Leslie,  of  Edinburgh,  and  its  accompaniments  ;  the  pyrofcr>pc^ 
4  Kie^isure  of  radiant  heat;  the  phia4metert  to  ascertain  the  intensity 

LI  2  Digitizflby^^OOgie 


41):  MODERN  HISTORY. 

of  Ikht ;  very  curious  and  delicate  balances ^  some  that  are  said  to  b« 
capable  of  ascertaining  a  weight  down  to  the  seven  millionth  par^ 
deserve  to  be  mentioned,  as  extraordinaiy  instances  of  skilful  woik- 
manship ;  manj  different  sorts  of  hygr<meUrs  also  have  been  coo- 
structea,  particularly  one  by  the  same  ingenious  experimentally^ 
already  mentioned.  Mr.  Leslie,  calculated  to  render  more  correct  the 
examination  of  all  processes  dependant  upon  evaporation;  but  it 
would  be  endless  to  attempt  to  describe  the  many  instruments  and  corv 
trivances  rendered  necessaiy  by  the  extreme  delicacy  and  minutenc*^* 
of  modem  chemical  and  pneumato-chemical  experiments  ;  it  is  sum 
cient  to  state,  in  a  histoiy  of  thfi  progress  of  arts  and  sciences,  th: ' 
in  all  instances,  invention  appeal^  to  have  kept  pac€  with  experiment ; 
and  that  the  world  has  been  almost  as  much  enriched  hj  the  ncw>ir>- 
vented  means  of  discovenr,  as  by  the  discoveries  to  which  they  hn\« 
conduced ;  while  th<j  skill  and  judgment  requisite  to  construct  th« 
expensive  and  complicated  instruments  indispensablr  necessaiy  far 
as,ceilaiRipg  the  analysis  and  synthesis  of  booies,  with  such  exquisi^ 
precision,  as  to  quantity  and  proportion,  have  conspired  greatly  n. 
advance  the  several  arts  connected  with  such  machineiy,  as  well  as  tc^ 
quicken  the  intelligence  and  ingenuity  of  the  artists  themselves ;  ia 
this  line,  periiaps,  nobody  has  acquiiea  greater  celebrity  than  the  htb 
Mr.  Ramsden,  the  maker  of  the  balance  of  the  Royal  Socict>%  Tibci:*' 
axtraordinary  powers  have  been  alluded  to  above. 

14.  Among  those  who  have  principally  distinguished  themsehx*^  in 
the  improvement  and  advancement  of  chemi^  science,  since  tbi' 
commencement  of  the  eighteenth  centuiy,  we  may  justly  mention  lh» 
names  of  Stahl,  Fourcroy,  Macquer,  Lavoisier,  Guytonmoneaii. 
Berthollet.  Klaproth,  Vauquelin,  Cliaptal,  Gay-Lussac,  Rirwan,  Texh 
nant,  Wollaston,  Priestley,  Cavendish,  Black.  Irwine,  Crawford 
Leslie,  Hall,  Tliompson,  firande,  and  Davy.  To  the  last  of  wbciiu 
our  ilhistrious  countiyman,  we  stand  indebted  for  some  of  the  m:< 
remarkable  discoveries,  and  most  laborious  analyses  of  compouofi 
substances,  which  have  taken  place  under  the  new  system ;  nor  has 
he  been  deficient  in  applying  liis  scientific  attainments  to  practicai 
purposes,  in  his  elements  ot  chemical  a^cultufe,  and  above  all,  thtf 
Mafety-lamp,  whereby  he  may  possibly,  m  combating  the  fatal  effect? 
ot  the  fire  damp  in  coal  mines-,  have  contributed  to  preserve  the  livei 
<lf  thousands  and  thousands  of  his  fellow  creatures ;  this  discovery 
was  the  fruit  of  many  most  laborious,  difficult,  and  qveii  dangerous  ex- 
periments. 

15,  When  we  consider  the  many  uses  of  chemistry,  and  the  in>- 
mense  advantages  to  be  derived  from  every  improvement  of  it  in  a 
variety  of  manufactures,  in  medicine,  in  metallui^,  in  the  axis  of 
dying,  painting,  brewing,  distilling,  tanning,  making  glass,  enameb 
porcelain,  and  many  others,  we  may  easily  conceive  that  the  pxtigrps 
and  advancement  of  this  one  branch  of  science  alone,  during  the  hit 
and  present  centuiy,  must  have  contributed  lancely  to  the  improve- 
ment  of  many  things,  on  which  all  the  comforts  and  conveniences,  the 
happiness,  the  securi^,  the  well-being,  the  prosperity,  and  even  tfaa 
feivea  of  men,  depend 


BOTANY 

- «  ^,.^^^,  ^I  the  scienc^w. 

It  h^  vrndeif^ne,  and  the  great  progress 


1.  lM>TAirT  is  another  of  the  sciences,  which,  from  the  diarfe» 

it  has  made  since  (fae 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODEKN  HISTORY.  403 

ovmmeocement  of  the  eighteenth  century,  niaj  justly  be  regarded  at 
Dew. 

2,  Already  were  the  names  of  Ray,  Rivinus,  and  Touniefort,  well 
h\o\w  to  the  loYers  of  this  interesting  study,  forming  as  it  were  a  new 
»Ta  in  the  histoiy  of  botany,  and  imparting  a  lustre  to  the  close  of  the 
«(  venleenth  century,  for  which  it  will  ever  be  memorable.  Their  at- 
♦i  nipts  at  arrai^ement  may  be  iustly  considered  as  the  commencemeni 
"I  a  career  which  was  destined  to  acquire  its  full  degree  of  develops - 
r:.c  lit  during  the  eighteenth  centur^%  under  the  happy  auspices  of  the 
•T  <wt  celebrated  botanist  the  worla  ever  saw ;  the  ^eat  aiul  illustrioui 

l.iUUlVXlS, 

X  This  extraordinaiy  man  was  bom  at  Ra«hult,  in  the  province  of 
>Mal3nd,  in  Sweden,  ou  the  24th  of  May,  1,707,  and  before  he  was 
iwt  nty-one  years  of  age,  had  made  himself  so  thoroughly  acquainted 
»»i!ii  the  studjr  of  plants,  as  well  as  with  the  merits  and  (3efcct5  of  hi* 
|f»  ikcessors  in  that  line,  as  to  conceive  the  idea  of  remodelling  the 
».boJe  fabric  of  systematic  botany,  and  of  placing  it  on  a  new  founda 
• '  M.  namely,  the  texuality  of  vegetables.  This  bold  and  enterprising 
-it«}t  rtaking  he  not  only  projected,  but  accomplished  with  a  rapidilj 
Mi  <.ucccss  that  excited  the  wonder  and  astonishment  both  of  hv 
i'urKi«  and  enemies. 

4.  His  first  work  was  published  in  1,730,  bein^  a  brief  exposition  of 
•ii»j  new  principle  on  which  his  system  was  to  oe  founded;  and  th«i 
:  !•  thod  may  be  said  to  have  been  completed  in  1,737,  when  he  pub 

!  '}j«'d  his  Oenera  Planiarum^  which  contained  a  description  and  ar 
:  fuftment  of  nearly  one  thousand  genera,  comprising  upwards  of 
'  .ht  thousand  species,  and  constituting  what  has  been  suice  kno^m  by 
"  n:nne  of  the  sex^tal  system. 

5.  At  first  it  B'as  either  opposed  as  a  fanciful  innoyation,  or  received 
'•  th  doubt  and  distrust ;  but  its  fame  soon  began  to  spread,  and  ic 

•  )r  dovm  before  it  all  opposition,  till  it  ultimately  met  with  the 
•'  lui-t  universal  reception  of  botanists  in  eveiy  countiy  in  Europe. 

♦>.  In  1,742,  Linnaeus  was  chosen  professor  of  botany  at  Upsal,  and 
n  1 J53  he  published  his  Irenes  Planiarum,  His  authority  was  now 
-•.;)rcme.  and  the  impulse  he  communicated  to  tlie  study  of  vegetables 

•  pncedented  in  tlie  annals  of  botanj  ;  hence  the  various  voyages 
'  t  were  undertaken  by  his  immediate  disciples,  Kalm,  Laeplin^, 
il  . -^elquist,  and  others,  or  which  have  been  since  undertaken  by  their 
•■.«  ti5«5(irs,  aided  by  the  munificence  of  princes,  or  the  zeal  of  private 

livi<luals,  as  well  as  the  various  societies  tliat  were  sooner  or  later 
'    t.tuted,  with  a  view  to  tlie  advancement  of  botanical  knowledge  ; 

'.  t^iucst  which  the  Linnaean  society  of  London,  founded  in  1,788,  stands 
■  "''-rininent,  under  the  presidency  of  sir  James  Edward  Smith,  one 

I  the  most  distinguished  of  the  followers  of  Linnaeus,  and  the  pc»- 
^  "or  of  his  herbarium,  library,  and  manuscripts. 

T.  The  acquisitioa*  thus  made  to  the  mass  of  botanical  knowledge. 
".^-  altogether  astonishing.  Botanists  are  now  said  to  be  acquainted 
^  'Il  upwards  of  forty  thousand  species  of  plants  ;  and  still  there  are 

/  .>ns  of  the  earth  unexplored,  and  flowers  without  a  name,  (**  el  nmi 

('  rtomine floresJ*^) 

y>.  We  cannot,  however,  refuse  to  acknowledge  that  botany  has  alio 
'•  r.Mui  the  most  important  advantages  from  such  cultivators  of  the 

xi  nre  as  cannot  be  ranked  amongst  the  disciples  of  Linnaeus,  tiiough 
^<  Y  have  equaily  contributed  to  the  advancement  of  the  knowledge  of 

.'.i.ts,  at  least  in  the  department  of  the  study  of  their  natural  affim- 
.1*  ;  the  grand  and  ultimate  end  of  botany,  which  Limueus  him»H 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


404  MODERN  HISTORY. 

knew  well  how  to  appreciate,  and  eren  to  improve,  as  may  be  seen  fai 
his  prelections  pubfisbed  by  Giseke,  and  in  his  Fragments  of  a  Aatu- 
ral  Method,  But  it  was  left  for  the  illustrious  Jussieu,  the  most  ac> 
complished  botanist  of  the  present  age,  to  give  to  that  method  tl» 
comparative  perfection  which  it  has  actually  obtained,  and  to  erect 
the  noble  superstructure  of  his  Genera  PlanJtarum ;  a  woik  exhibiting 
the  most  philosophical  arrangement  of  plants,  as  well  as  the  most 
complete  view  of  their  natural  affinities,  that  was  ever  presented  to 
the  contemplation  of  man. 

9  This  work  was  published  at  Paris  in  1,789,  and  the  natttrd 
method  of  Jussieu,  which  may  be  regarded  as  having  at  all  times 
stood  in  opposition  to  the  artificial  method  of  Linnseus,  seems  now  k> 
be  advancing  to  a  more  direct  rivalship  than  ever.  Even  in  the 
works  of  Such  botanists  as  profess  to  be  the  disciples  of  Linnseus,  tljere 
seems  to  be  a  leaning  to  the  method  of  Jussieu ;  but  whether  the 
natural  method  of  the  latter  will  be  suffered  ultimately  to  provail,  or 
the  artificial  method  of  the  former,  time  only  can  show. 

10.  Great,  however,  as  the  progress  of  systematic  botany  has  un- 
doubtedly been,  durii^  the  course  of  the  last  and  beginnmg  of  the 
present  centuiy,  the  progress  of  physiological  botany  has  'perhaps 
been  still  ereater.  In  proof  of  this,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  mentipn  the 
names  of  Rales,  Bonnet,  Du  Hamel,  Hedwig,  Spallanzaniy  Gaertner. 
Knight.  Keith,  and  Mirbel ;  each  of  whom  has  distinguished  himself 
in  the  held  of  phytological  investigation,  and  eminently  contributed  Il» 
the  advancement  of  the  science.  Above  all,  we  must  not  fail  to  men* 
tion  the  name  of  Priestley,  as  being  the  first  who  introduced  into  thft 
study  of  phytology  the  aid  of  pneumatic  chemistry,  which,  under  the 
happy  auspices  of  Ir^enhouz,  Senebier,  Saussure,  Ellis,  and  Davy, 
and  lastly  of  Gay-Lussac  and  Kenard,  has  done  more  to  elucidate  the 
phenomena  of  vegetation,  than  all  other  means  of  investigation,  2sA 
nas  fuiTiished  as  the  foundation  of  the  physiology  of  plants  a  body  (A 
the  most  curious  and  undoubted  facts. 

11.  Before  we  dismiss  this  part  of  our  subject,  it  is  not  unfit  that  we 
should  notice  the  extraordinary  progress  that  has  been  made  at  the 
same  time  in  distinct  branches  of  the  science,  as  well  as  in  the  applh 
cation  of  the  arts  of  drawing,  engraving,  and  colouring',  for  the  pur- 
poses of  illustration,  and  for  exhibiting  to  the  eye,  at  all  times,  in  all 
places,  and  at  all  seasons,  the  beautiful  and  mteresting  productions  of 
the  veg^etable  kingdom,  in  such  perfection,  as,  in  some  d^pnee,  to  siv 
persede  the  necessity  of  living  specimens  ;  sometimes  so  rare  and  in- 
accessible as  to  be  out  of  the  reach  of  the  most  scientific.  There  ii 
no  branch  of  knowledge  which  has  furnished  more  splendid  and  elabo- 
rate  works  of  this  nature,  than  that  of  botany,  or  in  which  the  arts  hav? 
been  carried  to  a  greater  degree  of  perfection  and  delicacy  ;  and  as  a 
study  so  elegant  and  agreesible  cannot  well  be  rendered  too  gener?\ 
it  is  pleasing  to  observe,  that  through  the  improvements  that  have  thai 
taken  place,  and  the  facilities  anorded  to  such  publications,  not  j 
month  passes  in  this  kingdom  without  lar^e  additions  beii^  made  % 
the  general  stock  of  botanical  knowledge,  m  works  of  sii^Tar  beaut}* 
and  correctness  ;  though  far  from  costly,  considering  the  pains  besto«<c* 
ed  upon  them. 

12.  The  lovers  of  botany  stand  greatly  indebted  also,  to  thwe 
learned  persons  who  have  made  it  their  particular  business  to  collect 
examine,  and  describe  theplants  of  countries  and  districts,  and  k> 
supply  them  with  distinct  Ftorx.  both  foreign  and  domestic,  as  &• 
Fk>ra  Britannica  of  Smith,  the  Flora  Anglica  of  Hudson,  the  Fiofi 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


XOD£RN  HISTORY.  406 

Scolkii  of  Lightfoot,  the  Flora  Cantabrtgiensis  of  Relhan,  the  Flom 
Oxoniensis  of  Sibtborpe»  the  Flora  Londinensis  of  Curtis,  the  FJom 
Qrect,  the  Flora  Peruviana,  the  Flora  Danica,  the  Flore  Francoise, 
0d  others  much  too  numerous  to  mention ;  in  the  same  class  may  be 
reckoned  those  works  which  are  still  further  confined  to  the  descrip- 
tion or  illustration  of  particular  genera  of  plants,  as  in  our  own  countiy^ 
(lie  Carices,  by  Goodenough  ;  the  Grasses,  by  Stillii«fleet ;  the 
Mentha  Britannic*,  by  Sole  ;  the  Pines,  by  Lambert ;  the  Fucu  by 
I'umer ;  and  various  others. 


ELECTRlCrrY. 

1.  Though  the  property  of  excitation  existing  in  am^er,  ff/cJbfrtm,) 
appears  to  have  been  known  to  Thales  six  hundred,  and  to  Theophras* 
itjs  Ihree  hundred  years  before  Christ,  yet  electricity  (which  takes  Its 
irtme  from  this  circumstance)  and  galvanism,  as  it  is  still  called,  may 
ipcHedly  be  regarded  as  sciences  which  have  sprung  up  durinft  the 
; » riod  to  which  our  present  inc}uiries  belong.  It  was  not,  indeed,  till 
ii>vvards  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  that  experiments  hi 
•''■rtricity  were  pursued  with  any  degree  of  ardour,  success,  or  ad- 
»  ntns:e.     Mr.  Hawksbee  wrote  learnedly  upon  the  subject  in  1.709, 

'.i  it  was  not  till  twenty  years  aftenvards  that  Mr.  Grey  and  M.  du 
i  \'ye  at  Paris,  engaged  in  some  experiments  which  contributed  to 
hri»r  light  upon  the  subject.  Mr.  Grey,  who  resumed  his  expert 
[  trnts  in  1,734,  saw  enough  to  lead  him  to  suppose  that  the  electrv^ 
'.  lA  and  I^htning  were  the  same,  which  was  not,  however,  efiectuallr 

r^ved  till  the  year  1,752,  when  the  celebrated  Dr.  Franklin,  oi 
\  j.f-nca,  witli  great  ingenuity,  and  no  small  degree  of  courage.  asce»- 
-•ned  the  fact  by  decisive  experiments  ;  a  discoveiy  whicn  ne  sogd 
'>f>!ied  to  practical  purposes,  by  the  invention  of  metallic  conductom 
'f  the  securitjT  ol  buildirie:?,  ships,  &c.,  during  storms. 

t.  As  experiments  could  not  be  profitably  undertaken  till  a  siiitablo 
pparatus  was  previded,  it  is  equally  evident,  that  the  improvemeA 
rt'  Mich  apparatus  must  greatly  have  depended  on  the  progress  of  tbt 
"^ience.  The  Leyden  phial  for  the  accumulation  of  the  electrica] 
">wer  in^lass,  was  invented  about  1J45,  and  the  general  apparatui 
r.idually  improved  by  Van  Marum,  Cunaeus,  Dr.  Noo^h,  Mr.  NairiM, 
[t,  Priestley,  Messrs.  Read,  Lane,  and  Adams.  To  professor  Volta, 
/  ComOf  we  stand  indebted  for  bvo  very  useful  and  important  electrU 
a!  instruments,  the  electrophorus,  and  condenser  of  electricity.  Maajy 
f)rts  of  electrometers  for  measuring  the  quantity  and  quality  of  ele&- 
-icity  in  an  electrified  body,  have  also  been  invented. 

3.  In  1,747  electricity  began  to  be  used  for  medical  purposes,  and 
iS  supposed  to  be  of  efficacy  in  cases  of  rheumatism,  deafness,  palsy. 

Tofufa,  cancers,  abscesses,  gout,  &c. ;  but  the  progress  of  medical 
'octricity  has  not  been  great,  while  the  want  of  an  apparatus,  and  tha 
rK)wledge  and  skill  requbite  to  apply  it  oroperiy,  must  always  pi^ 
nt  its  becofiung  any  veiy  common  remedy. 

4.  Galvanism,  which  may  be  said  to  have  been  engnfled  on  ela<y 
icity  in  1,791,  was  the  discoreij  ai  the  celebrated  Galvani  of 
i>la^na  ;  it  has  been  called  anhnal  electricity ;  his  first  experimenlB 
ivinp  ht^a  made  on  animab,  and  tending  manifestly  to  pioTe  tha 
entiCr  of  ^  nerfons  and  electric  fluids,  though  this  was  for  soma 
x>e  doubted.  M.  Qalrtni  discoteied  that,  without  any  artificial 
•Giricitjf  and  by  merely  presentii^  tome  condncUoK  subsluica  li 

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40G  MODERN  HISTORY 

different  parts  of  the  nerves  or  muscles  of  a  disseoted  fipg,  violeot 
motions  were  produced,  exactly  similar  to  &ose  which  were  excited 
by  a  dischaij^e  of  the  electrical  machine. 

6.  The  discovery  of  M.  Galvani  has  since  led  to  venr  importaji 
ends,  through  the  great  care  and  attention  of  M.  Volta,  wno,  impror* 
flig  upon  his  discovery  of  the  power  of  conductors,  has  been  enabled 
to  supply  the  philosophical  world  with  an  instrument  of  veiy  cxtraor- 
dinai^  powers,  especially  for  purposes  of  cl)emjcal  decompositioa 
At  first  M.  Volta  was  led  to  suppose  that  it  required  only  a  set  of  dif- 
ferent conductors,  two  metals  and  a  fhiid,  to  collect  and  distribute  the 
dectrical  matter:  he  considered  that,  upon  these  principles,  he  bad 
produced  an  artificial  imitatica  of  tlie  electrical  powers  exhibited  hr 
the  torpedo,  the  gymnotus,  silurus,  and  tetrodon  electricus  ;  but  furlhej 
discoveries  demonstrated  that  there  was  a  chemical  agency^oing  for- 
ward all  the  time,  and  that  much  depended  on  the  action  o!  the  fluid/ 
on  the  metals,  which  are  all  naturally  excellent  conductors,  but  l)e€ome 
Don-conductors  when  oxidated,  some  being  more  easily  oxydated  tlvm 
others.  The  voltaic  pile  is  a  simple  galvanic  combination  ;  a  series 
<jf  them  forms  a  battery.  The  most  perfect  galvanic  combination  is 
held  to  consist  in  such  an  arrangement  of  metals,  exposed  to  the  action 
of  tn  oxydating  fluid,  as  are  liable  to  very  diflerent  changes ;  Hk 
greatest  and  the  least.  In  every  simple  galvanic  combination,  water 
IS  decomposed,  the  oxygen  entering  into  union  with  the  metal,  and  tiie 
hydrogen  beir^  evolved. 

6.  Since  this  discovery,  many  have  engaged  in  electro-chemical  n> 
searches,  of  the  utmost  importance,  particularly  our  own  countiyui.iii, 
gir  Humphrey  Davy.  His  experiments  on  tlie  alkalis  and  earths,  hxtd 
discovery  oi  their  metallic  nature,  being  in  themselves  sufficient  ft 
Aow  how  wide  a  range  of  inquiiy  is  opened  to  the  experimcntaliji, 
by  this  powerful  agent ;  it  being  reasonable  to  suppose,  that  there  rs 
scarcely  any  substance  in  nature,  either  above  or  below  the  surfaa-  of 
the  earth,  that  is  not  subject,  more  or  less,  to  the  chemical  agencrci 
Ot  electricity.  Heretofore  the  observations  of  the  philosopher  were 
chiefly,  if  not  entirely,  confined  to  those  sudden  and  violent  chare^t.* 
vrhich  take  place  through  any  powerful  concentration  of  the  ekcinc 
fluid.  These  new  discoveries  seem  to  afibrd  him  a  fair  chance  tovA 
qpportunity  of  tracing  some  at  lea5t  of  tliose  manifold  chaises  which 
may  be  brought  about  in  a  more  (juiet,  tranquil,  and  insensible  nuii- 
ner  ;  and  which,  ui  all  probability,  are  incessantl}r  operating  effect*, 
hitherto  little  known  and  little  suspected.  It  is  obvious  that  inedicii)«'. 
oiiemistiT,  physiology,  mineralogy,  and  geologt",  may  all  be  ^reatlv 
sissbted  oy  a  more  perfect  knowledge  of  sucn  curious  and  hitherfa^ 
hidden  processes  of  nature.  Before  the  galvanic  method  of  exciting 
dectricity  had  been  discovered,  many  very  curious  experiments  haA 
been  made,  to  prove  the  influence  of  electricity  on  the  atmosphere, 
Dia^etism,  vegetation,  muscular  motion ;  in  earthquakes,  volcanoes 
mid  other  natural  appearances  and  operations  ;  all  of  which  are  likelv 
to  become  better  known,  and  further  illustrated,  by  the  applicaticHi  ot 
(he  electrochemical  apparatus,  which,  since  its  nrst  inventioni^as  betfn 
already  greatly  improved.  It  may  not  be  amiss  to  observe,  that  iDet(^>- 
roiogy,  as  a  particular  branch  of  kno^vled^,  has  been  greatly  aided 
h(j  all  the  unprovements  spoken  of  above  m  chemistiy  and  electricitj. 
and  in  the  invention  of  many  instruments,  veiy  simple,  but  chiefly  i" 
be  referred  to  the  eighteenth  century ;  as  the  barometer,  the  tbermoo- 
eter,  the  hydrometer,  the  pluviameter,  or  rain-gauge,  the  ancmomettr, 
Hod  electioiDefer  ahfeady  mentioned.    Amoiigst  the  most  emiDeAi  oi 

Digitized  by  CjOOQIC 


iioee  who  have  applied  themselves  to  this  studj,  we  may  reckon 
tlessn,  Boueuer,  Saussure,  De  Luc,  Ghiy-Lussac.  Van-Marum,  Fer- 

ojson,  Cavalio,  &c. ;  Drs.  Franklin,  Blagden,  and  Priestley ;  Messia 

<  dntoa  and  Beccaria 


MINERALOGY  AND  GEOLOGY. 

1.  Mineralogy  and  geology  are  reasonably  to  be  regarded  as  itm 
V  ienccs  since  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  centuiy.  havine  been  cuh 
'  fated  from  that  time  in  a  manner  totally  new,  and  greatly  advanced 
>y  ibe  progress  made  in  other  sciences,  and  the  improvement  of  many 

•  If,  They  are  both,  however,  still  so  much  in  their  infancy,  that  a 
n  IT  brief  account  of  what  has  taken  place  during  the  last  ana  present 

•  ntury  is  the  utmost  that  we  can  attempt. 

^.  It  was  not  till  towards  the  middle  of  the  last  centuiy,  that  that 
•)"ih'n\  scientific  arrangements  of  minerals  began  to  occupy  the  atteii- 
'^1)  of  naturalists.  That  indefatigable  observer,  Linna.'us,  did  not 
"  :!«)ok  this  branch  of  natural  history,  but  introduced  into  the  twelfth 

'iiit»nof  bis  **  Systema  Naturae,"  published  in  1.768,  a  systematic 

•  >v  of  "  The  Kegnum  Lapidcum,"  which  he  aivided  into  Ihre* 
'.-yp<.,  petrtr,  mtiuirce,  Sind/ossUiai^  many  orders,  and  fifty-four  gene- 

••    In  1,793,  Gmelih  republished  the  "Systema  Natur»"  of  Lin- 

'IK,  with  alterations  and  improvements. 

'^.  Linnaeus  did  not  take  tlie  lead  in  such  arrangements  :  in  his  o^va 

"rk  he  notices  the  preceding  systems  of  Bromelius,  who  pubiisheil 
'  1,730  •  Wallerius,  in  1,747  ;  Woltersdorf,  in  1,748  :  Curtteuser,  in 
v:*S;  Justi,  in  1,757;  Cronstedt,  in  1,758;  and  Vogel,  in  1,762. 

:inaius,  however,  has  the  credit  of  ha  vine  first  reduced  the  science 
•:  niineralogy  into  classes  and  orders,  and  Wallerius  and  himself  ui>' 
!•  rtook  the  arduous  and  hazardous  task  of  fixing  the  specific  characten 
n*  L'linerals.  Wallerius's  second  system  appeared  in  1,772.  In  1,781 , 
^ejtheim  published  his  system  at  Bnms^vick,  and  in  1,782,  Beiigpa- 
•an's  made  its  first  appearance  at  Leipsic. 

^.  Before  this  time  tbe  celebrated  Weraer,  professor  of  mineralojgy 
f^Freybing,  in  Saxoifljf,  had  published  a  treatise  on  the  classification 
r  mineiab,  according  to  their  external  characters,  which  was  mora 

'y  iilastiated  in  his  notes  to  a  translation  of  Cronstedt,  which  ap* 
-  <  red  in  1,780.  Werner  has  obtained  a  name  amoi»t  mineralogi^ 
••  i  gec^ogists,  which  stands  deservedly  high ;  though  he  seems  only 
'  iiave  prepared  the  way  for  the  observations  ana  experiments  of 
'  <f  rs,  by  an  accumulation  and  description  of  facts  and  appearances, 
/irpmely  curious  and  valuable  The  fundamentalprincipfe  in  Wes^ 
'  r's  mtnerakgical  arrangement,  is  the  natural  affinity  of  fossils,  of 

'<  b  he  enumerates  three  kinds  :  the  chemical,  the  oryctognostical, 
^i  (lie  reoj;no8tic.    Mr.  Kirwin  first  introduced  the  Wenx^rian  ays- 

n  into  iBntain,  in  his  treatise  on  mineralogy,  1.784. 
5.  In  1 ,773,  the  study  of  the  regular  or  crystaUme  forms  of  mineral 
'  med  to  give  a  new  turn  to  mtteralosy.  The  first  work  of  emineucB 
tills  line  was  the  Crystalloeraphie  Qtttie  celebrated  Rome  de  V  Ule« 
'.'ch  was  made  the  nasb  of  the  system  of  Hauy,  published  in  1,80L. 
i  mineral  bodies  are  supposed  oy  this  system  to  be  reducible  bT 
.  <  lianical  diviskm  to  an  mtegraiU  moUevU,  From  the  fonn  ana 
'  ipddent  parts,  it  has  been  proposed  to  deduce  the  specific  chanu> 
r>.  The  forms  of  the  M/^vtwi^ffiofeeiife  are  found  to  be  three;  ikm 
:r:ihedffoa«  ^  triangolar  prism,  and  the  parallelapiped.    HimJi 


y  Google 


408  MODERN  HISTORY. 

attention  has  been  paid  to  this  system,  and  it  must  be  acknowledged 
that  if  the  tests  proposed  were  easily  to  be  applied,  and  chcmSr; 
had  proceeded  so  far  as  thoroughly  to  enable  us  to  distir^ii^  between 
the  accidental  and  essential  ingredients  of  minerals,  as  nas  been  don 
iu  some  remarkable  instances  with  much  effect,  more  direct  means  of 
distinguishing  minerals  could  scarcely  ))e  devised  :  but  as  thhjgs  stani 
at  present,  there  seems  to  be  too  much  geometiy  and  chemistry  ne- 
cessaiy  to  render  such  a  system  generally  useful.  In  1,808,  however, 
IL  Chevenix,  in  the  Annales  de  Chymie,  gave  great  support  to  Ibe 
tjttem  of  Hauy,  to  the  disparagement  of  that  of  Wenier,  to  whol^^ 
nevertheless,  he  is  careful  to  give  due  praise.  Ciystallization  wi!] 
long  remain,  probably,  a  subject  of  most  curious  research  and  inqm 
amor^  geologists  as  well  as  mineralogists ;  the  appearances  of  it  in 
primitive  rocks,  leading  immediately  to  the  grand  Question  concemiri^ 
the  operations  of  fire  and  water,  which  have  dividea  the  cultivators  ot 
(his  branch  of  study  into  the  two  parties  of  PlaUmists^  who  contend  lot 
the  igneous  origin  of  those  rocks,  and  the  Nepttmists^  who  refer  them  to 
an  aqueous  origin :  of  the  latter  of  which,  was  the  celebrated  Werret 

6.  Many  other  systems,  more  or  less  connected  with  Wenier's,  ha«« 
been  maoe  public,  as  Brochart's,  Schmeisser's,  1,795;  Babing(on'«, 
1,795  ;  Brogniart's,  (a  veiy  useful  and  valuable  one,)  Kidd's,  1,8  j9; 
Clarke's,  1,811  j  one  by  Mr.  Arthur  Aikin  ;  and,  lastly,  that  of  Btr- 
aelius,  a  Swedish  chemist,  who  has  lately  attempted  to  establish  a 
pure  scientific  system  of  mineralogy,  oy  the  application  of  the  e!ectn»- 
chemical  theory  and  the  chemical  proportions:  as  this  system  ti 
closely  connected  with  the  latest  discoveries  and  improvements  (list 
have  been  made  in  chemistiy  and  electricity,  we  shall  here  close  co' 
remarks  on  mineralogy,  as  a  science  by  no  means  perfected,  but  opii: 
to  further  experiments  and  observations,  though  very  materiaUy  u*i- 
vanced  since  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  centuiy. 

7.  Geology  has  arisen  out  of  mineraloi^ ;  and  though  no  no  t 
science  as  to  name,  is  entirely  so  accordbng  to  the  principles  up '  ^ 
which  it  is  now  conducted.  Werner  was  for  giving  a  nno  name  :>\ 
0D08  to  the  new  science,  which  was  a  judicious  step  to  take,  thougL  i! 
has  not  been  generally  adopted  ;  he  called  it  Geognosie :  it  is  fit,  i!- 
deed,  that  it  should  be  distinguished  from  the  geology  of  old,  yf\i\c 
only  engendered  a  parcel  of  fanciful  theories  ofthe  earth,  unfounded. 
on  facts.  How  the  globe  was  formed,  is  a  veiy  different  inaaiiy  frnn 
that  of  "  what  has  happened  to  it  since  it  was  formed :  modem 
geology  is  chiefly  conversant  with  the  latter ;  to  examine  the  interior 
of  the  earth,  as  far  as  it  can  be  examined,  in  order  to  understand  thi 
course  of  the  revolutions  and  changes  that  have  taken  place,  and  if 
wfaidi  we  perceive  the  most  manifest  proo& :  already  very  extraonli- 
naiy  circumstances  have  been  discovered,  indicative  of  succeN^.»t 
changes,  both  before  and  after  any  oiganic  beings  existed,  and  tbero 
ibre  both  before  as  well  as  after  the  gfobe  became  strictly  habitable  : 
among  the  most  curious  effects  plainl^  to  be  traced,  may  be  reckon^ 
the  extensive  operations  of  fire  ana  water,  the  extinction  of  laaas 
species  of  vegetables  and  animals,  and  the  veiy  extraordinaiy  pre^i- 
yation  of  some  of  the  latter,  bespeakiog  a  state  of  coQgehtioD,  at  !hr 
moment  of  die  catastroi^  by  which  &y  appear  to  have  beeo  ove» 
whelmed  \  vemains  of  animals  in  places  where  they  no  longer  exis^ 
and  the  extnoidinary  absence  of  human  reli(^uia.  The  science  cf 
comparative  anatomj  has  been  of  great  use  m  these  reseasches,  i 
which  nobody  has  disthiguidied  himself  samach  asM.  Cuvier, 
tai7  •f  tha  fV^ftdi  Imtituta. 


y  Google 


MODERN  HISTORY. 

B.  Many  ideological  societies  are  fonning;,  or  bare  been  i 
formed,  in  oifferent  parts  of  Europe  and  in  America,  and  pre 
^hips  founded  in  our  unirersities  ;  imt  it  will  be  long,  perhaps, 
(be  several  observations  and  discoveries  making  in  all  parts 
trorld,  can  be  so  compared,  classed,  and  methodized,  as  to  bri 
Mich  results  as  may  be  admitted  for  certain  and  indisputable  tru 
m^ard  to  the  histoiy  of  the  earth  and  of  man.  In  the  mean  whi 
thould  consider  thatgeoloeists  have  always  a  field  to  wortc  in,  al 
n^  in  materials  so  applicaDle  to  eveiy  useful  art  as  to  promist 
inual  accessions  ofknowledge,  not  merely  scientific,  but  o 
practical  utility. 

We  ought  not,  perhaps,  to  dismiss  tlus  part  of  our  subject,  w 
K)ticing  me  very  curious  Geological  map  of  England,  publish 
AIT  countryman,  Mr.  Smim,  in  1,815,  a  work  of  great  men 
originality. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

1.  We  hare  mentioned  gtogn^ithy^  also,  as  among  those  sd< 
t  hich  may  be  regarded  as  ahnost  new,  not  only  because  it  u  sine 
niddle  ofme  last  centuiy  that  we  have  acquired  a  more  correct  ki 
4?c  of  the  figure  of  the  earth,  but  from  the  extraordinanr  mani 
^bich  the  whde  terraqueous  globe  has  been  explored  of  late,  an 
riditiooB  oonseauently  made  to  our  former  knowledge  of  its  p 
bt>  discoveries  mat  have  taken  place  since  the  close  of  the  seventi 
entuiy,  have,  according  to  the  French  geographers,  presented 
yo  new  quarters  of  the  world,  and  which  have  been  denomii 
hiiirakaia  and  Pdyntsia.  The  following  account  may  serve  t 
Iain  these  additions  to  modem  geography : 

S.  The  former  is  held  to  contam,  1.  New  Holland,  and  al 
hndi  between  twenty  degrees  west,  and  between  twenty  and  1 
i^es  east  of  it.  2.  New  Guinea  suid  the  blands  adjacent.  3. 
ritain.  New  Ireland,  and  the  Solomon  Isles.  4.  New  Caledcmi^ 
e  New  Hebrides.    6.  New  Zealand.   6.  Van  Dieman's  Land,  \ 

separated  from  New  Holland  by  Basse's  strait  or  channel,  a 
M)ut  thirty  leagues  wide. 

-.  The  diviaiaQ  called  Fo/ynena,  consists  oi,  1.  The  Pelewlsl 

The  Ladrone  or  Marian  Islands.  3.  The  Carolines.  4. 
irjdwidi  Islands.    6.  The  Marquesas,  which  are  veiy  nume 

The  Society  blands.  about  sixty  or  seventy  in  number.  7. 
lendJy  Islands.    8.  The  Navigators'  Islands.    The  largest  i 

this  division  is  Owhyhee,  one  of  the  Sandwich  blands,  am 
Ke  where  the  celebrated  circumnavi^tor.  Cook,  lost  his  life. 
4.  The  Toyages  and  travels  conducive  to  these  discoveries  ar 
r¥.'raily  known  to  be  much  dwelt  upon  in  such  a  work  as  the  pre 
^rill  be  sutficient  merely  to  mention  the  names  of  those  who, 

years  1,735  and  1,736,  (when  the  Spanish  and  French  mathei 
ns  undertook  their  celebrated  missions  to  measure  a  degree  o 
ridtan  under  the  pole  and  at  the  equator,)  have  been  empfeyc 
'  difiereot  powers  of  Europe  on  voyages  of  discoveiy. 
>.  Of  the  English  we  may  enumerate :  ,    ^ 

Byron,  1.764^1,766.    Mr.  Harrison's  time-piece  applied  t< 
coveiT  of  the  longitude. 

^Vaiiis  and  Carteret,  1,766.    Sailed  together,  but  soon  lepan 
itkeiteand  other  lalanda  discovered. 

Mm  9t 

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410  MODERN  HISTORY 

Cook,  three  voyages : — 

First  voyage,  1,768—1,771.  The  transit  of  Vemis  ohserred  i\ 
Matavai,  in  Otaheite,  June,  1,769.  New  Holland,  and  New  Zealaod 
explored.  , 

Second  voyage,  1,772 — ^1,775,  in  search  of  a  southern  continent. 

Third  voyage,  1.776 — 1,780,  to  discover  a  nortfaem  passage ;  khi 
to  captain  Cook,  wlio  was  killed  at  Owhyhee. 

PortJoch  and  Dixon,  1,786—1,788  ;  principally  to  establish  the  far 
tnde,  at  Nootka  Souna. 

Vancouver,  1,790 — 1,795,  to  explore  the  northem  passage.  Uisic- 
ces'^ftil. 

Phipps,  (lord  Mulgrave,)  north  pole,  1,778. 

Lord  Macartney,  China,  1,792. 

Ix)rd  Amherst,  ditto.  1,816,  1,817. 

Of  the  French  we  may  reckon, 

P>ou^ainville,  1,766—1,768. 

La  Peyrouse,  1,785—1,788,  supposed  to  have  perished. 

D'Entricasteux,  in  search  of  La  Peyrouse. 

IVIarchand,  1,790— 1,792. 

T!ie  Spaniards  appear  to  have  employed  Malaspina,  an  Itahr 
1,790,  to  explore  distant  seas  and  countries;  but  his  voyage  was  v 
published.  These  were  all  of  them  voyages,  not  merely  deroled  • 
geographical  discoveries,  but  in  which  competent  persons,  in  ale  ' 
€Vi?ry  branch  of  science,  were  concerned,  to  take  account  of  whatev- 
should  offer  itself  to  their  notice,  or  be  likely  to  contribute,  in  r^ 
manner  whatsoever,  to  the  general  advancement  of  human  knowled^ 
astt)nomy,  botany,  zoology,  meteorology,  physiology,  mineraic^^ 
ami  geology.  Trade  and  commerce,  navigation  and  the  arts,  wf 
constantly  m  the  way  of  receiving  illustration  or  improvement,  dur- , 
these  bold  attempts  to  advance  the  geography  of  the  worid,  and  scN 
the  difficulties  which  still  seemed  to  hai^  about  tliat  interesting  :  • 
important  science.  The  names  of  Banlcs,  Solander,  Green,  Sparrn  - 
Forster,  and  Anderson,  will  descend  to  the  remotest  posteritv,  v  ' 
that  of  Cook. 

6.  War  often,  indeed,  interrupted  these  pursuits,  but  the  eigbtee- 
century  has  the  credit  of  affording  the  following  strong  maiks  ot  t 
progress  of  civilization  and  liberal  ideas.    It  was  during  a  contiwT. 
war,  that  a  combination  of  learned  and  scientific  persons,  Euarl';' 
French,  Russians,  Danes,  and  Swedes,  in  the  year  1,761,  laying  as- 
their  animosities,  undertook  the  arduous  task  of  observing,  for  as-tr  • 
nomical  and  geoCTaphical  purposes,  a  transit  of  Venus  over  the  >~  :• 
It  was  m  the  miost  of  war,  that  France,  in  a  veiy  public  and  icar* 
manner,  suspended  all  hostilities  that  could  in  any  manner  affect '' 
tftcgress  or  safe  return  of  our  English  navigator,  Cook ;  and  lx)th  t 
French  and  English,  in  the  course  of  their  voyages  of  discovery, 
known  to  have  evinced  a  spirit  of  philanthropy  and  humanity  \ 
opposite  to  what  had  passed  on  such  occasions  m  former  ages.    1 
improvement  of  every  barbarous  and  savage  people  they  might  r 
was  among  the  first  thoughts  of  those  who  were  ei^aged  io  these  r- 
adventures.    Some  remarkable  directions  to  this  effect,  given 
Louis  XVI.  himself  to  La  Peyrouse,  will  for  ever  do  honour  Ji>  *. 
memory  of  that  benign  but  ill-fated  monarch.    The  Ei^i^  circsi 
navigators  were  not  less  attentive  to  these  things,  but  continually  5r*ar, 
the  amelioration  of  the  savage  condition  of  the  people  they  visitt. 
too  often,  however,  quite  in  vain,  or  without  any  lasting  effect 

t  It  would  be  utterly  out  of  our  power  to  enter  into  a^y  deUi£>  ^ 

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MODERN  HISTORY,  411 

M  numexous  researches  that  have  been  made  in  all  parts  of  the  |]obe, 
nee  the  spirit  of  discoveiy  was  first  excited,  which  has  so  remancably 
.>iii^ished  the  period  of  which  we  are  treating.  lo  the  north  and 
iuih,  east  and  west,  of  both  hemispheres,  almost  eveiy  region  hns 
( « n  explored,  and  every  information  obtained  that  can  throw  liffht  on 
It-  history  either  of  the  earth  or  of  man.     The  two  peninsulas  of 

:'i,  Persia,  Arabia,  Egypt,  and  Abyssinia,  the  northern  and  tlui 
uihern,  and,  in  some  instances,  the  interior  parts  of  Africa  ;  Syri.i, 
ii«oce,  and  Turkey  ;  Norway.  Lapland,  Siberia,  and  even  the  vliMs 
I  Tartaiy  and  Kamschatka ;  New  Spain;  the  back  settlements  (i 
i-rth  America,  and  North  America  itself;  Iceland,  Greenland,  ^r. 
.i\c'  ail  been  visited  by  persons  of  science  and  learning,  and  ure  ;iln  *  -f 
•  Mcll  known  now,  as  the  most  frequented  and  civilized  part>«  c.\  \'.\.- 
'^.;  all  that  can  be  ascertained  of  their  histoiy ;  all  th:il  tfic  h  - 

■r^s  of  antiquity  could  unfold  to  the  eye  of  curiosity  ;  all  the  ^mi....!- , 
'  •.!•«,  minerals,  they  produce ;  have  been  so  amply  px.'uniiVvcl,  ii«  - 

"•♦rd,  classed,  and  methodized,  that  it  may  reasonably  he  ^ll}>]M  s..,!, 

:  in  veiy  many  instances,  all  that  can  be  known  is  known.  Ai.m.:  ^ 
♦•  iravels  enumerated,  the  scholar,  in  particular,  has  been  in  no  •  i  - 

■.Y  degree  g^atitied  by  the  visits  that  have  l)cen  n'eer.ily  ja!'  '.•> 

:i  rn  Greece,  and  by  tlie  able,  classical,  and  scientilic  (h   vrii'iit  i  - 

'  li  have  been  given  of  that  very  interesting  porti(»n  of  the  r<  ]."- 

'\  by  lord  Byron,  Mr.  Hohljouse,  major  Leake,  Dr.  Holl.in!.     : 

I  irn  Drummond,  Dr.  Clark,  lord  Aberdeen,  sir  William  (us!.  .  t.  : 

« r>  of  our  own  countrymen  ;  and  by  M.  Fouqueville,  wl:(»  li:!\  •, 
"••  'ijmnied  Buonaparte  to  Effypt,  at  the  close  of  the  last  cculu:  v 

'  .iinong  the  first  lo  explore  tno^e  celebrated  regions. 

.  The  new  means  of  inquiry  and  investigation,  have  so  kc  pt  y  r 
'  .  'lie  wide  field  lately  opened  to  the  world,  that  even  ifuh'vidti'  i\ 
f>et»n  found  competent  to  bring  home  with  them  from  the  i.m.  I 

-  '*'  countries,  ample  »nfonnat ion  upon  all  the  great  point*  thpt  . .  i 
-  .'  ly  interest  the  curiosity  of  man ;  a  greater  instance  oi  thi-,  n'U.  i 
•.  perhaps,  be  produced,  than  in  the  case  of  a  living  travi  INr  ;,i..| 

.i'>r,  the  celebrated  M.  Humboldt,  of  Prussia,  >\hose  mnltila:;*  «:- 

•  Tches,  at  a  very  early  age,  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  gloln*,  h:  \  " 
'  tt  d  niope  to  the  general  htock  of  kiwwledge  in  the  compass  of  a  v.-  y 
»••  )oars,  than  could  have  been  attained  by  ages  of  inquiiy  in  tiii.<  •» 

I  distant.     In  speaking  of  this  very  celebrated  traveller,  uIm  »; 

•  .itJt5  of  Spanish  An?erica  in  particular  have  lately  excited  *>  hmmIi 
.  ;ion,  it  is  fit  also  to  notice  the  removal  of  many  restraiirts  uihI  iii> 
!  r.«nis  in  the  way  of  such  researches,  through  tlie  more  UIht:.] 
-y  of  the  mother  country  ;  so  far  from  expressiqg,  as  would  lja>f: 

the  case  in  former  times,  any  jealousy  of  such  a  visit  to  her  io!«  - 
-.  .M.  Humboldt  obtained  the  express  approbation  and  concnrnjir«j 
'  ♦-  Sjjanisb  court.     The  removal  of  the  court  of  Portaigal  >o  th'* 
'/.i!^  m  the  year  1,807,  has  also  proved  favourable  in  no  small  d<  • 
*:  to  me  piosecutioo  of  such  inauiries  ;  the  king  having,  with  co  i 
1  niMe  liberality,  patronised  such  undeitakiogs. 
K  The  sovereigns  of  Russia,  from  the  time  of  Peter  the  gnraf, 
K*\izh  a  natural  desire  of  .acquiring  a  coirect  knowledge  of  their  very 
feiided  domimons,  buried,  at  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  centuQ'. 
p^rofound  ignorance  and  obscurity,  were  careful  to  employ  propei 
Bsons  to  make  such  discoveries,  who  so  ably  dischaiged  their  corn 
BJ^ns,  that  before  the  end  of  the  eighteenth centuiy,  a  veiy  celc 
^d  Gennao  professor  declared  that  they  had  amassed  such  a  quan 

•  cf  materials,  entirely  new,  for  the  history  of  the  three  kingaoms 

Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


412  MODERN  HISTORY. 

of  nature,  for  the  theoiy  of  the  earth,  for  rural  economj,  and  iff  v 
infinity  of  other  obiects  relative  to  the  arts  and  sciences,  as  would  .i 
plov  Dian^  learned  men  for  several  vears,  in  their  proper  anauttO' 
ancf  classification.    The  names  of  Beerii^  and  Spangberg,  r^-* 
Gmelin,  Muller,  Chappe  D'Auteroche,  Geoi]^],  Lepechin,  are  r- 
kix)\Tn,  as  among  those  who  have  most  distinguished  theinsehe* 
these  northern  and  north-eastern  expeditions.    Among  the  im^r^^- 
inents  connected  with  the  science  of  geography,  and  its  proere?  * 
Sihouid  be  glad  if  we  could  do  justice  to  me  very  learned  uA  en  i 
persons  who  have,  in  a  manner  unknown  before,  devoted  their  izrt 
tiie  more  correct  aelineation  of  the  face  of  the  globe,  in  Ae  coi?~ 
lion  of  maps  and  charts,  which  seem  to  be  advancing  rapidly  '« 
Ijglicj?t  d^ree  of  perfection.    M.  d'Anville,  whose  labour  « 
way  are  so  well  known,  may  be  lustly  considered  peifaaps  as  b. 
^ci'.  «ri  the  first  stimulus  in  this  line  of  study,  to  the  geogiapki> 
iiindem  times. 

1 0.  As  the  science  of  astronomy  is  in  many  instance  comwct^' " 
pcoicraphy,  we  may  here  notice  the  changes  that  have  lakcc  f- 
ioi;:.rd  to  the  former,  during  the  last  and  present  centuries:  •; 
however,  beira:  only  in  the  way  of  addition  upon  the  estab]i=}.< '^ 

c  ii^ies  of  the  Copemican  and  Newtonian  systenu,  are  not  such : 
li(i  saiil  to  liave  altered  the  character  of  the  science  itself;  and,  i  • 
l!ie  additions  that  have  been  made  are  veiy  easily  enumerated.  -■ 
they  must  J^ave  cost  much  pains,  and  are  the  results  of  veiy  <' 
obscrvatioiis  and  intricate  calculations,  on  the  part  of  those  to  ^ 
\\c  stand  indebted  for  them. 

11.  We  have  added  fiveplanets  to  those  formeriy  known  a*  l» 
ii*r  to  our  solar  system.    Tne  Geoigium  Sidus,  or  Uranus,  di?^    . 
l;y  the  celebrated  sir  W.  Herschel,  1,781,  and  its  satellitf  s,  1" 
CVk^s,  by  M.  Piazzi,  at  Palermo,  1.801 ;  Pallas,  by  Dr.  Ot> 
Hremeii,  1,802;  Juno,  by  M.  Harding  of  Lilienthal,  ial.^''- 
Ve^iR,  by  Dr.  Olbers,  1,807.    To  the  former  of  these  cclehry 
StTvers  we  owe  a  most  enlaiged  knowledge  of  the  celestial  '*- 
particularly  of  the  nebulous  parts,  from  the  application  c4  t  * 
icK'Scopes  of  most  extraoidinaxy  powers,  which  nave  enablf- 
n.scertam  that  the  milky-way,  and  other  similar  appearaoct? 
heavens,  are  a  congeries  of  fixed  stars,  in  strata,  prooigkii&ij  '^ 
Otis,  and  exhibiting  very  curious  phenomena.    Of  the  immeose ;  * 
<^*  tlicsc  Stars,  which  may  still  have  beyond  them  an  onfathccr  ' 
iinexplorable  abyss  of  the  same  kind,  we  may  fonn  some  c*^ 
from  the  following  statement  of  sir  William  himself^  who  ibuTA: 
gauges,  in  the  year  1,792,  that  in  the  small  space  oiforty-ott ' 
IK>  less  than  238.000  stars,  in  the  vta  laeteay  had  passed  tlin« 
Beld  of  view  in  nis  telescope.    Sir  William  places  our  own  *: 
the  via  Uiciea.    He  has  discovered,  besides  maxiy  new  kUn. 
and  triple  stars,  and  what  he  calls  changing  stars. 

12.  We  have  learned  to  correct  our  ideas  coDceniinr  the  n' 
of  the  body  of  the  sun,  heretofore  considered  as  entirerr  of  an .. 
nature.  Though  its  rays  contribute  lai^e^  to  the  pnnuctkx^  ■ 
on  the  earth's  suriace,  many  very  obvious  appearances  ough: 
torfaave  convinced  us  of  what  now  seems  clea^y  to  be  ttodenti  >- 
the  sun  is  not  a  Ixxfy  of  fire. 

^  t  IX  The  science  of  astronomy  has  been  moch  promoted  <f lt  *. 
^Poe  of  which  we  have  been  treating,  by  ttie  nnproveiDeol  or  r 
of  many  curious  and  necessaiy  Lastruments,  and  tbe  fattil 
trtabliiihmeDt  of  regular  observatories;  and  pnctkal 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODERN  fflSTORY.  415 

)een  carried  to  a  veiy  hieh  pitch,  b^r  the  talents  and  iQgenuity  of  mainr 
^eiy  eminent  persons  in  France,  Britain,  Germany,  Italy,  &c.;  as  M. 
:iairauU,  d'Alembert,  De  la  Caille,  La  Place,  La  Grange,  BaiUv,  Dc 
^  Lande,  &c. ;  Bradley,  Maskclyii,  HerscheL  Hutton,  Rooison, 
•\1i5uson,  Vince,  k.c. ;  Euler,  Mayer,  Boda,  Bianchini,  Boscorlch, 

risi,  Piozzi,  &c. 

14.  We  have  spoken  elsewhere  of  the  travels,  expressly  undertaken 
n  1,753,  to  measure  in  tlie  northern  and  southern  parts  of  the  world,  a 
l«?ree  of  the  meridian,  by  which  the  figure  of  the  earth  was  ascertain- 
ed to  be  an  oblate  spheroid,  according  to  the  conjectures  of  sir  Isaac 
^(twtoo,  andcontraiy  to  the  assertions  of  the  Cassinis  and  Bemouilli, 

ho  had  for  some  time  insisted  that  the  polar  diameter  was  longer 
the  equatorial :  all  the  experiments  seemed  to  concur  in  proving 


i]jn 


ijt  reverse.  The  steps  that  were  taken,  in  the  years  1,761  and  1,769, 
*»  dotermine  the  partJlax  of  the  sun,  by  observing  the  transit  of  Venus, 
tTiird  another  strong  proof  of  the  extraordinaiy  zeal  and  resolution 
^itli  which  science  was  cultivated  during  the  period  of  which  we  have 
'ten  treating.  On  the  recommendation  of  Dr.  Halley,  who  had  ob- 
en  ed  a  transit  of  Mercuiy  at  St.  Helena,  but  who  did  not  expect  to 
i\v  to  see  a  transit  of  Venus,  and  who  in  fact  died  in  1 .742,  mathema- 
'<  iaiis  and  astronomers  were  sent  out  in  the  years  before  mentioned, 
-uth  trora  France  and  England. 

15.  Among  the  modem  inventions  appertaining  to  astronomy,  be- 
(•l(!t  the  instruments  absolutely  necessary  to  correct  observation,  w« 
iiv  reckon  those  curious  and  elegant  machines,  exhibiting  the  motions 
'  i  phenomena  of  our  solar  system  and  its  several  parts ;  our  orreries, 
1  Kietariums,  tellurians,  lunariuins,  &c.,  all  of  which  may  be  consider- 
•i  as  extremely  interesting  and  ingenious  contrivances. 


1 .  It  would  be  useless  to  attempt  to  give  any  circumstantial  account 
<t  the  progress  that  has  been  made  in  other  sciences,  during  the  period 
'f  nhich  we  have  been  treating,  and  vain  to  seek,  by  a  mere  enume- 

fion  of  names,  to  do  justice  to  the  many  eminent  and  illustrious  pcr^ 
>r.s  who  have  distinguished  themselves  in  various  parts  of  the  world, 
n  cveiy  branch  of  learning,  useful  and  ornamental,  since  the  com- 
:.f'ncemeDt  of  the  eighteenth  centuiy.  The  numerous  bioCTaphical 
M>rks,  chronological  cnarts,  critical  and  philosophical  journals,  which 
'^^c  ^m  time  to  time  been  published  during  tnis  period,  may  supply 
.formation  much  more  full  and  copious  than  would  be  at  all  consistent 
Mth  the  limits  of  this  work,  already  extended  beyond  their  origirKil 
i^-^i^.  As,  however,  the  surprising  burst  of  intellect,  investigation. 
i'i«l  enterprise  which  has  so  marked  and  distinguished  the  last  ami 
n^nt  century,  appears  to  have  been  in  a  great  degree  connected 

'h  the  histonr  of  Europe  during  the  same  period,  we  shall  take  a 

■cf  view  of  the  latter ;  beginning  with  England  and  France  ;  the 
'\o  countries  which  seem  in  several  respects  to  have  had  the  most 
<  'asiderable  share  in  the  changes  that  have  taken  place. 

^.  At  the  period  of  the  deaths  of  queen  Anne  and  Lewis  XIV 
^"e  Sect  LXiV.)  England  and  France  appear  to  have  stood  in  sitoa- 
•  '!Li  diametrically  opposite.  England  had  just  obtained  all  that  she 
I  anted  from  a  revolution ;  France  had  scarceljr  begun  to  feel  that  she 
:ixKi  in  need  of  one.  England  had  succeeded  in  placing  her  civi  and 
( iigious  rights  on  a  sure  footing  ;  France  was  as  yet  but  little  sensible 
Ut  ben  bid  been  greatly  vblated.    England  was  recovering  from  a 


y  Google 


414  MODERN  HISTORY. 

state  of  misrule  and  licentiousness  ;  France  was  declinii^  more  tkn 
ever  into  such  a  condition.  In  Rngiand.  Newton  had  establi^te^l  > 
new  system  of  philosophy,  and  Locke  illustrated  the  principle^ '  . 
free  government ;  in  France,  Descartes  still  held  the  minds  of  in«r  < 
a  state  of  fascination  and  enchantment,  and  the  people  knew  not  vi  * 
it  was  to  be  free. 

3.  The  French  government,  by  too  great  severity  in  politicsl 
relij^ious  matters,  had  compelled  many  of  her  subjects  to  takp  iJl' 
in  loreign  countries,  where  they  were  at  liberty  to  make  their  u>\:  ' 
flections,  to  print  and  to  publish  their  thoughts  upon  the  compa:  ■ 
despotism  oi  the  country  from  which  they  had  been  driven,  aj'-  - 
delusions  to  which  the  subjects  of  the  latter  were  exposed. 

4.  Among  those  who  had  been  thus  banished,  or  comi)elied  to  rt!^ 
no  one  could  have  done  more  to  unsettle  the  minds  of  his  counts  - 
in  re^ai-d  both  to  religion  and  politics,  than  the  celebrated  1  ' 
His  oijject  appears,  however,  to  have  been  merdy  to  vnatttU  il> 
for  his  whole  work  is  a  tissue  of  doubts  and  difficulties,  which  b  • 
no  disposition  to  resolve,  but  to  leave  to  eveiy  man^s  own  judcn*' 
determine,  after  having  veiy  impartially  stated  all  the  aigumeiit- 
all  the  facts  he  could  possibly  collect,  on  both  sides  of  eveiy  q'>^ 

5.  The  French  had  been  so  long  used  to  submission,  that  m*'y^} 
teach  them  to  doubt  was  a  prand  step  towards  a  revolution  in  ■ 
opinions  ;  but  Baylc  did  not  live  to  see  the  seeds  he  had  been  ^ 
come  to  any  perfection.     It  was  not.  according  to  the  account  t 
French  themselves,  till  Voltaire,  partly  In  a  stale  of  exile,  bad  \.- 
England,  that  they  began  to  ripen,     fn  England,  Voltaire  benn* 
quainled  with  the  philosophy  of  Newton  and  Locke,  and  saiy  s*^*.'^* 
the  best  political  principles  of  the  latter  established  andini^!' 
but  beicie^  the  guest  of  Bolingbroke,  his  deisstical  principlcf.^t' 
were  very  early  made  kno>vn  by  a  passage  in  his  trapedy  of  (K . ' 
underwent  no  change,  or  were  probably  more  deeply  fixed  ao-l  • 
firmed. 

6.  Though  Shaftesbunr,  Wolston,  Collins,  Toland,  Tind.I, 
others,  had  attacked  revelation,  and  either  openly  or  insidkwr^K  *<  -' 
to  imbue  the  minds  of  the  Ei^lish  with  their  deistical  principlt;. 
public  in  general  were  little  affected  by  their  writir^.    Men  oi  - 
rior  talents,  superior  credit,  and  very  superior  learning,  had  Ij«' 
were  living,  capable  of  givincc  a  different  tone  to  the  feelirp  <• 
people.     Newton,  Locke,  Addison,  Steele,  Clarke,  Swill,  &c.,  ▼ 
amply  sufficient  to  support  the  cause  of  religion  ;  and  not  onlj ' 
fend  the  very  outworks  of  Christianity,  but  to  avert  the  shafts  "'  " 
cule,  and  set  at  naught  the  sarcasms  of  infidelity.    In  those  adn^' ' 
periodical  papers,  the  Spectator,  the  Guardian,  the  Tattler,  -i^f 
may  trace  a  direct  and  most  benevolent  desien  of  rescuing  tbf  r 
generation  from  the  contagion  of  bad  examples,  and  the  istfuti^^ 
False  principles. 

7.  In  France  it  was  otherwise  :  deism,  though  weak  api»>-  ' 
plain  evidences  of  Christianity,  was  strong  against  the  faDat]ci^^) 
oigoted,  and  the  superstition  of  a  corrupted  chureK.    The  bin'' ' 
Voltaire  soon  began  to  take  effect,  when  aimed  at  things  and  !»« 
so  vulnerable  as  the  monastic  orders,  and  the  controverted  p  >' 
dispute  between  the  Jesuits  and  Jansenists.    The  defence  cirri 
also,  m  conseguence  of  these  disgraceful  and  puerile  conflicts,  .'*  * 
plausibility  ot  the  attacks  that  were  made  upon  it,  which  stnick  i 
at  its  abuses,  fell  into  hands  little  capable  ca  wielding  the  uta}^ 
effectually  employed  In  England.    The  dread  of  desisioo  t»»  »*^- 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC  I 


MODERN  HISTORY  416 

lamped  the  spirit  of  pulpit  eloquence,  which  had  cast  such  a  lustre 
1)  ihe  names  of  Saurin,  ^fassil]on,  &c. ;  and  converted  even  tl.e  chris- 
laii  preacher  into  a  philosopher  of  the  modem  school.  Among  those 
^ho  first  appeared  in  defence  of  revealed  religion  against  the  deists^ 
he  French  themselves  have  particularly  mentioned  the  younger  Ra- 
ne,  the  cardinal  de  Polignac,  and  M.  Le  Franc  de  Pompignan. 
liu;  first  wrote  a  heavy  poem,  which  few  read ;  the  second  a  long 
Liiosophical  poem  in  Latin,  which  not  many  could  read ;  and  the 
1^1  published  some  sacred  odes,  of  which  Voltaire  found  room  to  say, 
V  i ! Ii  his  usual  wit,  "  Sacres  Us  sont,  car  personne  n'y  touche.*^  Though 
> '  itaire  might  have  imhibed  his  deism  in  part  from  Bolingbroke,  it 
'  i^  plainly  not  a  plant  of  English  mwth  ;  but  it  proved  to  be  sadly 
-.it^'enial  at  that  time  to  the  soil  of  France. 

».  The  rep^ency  had  wrought  aMCTcat  change  in  the  principles  and 
liners  of  that  lively  people.  Tne  profligate  habits  of  the  duke  of 
)ii<.'aiis  opened  a  wide  field  to  libertines  and  freethinkers,  and  natu* 
'!iy  encouraged  them  to  speak  their  minds  more  freely  upon  all  sub- 
•ct-i  than  would  otherwise  have  been  consistent  with  fne  spirit  of  the 
:•  vemmen^.  Religion  and  morals,  indeed,  could  not  have  received  a 
::i  Iter  blow  than  from  the  extraordinaiy  elevation  of  the  infamous 

I  'u!K)is  to  the  rank  of  cardinal,  and  to  the  archbishopric  of  Cambray, 
«■  L'ltei^  filled  by  tlie  amiable  and  virtuous  Fenelon. 

ij.  W  hile  the  morals  of  the  French  were  thus  becoming  daily  more 
1 '[Taved,  the  manners  of  the  English  were  evidently  much  improved. 
i  lit  i^rive  and  austere  character  of  William  III.,  the  correct  deport- 
f  :t  ni  of  Maiy.  and  her  sister,  queen  Anne,  had  effectually  checked 
Uh*  licentiousness  of  the  two  preceding  leigns,  and  given  encourage- 
'!•  nt  to  a  set  of  writers  peculiarly  capable  of  amending  the  age,  ot 
I -Lulcating  true  piety  and  sound  morality^  and  giving  a  oetter  tone  to 
tiif  .imusoraenta  of  the  public.  Instead  ot  the  gross  indelicacies  which 
^:i<i  (li5|;raced  the  ^vntings  and  degraded  the  talents,  of  Vanbur^h, 
1 "  Im,  Congreve,  and  even  Dry  den,  the  taste  and  manners  of  tlie  nation 
tl«  rivtd  great  improvement  and  advantages  from  the  more  chaste  and 
'  'rrcct  performances  of  Addison,  Steele,  Ro^'e,  Prior,  Pope,  Thomson, 
Ak>  nside,  &c.  The  sta^e  underwent  a  wholesome  reformation,  ami 
III  every  department  of  literature  there  appeared  a  manifest  leaniv^ 
i\\yU  whatever  could  conduce  to  purity  of  sentiment  and  delicacy 

I I  iVeJiii^. 

1*'.  Had  Voltaire  canned  back  with  him  from  our  shores,  as  be 
f  1  irht  have  done,  a  purer  form  of  Christianity,  and  a  better  system  of 
'  ral?,  as  well  as  a  more  correct  philosoDh3r,and  sounder  principles  of 
L  "Vcmment,  he  might  have  conferred  a  fasting  benefit  on  his  country  ; 
n  fttnefit  the  more  timely  and  critical,  as  it  would  possibly  have  pre- 
^'  nted  some  of  the  worst  evils  which  befel  that  unhappy  nation  in  her 
' '!'^<:quent  struggles  for  liberty.  Bayle  had  taught  the  French  to 
'  "^t ;  Voltaire,  having  taken  a  near,  though  imperfect  view  of  Eng- 
•  'I'i  taught  tliem  to  think  and  to  inquire  ;  while  a  greater  man  than 
'■•  M>K>ir  was  contributing,  though  more  slowly  ana  quietly,  to  the 
*•  >me  end. 

n.  Almost  at  the  veiy  time  that  Voltaire  was  in  England,  Monte:?- 
V:!(^u  visited  the  same  countir  ;  but  appears  principal^  to  have  con- 
|i.»d  \m  views  to  the  great  object  of  his  researches,  the  spirit  of  her 
l^^^s  and  the  leading  principles  of  her  admirable  constitutkm.  Therp 
^'<^  learned  to  admire,  io  its  purest  fonn,  a  limited  monarchy,  and  a 
i>^tem  of  jurisprudence,  equally  adverse  to  tyranny  and  licentiousness : 
k«Lua]ly  friendly  to  the  wholesome  authority  of  the  magistrate,  and  the 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


4JG  MODERN  HISTORY. 

j^:->  rii:hts  of  the  people.  Montesquieu,  however,  (though  in  hk  Per- 
fi.iii  Letters  he  had  betrayed  a  leanine  towards  deismj  ino¥ed  ioa 
line  distinct  from  that  generally  taken  by  the  philosophers  of  the  day. 
While  Voltaire  reiy  soon  manifested  a  desire  of  taking  the  lead  of  all 
the  wits  and  freethinkers,  however  different  their  talenU,  their  charac- 
ters, or  their  principles,  Montesquieu  was  not  displeased  to  be  left  to 
himself,  and  to  leave  his  great  woik  to  make  its  own  impressions,  hov- 
ever  slowly,  on  sensible  and  ingenuous  minds.  Its  fiist  effects  of  any 
importance  may,  periiaps,  be  traced  in  the  remonstrances  of  the  par- 
liaments,  who  began  to  take  a  higher  tone  after  the  publication  of 
Ij  esprit  de$  Lois^  and  to  consider  themselves  more  in  the  light  of  rty- 
resentatives  of  the  people. 

12.  A  number  of  veiy  eztraordinaiy  men  were  b^^inninff  at  tkt 
same  time  to  draw  upon  tiiemselves  the  attention  of  the  worlo,  and  to 
employ  their  talents  in  different  lines,  and  often  upon  veiy  differcn! 
principles,  to  enli^ten  the  world,  and  emancipate  it  from  the  thnil- 
dom  of  ancient  prejudices  and  inveterate  abuses.  Among  th^e,  how- 
ever, none  were  more  extravagantly  eccentric  than  J.  J.  Rousseau. 
This  extraordinary  man  was  decideoly  for  new  modelline  the  vihok 
system  of  politicaLi  socie^,  and  reducing  it  to  principles  which  exi«t€d 
only  in  his  own  imagination.  Not  havin|^  ever  seen  a  race  of  savage^, 
he  fancied  they  must  be  the  more  perfect  the  nearer  they  were  to  3 
state  of  nature ;  and  being  tormented  with  the  restraints  of  civilized 
society,  he  concluded  civilization  itself  to  be  an  evil.  These  sophism^ 
tervea  to  render  him  the  idol  of  the  equalizing  and  destroying  deir.^- 
gogues  of  the  revolution.  It  was  impc^ble  to  resist  the  impressia^ 
made  by  the  captivating  pictures  he  drew ;  but  they  seldom  had  ary 
better  effect  than  tliat  of  renoerinr  his  votaries  as  dissatisfied  with  li)^ 
world  as  he  himself  was,  and  bewildering  their  imaginations  ix\'^ 
doubts  and  difficulties  innumerable.  He  knew  how  to  aporeciate  tb* 
sublime  morality  of  the  gospel,  though  he  could  not  regulate  his  c^^ 
actioDS  by  it ;  and  having"  found  in  the  bible,  as  in  all  other  ca<r  r. 
somethipg  that  dissatisfied  nis  restless  and  irritable  mind,  and  levili.x: 
what  he  could  not  apjprove,  or  did  not  sufficiently  understand,  he  cvr* 
tainly  did  as  much  mischief  to  the  cause  of  revealed  religion,  caliu' 
himself  a  christian  all  the  while,  as  the  worst  of  his  deistical  ooniLO.- 
poraries.  His  opinions  and  his  actions^  as  exhibited  in  his  cnr« 
writing,  will  for  ever  render  him  an  olnect  of  admiration  minglt  >i 
with  pjty,  if  not  in  some  instances  with  abhorrence  ! 

13.  But  it  was,  in  no  long  course  of  time,  discovered  that  the  (rte 
pinions  that  were  afloat,  and  which  were  as  various  as  thcper«o:> 
who  entertained  them,  ana  who  had  as  yet  no  common  bond  of  \mkft.. 
as  Voltaire,  Rousseau,  6uffi>n,  Diderot,  D'Alembert,  Duclos,  Hehv- 

•  tius,  Marmontel,  Condillac,  Raynal,  Volnej,  (to  name  but  a  feif. 
should  by  some  means  or  other  be  embodied  and  consolidated,  thi: 
Qie  whole  of  their  several  thoughts  and  observations  on  different  suh- 
jects  might  be  presented  to  the  world  in  a  mass.  This  was  the  oritr  r 
of  that  great  and  voluminous  undertakinr,  the  Encydopedie,  spotex 
of  before,  planned  by  Diderot  and  D'Alembert :  and  which,  to  s-? 
the  least  of  it,  seemed  to  be  a  treasure  of  universal  science,  far  nicK ^ 
comprehensive,  at  least,  than  any  thing  of  the  kind  before  attemptci. 
being  not  confined  to  what  might  strictly  be  called  the  arts  ai-J 
sciences,  but  extendii^  to  eveiy  question  of  govemment,  civil  ecoo 
my,  and  finance. 

14.  The  Dictmnnaire  Encyclopedique,  amidst  maxiy  faults  and  ei< 
trangancesy  cQQtained  undoubtedly  mudi  important  matter, written  in 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


MODERN  HISTORY.  4\1 

m  aneeaWe  a  »tyl€»  as  to  be  admirably  fitted  to  excite  and  i>romott 
A  tbmt  after  general  knowledge,  univeraal  inquiry  and  invertigatiom 
a  confidence  in  private  judgment,  and  a  prejudice  against  eveiy  thing 
that  appeared  to  have  no  other  support  than  custom  and  auUionty. 
Wheal  might  be  torn  up  wilh  the  tares,  and  tares  often  sown  instead 
of  com  :  but  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  we  stand  indebted  to  th« 
vroiectoR  of  this  work  for  the  detection  and  extirpation  of  many 
.  J  Tore,  and  the  powerful  stimulus  given  by  their  movements  to  the 
.spirit  of  free  inquiiy  and  useful  research. 

15.  The  persons  engaged  in  it  have  been  so  generally  called  philos- 
cphcis,  and  have  been  styled  such  in  so  many  histories  of  the  French 
rcvolutron,  that  it  is  almost  necessaiy  to  observe  ttiat  the  greater  part 
of  them  bore  little  resemblance  to  those  who  had  heretofore  been  dig- 
nified with  that  title.  The  regent,  duke  of  Orleans,  though  dissolute 
in  his  habits  of  life,  was  a  man  of  taste,  talent,  and  information  ;  so 
that  the  savam  of  France,  who  had  heretofore  been  a  retired  order  ot 
men,  became  about  this  period  the  life  of  society,  aiKl  the  oniamenta 
of  the  highest  circles  in  the  metropolis.  Some  few,  indeed,  still  kept 
.It  a  distance  from  tlie  court,  but,  generally  speaking,  sucu  was  the 
**ate  of  thiiKS  during  the  regency  :  and  afterwards,  when  Lewis  X\  . 
f.H  into  that  disgraceful  course  of  life,  which  clouded  his  latter  days, 
.nd  subjected  him  and  his  mistresses  to  the  censure  of  the  clergy, 
even  Voltaire,  whom  the  king  personally  disliked,  and  the  Encyclo^ 
f/jpdists,  as  enemies  to  the  clergy,  were  taken  into  favour.  1  hey 
ive^re  often  indeed  dismissed  again,  but  never  entirely  driven  from 

16.*  This  change  of  public  opinwn,  even  in  the  highest  circles,  in- 
tr.).iuced  the  learned  into  places  where  they  never  appeared  betore, 
wl  gave  them  a  new  character.  While  the  influence  which  the  nven 
o{  letters  thus  began  to  acquire  in  society,  obliged  the  noblesse  to 
rh.ni^e  their  habits  also,  and  to  mingle  with  those  who  before  torme<l 
a  di>iinct  class ;  it  obliged  them  also  to  cultivate  learning  themselves, 
nnd  even  the  females  found  it  necessaiy  to  become  more  or  less 

^  'irTfo  the  mean  while  some  of  these  modem  phil^phers^had  other 
European  courts  set  open  to  them,  particulariy  m  the  northern  parts 
i.i  Euiwe,  where  a  greater  degree  of  liberty, m  the  article  of  opinion 
nifeady  prevailed,  veiy  different  from  the  bigoted  and  Machiavel:an 
principles  of  Rome  andltaly,  which  had  hitherto  borne  sway.  Calh- 
f  ririe  11.  of  Russia,  and  Frederic  of  Prussia,  through  a  laudable  desire 
probably  of  improving  ami  enlightening  their  semi-barbarous  domm- 
!  ^55,  invited  thither  some  of  the  most  busy  of  the  I  Tench  hXer^Ai;  but 
^Mih  little  judgment  or  discrimination.  Frederic,  besides  Voltaire, 
D'Alcmbert,  and  Maupertius,  gave  free  admissicm,  and  even  encour^ 
r^ement,  to  the  atheist  La  Mcthrie,the  marquis  D*Argens,and  the  abbe 
.].-  Prades:  and  Catherine  received,  and  greatly  patronised  m  h» 
!  tticr  years,  the  celebrated  Diderot.  Thus,  with  the  knowledge  and 
I.  aniiw  which  the  new  philosophers  really  possessed,  scepticism  and 
iifideii^  were  spread  far  and  wide,  and  there  was  a  sad  mixture  of 
.l^rkness  and  illumination  in  all  they  Uught. 

18  The  French  revolution  has  been  attributed  to  the  hteraii,  or 
Philoiophcra  of  Uiose  days  ;  but  we  should  greatly  err.  »f^<^Jf,"r»J 
5S2S  that  they  contemplated  genjna^ly  such  a  d*^?^"^^^^^^ 
as  a^cnrards  tooi  place  ;  many,  indeed,  were  dead  before  the  reva- 
ution  cSironced.  Neither  Voltaire  nor  Mojitesquieu  were  tepub- 
IicmS  s  Ac  fomicr  bad  a  supreme  cootempt  for  the  populace ;  aii4» 

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hj  his  flatteiy  of  Catherine  II.  and  the  marchioness  de  Pomps^ 
would  seem  to  have  had  little  of  the  republican  spirit  in  hint.  I:-: 
it  has  been  asserted  of  him,  that  "  he  loved  kings.'*  Rajnal  e 
to  have  shuddered  when  he  saw  his  own  violent  imprecations  fr  m 
potism  and  tyranny  brought  into  action.  Some,  however*  und^.^: 
\y  threw  asicte  all  restraints,  openly  declared  themselves  deists,  atL- 
£c.,  and  to  their  abominable  blasphemy  and  infidelity  we  icst  ^r! 
sonably  impute  many  of  the  evils  which  marked  those  dreadful  \  - 
but,  in  truth,  the  nistoiy  of  opinions  ceases  to  be  connected  *: 
short  time  with  the  French  revolution.  It  very  soon  became  a  *' 
gle  of  passions  and  private  interests,  and  at  length  terminateii 
catastrophe  as  fatal  to  the  literati  as  to  the  throne  and  the  altar.  '.  tl 
fatal  instrument,  the  guillotine^  so  much  spoken  of  at  that  time  f  t\ 
stained  with  the  blood  of  some  of  those  very  persons  who  ha^:  •  ■ 
tributed  most  to  the  advancement  of  knowledge,  and  the  prof*:^  .. 
of  liberal  ideas. 

19.  The  impulse,  however,  was  now  given  to  two  of  the  mo?!    ' 
ous,  mgenious,  and  inquisitive  nations  of  Europe,  and  nothing  f 
"possibfy  ^icceed  the  rapidity  with  which  every  branch  of  scitm-t     i 
since  been  cultivated ;  in  Britain,  constantly  with  more  stea<: 
gravity,  andjudgment,  than  in  France,  though  not  with  more  u^     '  \ 
activity.     Tiie  Germans,  in  the  mean  while,  in  the  northern  : 
more  particularly,  seem  to  have  devoted  their  time  to  stud:»' 
rather  a  different  description,  being  kno^vn  chiefly  for  works . :  • 
tense  research  and  most  profound  learning.     Experimental  phik>« : ' 
natural  history,  and  chemistry,  have  indeed  been  also  cultii B^  v^ 
them  with  considerable  success ;  but  in  works  of  fancy,  wit.    . 
humour,  they  have  not  acquired  so  much  credit  as  their  *ncirhU^ ' 
A  singular  dis}K)sition  to  indulge  in  tales  of  wonder,  chivaTrv»  • 
knight-errantry,  has  been  manifcsied  in  most  of  their  works  oi'>, : 
nation ;  arid  in  metaphysics,  they  have  produced  systems,  which,  r 
they  betray  an  extraordinary  talent  for  the  investigation  of  such 
fitrusc  subjects,  arc  certainly  more  to  be  admired  fur  their  ingt-.  • 
than  their  utility. 

20.  No  country  in  Europe,  perhaps,  can  have  under^gtMie  zn 
improvements,  during  the  period  of  which  we  have  been  treating. " 
Russia  ;  but  her  improvement  has  not  been  so  much  proere^M^  •• 
sudden.    The  mighty  genius  of  Peter  the  peat  determimMl  h»T  '. 
introduce  his  own  extensive  empire  at  once  into  the  commcmwr?.!- 
Europe  ;  and,  instead  of  waiting  to  give  his  subjects  a  capacirr 
improving  themselves,  as  otlier  nations  had  done,  he  en^erly  ad>^ 
ail  that  had  been  discovered  elsewheve,  and  converted  his  rudt^  fX' 
into  a  civilized  nation,  just  as  (sr  as  such  methods  could  re.*ch.    1 
taught  them  to  adopt  and  imitate  what  they  were  as  yet  m  oo  o  c 
tion  to  invent,  or  even  improve,  and  left  it  to  his  succcsscirs  u»  &»• 
tlie  gaps  that  might  remain  unprovided  for  at  the  time  of  bis  lif . 
His  suDJects,  or  rather  slaves,  obf  yed  his  dictates,  and  have  coixtiT.' 
since  to  learn  from  their  neighboMr?.  till  they  have  attained  k»  .- 
proficiency  in  the  arts  of  life,  a^  to  be  no  longer  regarded  as  a  rudt 
Ignorant  people,  though  all  the  other  countries  of  Europe  had  the  ^*.. 
of  them  till  the  very  close  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

21.  Peter  the  great  had,  in  a  small  compass  of  time,  somt  vf** 
weak  and  some  veiy  wise  successors.    The  former  have  not  Ut 
suffered  to  stand  long  in  the  way  of  tlie  latter,  and  thougii  ihetr  *- 
inoval  has  savoured  little  of  the  civilization  and  improvemeot  of  «hB.2 
we  have  been  spcaklqg,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  Russia  has  Imd  fov^ 


MODERN  HISTORY. 

rented  by  many  siorular  occunences  from  relapsinj^  into 
itate  of  rudeness  ana  barbarity.  The  extremes  ofmagnj 
udeness,  indeed,  are  too  often  found  to  meet ;  and  the  n 
las  by  no  means  yet  acquired  that  importance  in  society 
»3sential  to  every  well-regulated  government  The  sta 
itill  exhibits  too  much  of  tne  old  narrow  line  of  distincti< 
md  rasaals  ;  nevertheless,  Russia  has  obtained  much,  an 
zoraiderably.  Where,  little  more  than  a  century  a^,  wol 
sought  their  prey,  an  immense  and  magnificent  city  and 
low  stands,  thronged  with  inhabitants  from  all  parts  of  the 
perhaps  it  would  be  well  if  she  would  consent  to  step  back 
>o]id  and  more  natural  base  to  her  acquirements.  The 
idoption  and  imitation  has  brought  her  to  a  state  rather  of 
than  of  real  greatness.  She  has  had  her  universities 
h:1k)o1s  ;  but  it  could  not  well  be  otherwise  in  so  sudden  a 
ment :  much  remains  to  be  done  before  the  nation  at  large 
?ral  relations,  social  and  political,  can  be  said  to  be  really  i 
dJj  civilized. 

22.  Sweden,  during  the  ei^teenth  centuiy,  produced  ma 
nen,  and  contributed  lai^ly  to  the  advancement  of  scienc 
l»e  sufficient  to  mention,  m  proof  of  this,  the  names  of  Lin 
lerius,  Cronstadt,  Beigms^i)  Scheele,  Thunberg,  and  Sparr 

23.  The  Danes  have  not  been  idle,  but  have  encourag 
nays  the  promotion  of  literattire  and  philosophy  ;  ma  the 
^stroDomy,  zoology,  botany,  and  other  sciences,  nave  beer 
AJth  gooa  success  ;  and  many  splendid  works  are  extant, 
rreat  credit  on  the  spirit  and  ardour  of  the  government,  as 
ndividuals,  and  the  learned  societies  instituted  and  estabii 


DISCOVERIES  AND  INVENTIONS. 

1.  Many  new  discoveries  and  inventions  of  lasting  ben< 
cind,  as  well  as  many  noost  essential  improvements  of  olc 
ind  discoveries,  have  marked  the  eighteenth  and  ninetcentl: 
ome  of  the  most  remarkable  of  which  it  will  be  sufficion 
lame,  as  tlu^y  are  already  become  too  common  and  famil 
'Xplanation  ;  such  as  inoculation^  and  much  more  recentl 
ton;  iUam-tnginti  and  steam-boats ^  printing  of  linen 
Mhs ;  paper  for  roams ;  figured  nlks  and  carpets ;  sp 
kines;  stereotype  printing,  and  lithogravhic  e9i^aviti^ 
vpes;  porcelam  and  pottery;  particularly  tVelch  and  iron^i 
'Mning  conductors ;  time-pieces ;  pneutnalic^  electrical^  ai 
ipi>aratus  ;  life-boats  and  hfe-preservers  ;  the  speaking-tru 
y-Uunpy  telegraphsy  gas-lightSy  panoramas,  balloons,  rej\ 
ichromatic  telescopes,  concave  mirrors^  with  various  other 
^^^tronamical  instruments. 

2.  Laws  and  governments  have  been  advancing  towarc 
degree  of  perfection,  though  in  many  countries  veiy  s 
nanifestly  under  difficulties  and  impediments  which  tim 
cmove.  The  French  revolution  opened  people's  eyes 
ibuse.« ;  but  by  inducing  all  the  evils  and  horrors  of  anarc 
K)  nvians  accomplish  so  much  for  real  liberty,  as  might 
wished  and  expected ;  like  other  tumultuaiy  revolutions,  it 
n  a  military  despotism,  and  its  effects  on  the  continent 
uve  been  nitberto  partial,  and  apparently  of  much  less  imj 


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4fi0  MODERN  UI8T0RT. 

to  the  actual  amelioration  of  things  than  manf  peivoBs  expeeled.  Stil 
we  may  justly  enumerate  among  the  changes  conducive  to  the  fiitun 
benefit,  comfort,  and  happiness  of  mankind,  the  steps  taking  In  8ev> 
eml  states  to  restore  or  establish  the  representative  system  orgorenh 
ment ;  the  dissolution  of  many  monastic  institutions,  and  feudal  priv- 
ileges; the  check  that  has  been  ^iven  to  arbitral^  imprisonment, 
torture,  tlie  horrors  of  the  inquisition,  and  the  Aihcan  slave-trade ; 
(be  improvements  that  have  taken  phice,  principally  through  the  io- 
teipositioo  of  our  benevolent  countiyman,  Mr.  Howard,  in  the  man- 
agement of  prisons,  and  the  extracHtlinaiy  steps  lately  taken,  especial- 
W  in  the  British  dominions,  for  the  better  education  of  the  poor  and 
meir  instruction  in  religion. 

3.  It  would  be  vain  indeed  to  attempt  to  enumerate  the  astoniahii^ 
additions  that  have  been  made  within  these  few  Years,  to  the  public 
establishments  for  the  promotion  of  knowledge,  the  advancement  of 
professional  skill,  and  the  relief  of  the  necessities  of  mankind.  Phil- 
OBophical  societies  of  all  descriptions  have  been  fonned  in  various 
parts,  under  the  most  favourable  circumstances  of  support  and  encour- 
agement. The  propagation  of  Christianity  has  been  attended  to,  and 
promoted  with  extraordinary  zeal,  not  only  by  individuals,  but  by 
missionaiy  and  Bible-societies,  far  too  numerous  to  mention.  Eveiy 
description  of  medical,  chiruigical,  and  other  assistance,  has  been 
furnished  to  the  poor,  by  a  most  eztraordinaiy  increase  of  hoapitald 
and  infirmaries,  dispensaries,  asylums,  and  charity-schools.  The 
naval  and  military  professions  have  had  the  benefit  conferred  on  them 
of  new  and  distinct  academies,  including  a  charitable  provision  for  the 
children  of  those  who  have  perished  in  either  service.  The  improved 
state  of  chemistiy  and  mecnanical  skill,  has  advanced  many  arts  to  a 
veiy  high  degree  of  perfection,  and  much  assisted  both  the  manu&c- 
tunng  and  agricultural  iodustiy ;  nor  should  we  omit  to  mention,  as 
among  the  improvements  of  latter  years,  by  which  our  own  countiy  in 
particular  has  been  benefited  in  tKe  highest  degree,  the  amendment 
of  the  public  roads,  the  increased  means  and  facilities  of  public  coo- 
veyanoe  and  communicatxm,  and  the  advancement  of  inland  navjgatioo 


RELIGION. 

I.  In  regard  to  rdligkni,  from  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  ceotuiy 
to  the  year  1,820,  we  mBj  remark  that  paganism  continues  to  prevail 
over  the  greater  part  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  me  new  discovered  islands, 
as  well  as  among  the  Indians  of  America,  North  and  South,  (in  the 
settlements  of  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese,  the  Roman  Catholic  re- 
ligion has  been  introduced  of  course.)  Mahoroetanism  prevails  in 
some  parts  of  India,  in  Persia,  Arabia,  Egypt,  the  States  of  Barbaiy, 
Syria,  and  Turkey.  The  Jews  continue  dispersed  over  every  part  of 
the  world,  but  in  a  state  and  condition  far  better  than  was  formerly 
(he  case  ;  in  Europe  they  are  no  longer  exposed  to  cruel  and  wantoi: 
acts  of  oi)pres5ion  and  ]>ersecution,  and  in  some  countries  they  have 
obtained  important  privilej^es.  In  Abyssinia  the  ms^oritv  of  the 
people  are  said  to  be  christians,  and  throo^out  the  whole  cu  tb^  £u- 
jogcan  settlements  of  North  America,  cinnstianity  is  the  received  »• 
I  though  under  a  variety  of  denominatk)ns,---ConfiTegatioQalists^ 


Serians,  Dutdh  reformed  church,  Episcopalians,^aptists,  Ooa- 
.    ethodistS)  Roman  Catholics,  German  Lutbenms,  Gennan  CaK 

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MODERN  mSTORT.  4h 

irmKli^  lCor»TiBii8,  Ttinken,  MennonislSf  UniTtersalists,  Swedeoboi^ 
g^um.  and  Shaken. 

t.  In  regard  to  religion  or  christianitj,  on  the  continent  of  Europe, 
it  has  been  already  shown  what  rude  attacks  it  had  to  sustain,  during 
the  course  and  progress  of  the  French  revolution.  Deism  ana  even 
atheism  were  opeiuj  avowed  in  their  national  assemblies ;  the  im- 
mortality of  the  soul  and  resurrection  of  the  body  scouted  at,  and 
death  pronounced  to  be  an  eternal  sleep.  Paganism  was  in  some  de- 
gree revived,  the  tree  of  liberty  substituted  for  the  cross,  and  the 
eoddess  of  reason  elevated  above  the  God  of  Christian^  During  tne 
directorial  and  consular  governments,  however,  Catholicism  was  re- 
tored,  but  under  veiy  altered  circumstances  ;  without  its  accompini- 
meots  of  monasteries  and  nunneries,  and  veiy  much  detached  irom 
the  sway  and  authority  of  the  papal  see. 

3.  The  protestant  churches,  of  all  sects  and  denominations,  Lave 
done  much,  as  was  before  observed,  by  missions  in  eveir  direction,  to 
spread  the  knowledge  of  Christianity,  but  seldom  with  that  coravality 
and  unanimity  that  might  have  been  wished,  and  which  could  not 
have  failed  to  have  given  greater  effect  to  their  exertions.  Among 
those  who  have  appeared  most  zealous,  though  not  most  discreet,  we 
may  reckon  the  Moravians  and  Mdhodistt;  two  sects  or  paities. 
whose  most  avowed  object  it  has  been  to  stem  the  torrent  of  vice  and 
corruption,  prevailing  amongst  professed  christians.  The  metho<iists 
have  generally  called  themselves  of  the  church  of  England,  though  in 
many  material  respects  they  appear  to  have  deviatea  from  it,  both  in 
doctrine  and  discipline,  and  have  for  some  time  been  divided  amoi«st 
themselves  into  two  great  parties,  one  espousing  the  Calvinistic,  the 
other  the  Arminian,  tenets.  It  is  common  to  refer  the  or)s:in  of 
Methodism  to  the  rear  1,729,  when  the  two  brothers,  John  and  Cba  Hes 
Wesley,  took  the  lead  of  those  who  adhered  to  the  Anninian  doctrii«^i 
Mr.  Greorge  Whitefield,  who  joined  them  in  1,735,  became,  in  1,741« 
the  bead  of  the  Calvinistic  division. 

4«  The  modem  Moravians  take  their  date  from  the  year  l,7t^^ 
when  they  first  settled  at  Hernhut,  in  Upper  Lusatia,  on  the  estat^t 
of  Nidiolas  I^ewis,  count  of  Zinzendorf,  who,  in  1,735,  became  thesr 
bishop.  They  profess  to  receive  the  Augsburg  confession  ;  are  mee2 
and  quiet  in  their  habits  and  principles,  but  have  at  times  adopted  a 
«trangb  phraseology,  which  was  thought  to  affect  their  moral  character, 
and  pnx^ured  them  many  enemies.  As  missionaries  they  have  been 
extremely  active,  particularly  in  the  West  Indies  and  America :  they 
profess  to  be  the  remains  of  the  Hussites. 

6.  The  emperor  Joseph  II.  relieved  his  protestant  suHects  of  all 
denominations  from  many  galling  restrictions,  and  greatly  abridged 
tJir  power  of  the  pope.  Many  catliolic  princes,  even  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal states,  followed  his  example  in  various  particulars.  In  favouring, 
however,  an  unlimited  freedom  of  opinion  at  such  a  moment,  he  open- 
«"1  the  door  to  the  introduction  of  deistical  principles,  and  facilitated 
x\ui  Ibnnation  of  a  sect  of  illuminati,  which,  dunng  the  course  and 
(fmgress  of  the  French  revolution,  taught  and  disseminated  doctrines 
adverse  in  the  highest  degree  to  the  order  of  civil  society,  'he  rights 
<t  property,  and  the  christian  faith. 

6.  The  papal  authority,  during  the  latter  years  of  the  period  undei 
rliscttssion,  has  been  greatly  abndged  in  all  countries  heretofore  sul^ 
ject  to  it ;  even  in  Spain,  Portugal,  Italy,  and  Sicily  ;  nor  is  it  likely 
u>  be  recovered,  notwithstanding  the  attempts  lately  made  to  restore 
partiaUj  the  order  of  Jesuits  azia  the  inquisilkMU  Of  the  indig^iitiet 
N  o 

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4tt  MODERN  HISTORY. 

offered  to  the  last  and  present  pope  by  the  French  we  have  spoken 
elsewhere.  At  one  time  they  so  entirely  took  the  reins  of  government 
at  Rome  into  their  own  hands,  that  the  pope  and  car£nals  were 
obliged  to  take  flight,  in  whidi  situation  Pjus  VI.  died.  His  suc- 
cessor, Pius  VII.,  smce  the  final  overthrow  of  Buonaparte,  has  lived 
in  peace  and  quietness,  in  his  capital,  exeicisinfc,  notwithstanding  his 
recall  of  Uie  Jesuits,  a  veiy  tolerant  and  inoffensive  sway.  It  is,  now- 
ever,  to  be  lamented,  that,  in  the  instance  of  the  pope,  as  well  as  of 
the  king  of  Naples,  and  others,  their  resentment  of  the  French  usui^ 
pations  on  their  return  to  their  dominions  has  been  carried  so  far  as  to 
cbrogate  every  ordinance  of  the  French  Emperor,  however  vnse  ct 
salutaiy,  and  even  to  undo  what  had  been  begun,  manifestly  tendh^ 
to  the  miprovement  of  their  respective  countries. 

HISTORY,  POLITE  LITERATURE,  FINE  ARTS,  kc 

1.  We  feel  ourselves  rather  at  a  loss  to  give  any  satisfactory  account 
of  the  progress  that  has  been  made  in  the  branches  of  knovriedge 
pointed  out  by  the  title  of  this  section  :  it  would  far  exceed  our  limits 
to  attempt  to  enumerate  the  many  historical  works  that  have  been  pub- 
lished during  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries,  or  to  go  into  any 
regular  discussion  of  the  particular  merits  of  the  several  poets,  paint- 
ers, musicians,  philosophers,  philologists,  &c.  &c.,  who  may  be  said  to 
have  distii^isned  themselves  in  the  period  of  which  we  have  bccD 
treating.  To  do  this  with  any  degree  of  justice,  we  should  be  oblig- 
ed, pcHiap,  to  divide  them  into  many  classes,  and  assign  to  the  sev- 
eral individuals  of  the  loi^  list  that  might  be  produced,  their  respec- 
tive ranks  and  stations,  from  the  highest  degree  of  perfection  to  medi- 
ocrity, or  lower  ;  we  should  have  to  draw  a  comparison  between  thvm 
and  their  predecessors,  and  consider,  in  various  points  of  view,  eveiy 
advance  they  had  made  in  their  different  callir^s,  studies,  and  pur- 
suits :  but  such  a  discussion  would  be  ouite  unsuitable  to  a  work  like 
the  present  Many  of  those,  indeed,  wno  have  contributed  to  enlaifre 
the  Doundaries  of  knowledge  during  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth 
centuries,  have  been  already  mentioned ;  but  there  are  still  some 
names  which  almost  demand  our  notice,  before  we  entirely  close  this 
volume.  It  should,  however,  be  obser\ed,  that  many  very  eminent 
persons,  who  lived  till  long  after  the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth 
ccntuTf,  belong  to  a  diflterent  period,  having  been  the  ornaments  of 
what  IS  called  the  age  of  Louis  XIV.  It  may  be  best,  perha]7s,  to 
arrange  the  few  we  feel  bound  to  select  from  \l\e  great  mass  m  au- 
thors, artists,  &c.,  according  to  their  countries. 

£.  In  Germany  the  following  may  be  said  to  have  acquired  a  high 
reputation:  Mascov,  Mosheim,  Pfeffel,  Herder,  Muller,  in //triory ; 
Schiller  m  History  and  Tragedy;  Klopstock,  Gesner,  Wieland, 
Kotzebue,  Goethe,  in  Poetry  and  Dramatic  writing ;  in  Pamiing, 
Mengs ;  Ingenhouz  in  Oiemistry,  and  Bode  in  Astronomy:  Handel, 
Gluck,  Haydn,  and  Mozart,  inMusic:  Lavater  in  the  £inciful  science 
cf  Physiognoiny,  Even  the  names  oi  Mesmer,  Mainaduc,  Gall,  and 
Spurzneim,  may  require  to  be  mentioned,  as  having  for  some  time,  io 
an  extraordinaiy  manner,  amazed  the  ignorant,  and  deceived  th« 
credulous,    by  their   strange   systems  of  Animal  MagnHinn  and 

S.  In  Iirance,  Camlet,  Montfaucon,  the  Count  de  Caylus,  RoUio' 
Veitot,  B^pin,  Goguet,  Millot,  Aaynal,  Mably,  and  the  Abbe  Bar 

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MODERN  HISTORT.  4» 

thelemyi  paitiailariy  d)stu)g;uished  themselves  h  the  line  of  Sdorg 
and  Anhmdties  ;  to  whom  we  may  now  add,  perhaps  with  reason  and 
justice,  Mad.  de  Stael,  and  M.  La  Cretelle  M.  baillj,  one  of  the 
victims  of  the  Revolution,  rendeit;d  himself  conspicuous  by  his  vexy 
curious  Histoiy  of  Astronomy,  and  other  works.  Many  of  his  con* 
temporaries,  who  applied  tnemselves  to  other  branches  of  science, 
have  been  already  mentioned.  Some  ol  them  also  fell  by  the  hands 
of  the  public  executioner,  durir^  the  dreadful  period  of  the  Revolu- 
tion. Their  most  celebrated  painter^  however,  David,  escaped,  but 
with  more  reputation  as  an  artist  than  as  a  man ;  for  his  own  proceed- 
ings,  as  a  revolutionist,  were  base  and  saiiguinary. 

4.  In  Great  Britain,  we  have  to  boast,  in  the  line  of  History^  of  the 
n.imes  of  Robertson,  Watson,  Hume,  Gibbon.  Ijrtteiton,  Goldsmith, 
Koscoe,  Russell,  Gillies,  Ferguson,  otuart,  Mitford  ;  in  Law,  of  Sir 
William  Blackstone,  whose  Commentaries,  for  elegance  and  perspi- 
cuity of  diction,  stand  unrivalled.  Bolingbroke  ami  Swift  are  justly 
he  la  to  have  improved  the  English  language,  in  the  two  main  articles 
of  eoei|;y  and  beauty.  The  style  of  Dr.  Johnson  is  less  chaste, 
tliougfa,  perhaps,  equally  forcible.  The  name  of  Adam  Smith  will 
probably  descend  to  the  latest  posterity,  for  his  masterly  work  on  the 
wealth  of  nations,  a  subject  in  which  he  seems  almost  to  have  taken 
the  lead,  as  an  original  writer.  In  Paintin^^  the  names  of  Hogarth, 
Keynalds,  and  West,  stand  high  for  originality,  taste,  conception,  and 
expression ;  in  Meiapkysicty  Hume,  Hartley,  Berkeley,  Reid,  Baxter, 
and  Priestley,  have  distinguished  themselves.  To  the  Poets  already 
mentioned  we  must  add  Gay,  Young,  Shenstone,  Collins,  Gray,  3Ia- 
Aon,  Cowper,  Crabbe,  Scott,  Byron  ;  as  Novelists,  Richarason,  Smol- 
lett,^ Fielaing,  Bumey,  Edgeworth,  &:c.  Garrick  and  Siddons  have 
conferred  immortal  honour  on  the  English  Stage. 

5.  Italy,  though  labouring  under  great  disadvantages,  has  been  by 
no  means  deficient  in  learned  and  scientific  persons,  since  the  close  of 
tiie  seventeenth  century.  In  history  and  antiquities,  in  poetry,  dra- 
iT^ilic  works,  natural  history,  drawing,  engraving,  and  sculpture,  the 
i'< 'llowii^  names  richly  deserve  to  lie  delivered  down  to  posterity  : 
l^arooius,  Giannone,  Muratori,  Maflfei,  Metastasio,  Goldoni,  Algarotti, 
<  jozzi,  Tiraboschi,Beccaria,  Spallanzani,  Alficri,  Bartolozzi,  Cipriani, 
( "anova.  France  and  Italy  seem  to  have  a  joint  claim  to  a  living 
jLuthor  o{  considerable  fame,  M.  Simondes  de  Sismondi. 


TREATY  OF  VIENNA,  1,815. 

1.  As  Europe,  generally  speaking,  may  be  said  to  continue  at  this 
I  toment  in  the  slate  in  which  it  was  left  by  the  alx)ve  treaty,  we  shall 
<  <#iicludc  with  a  brief  sketch  of  the  changes  that  took  place  at  tliat 
:..pinorable  period.    The  duchy  of  Warsaw  was  given  to  the  emperor 

•  I  Russia,  with  permission  to  assume  the  titlc^s  of  czar  and  king  of 
PoKind,  jjome  parts,  however,  being  secured  to  Prussia,  under  the  title 
i  »f  erand  Duchy  of  Posen.  The  town  of  Cracow,  in  Little  Poland, 
fu  the  banks  of  the  Vistula,  was  declared  to  be  for  ever  a  free,  in- 

•  i' pendent,  and  strictly  neutral  city,  under  the  protection  of  Austria. 
1%  ii5siat  and  Prussia.  The  king  ol  Saxony  was  confirmed  in  his  regal 
t  lies,  but  at  the  price  of  many  important  cessions  to  Prussia,  princi- 

rally  that  of  the  duchy  of  Saxony.    Prussia,  besides,  recovered 
>aiitzic,  Qpedlinburg,  and  many  other  places  ;  Vidding,  however,  to 
4be  kii^  of  Great  Britain,  now  become  kii^  ofUanover  also,  manj 


yGoogk 


4S4  UJNITED  STATES.  * 

Icurddiipe  and  principalities,  in  other  parts  of  Gennaoy.  A  mm  Get" 
manic  confederation  was  established,  the  members  of  which  were 
declared  to  be  equal  in  their  rights,  and  bound  to  render  to  each  other 
mutual  assistance.  Their  a&irs  to  be  confided,  first  to  a  federative 
diet,  amounting  to  seventeen  votes  ;  and,  Sdiy,  to  a  general  assembly, 
fonning  six^-nine  votes:  who  are  to  decide  upmi  all  regulations 
touching:  the  fundamental  laws  of  the  confederation.  The  diet  to 
assemble  at  Frankfort  on  the  Maine,  and  Austria  to  preside.  The 
three  important  fortresses  of  Landau,  Mentz,  and  Luiembouig,  being 
assigned  over  to  the  confederation. 

2.  The  united  provinces  of  the  Netherlands,  late  the  Belgic  states, 
were  formed  into  a  kingdom,  jointly  with  those  of  Holland,  in  favour 
of  the  house  of  Orange  Nassau,  late  stadtholders ;  and  to  the  same 
fiovereini  was  granted  the  duchy  of  Luxembouig,  with  the  title  of 
grand  duke. 

3.  The  integrity  of  the  nineteen  cantons  of  Switzerland  was  ac* 
knowledged,  and  guarantied  ;  and  Geneva,  for  the  first  time,  consti* 
tuted  a  canton  of  the  Helvetic  confederacy.  The  states  of  Genoa 
were  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia,  m  the  place  of  many  re- 
nunciations on  the  part  of  the  latter  power,  principally  in  favour  of 
Geneva.  The  grand  duchy  of  Tuscany  was  settled  on  the  archduke 
Ferdinand  of  Austria  tana  king  Ferdinand  the  IVth  was  restored  to 
the  sovereignty  of  the  Two  SiciUes. 


PART  FOURTH, 
UNITED    STATES. 


SECTION  I. 

DISCOVERY  OF  AMERICA. 

I.  It  was  somewhat  natural  that  the  distinguished  author  of  the 
Elements  of  History  should  almost  exclusively  confine  himself  to  the 
great  events  of  the  old  world.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  discovei; 
of  America  by  Columbus  embraces  only  a  short  space,  (see  Section 
XLI.)  and  that  North  America,  the  first  settlement  of  the  United 
States,  the  revolution  and  severance  of  those  states  from  the  crown  of 
Great  Britain,  and  the  more  recent  dispute  of  the  States  with  Grea! 
Britain,  are  dismissed  by  both  authors  in  a  few  words.  (See  Sectioo 
XLIL,  and  Sections  VIIL  and  XX.  of  the  ContinuaUon.)  This  coo- 
sideratkm  will  suggest  the  propriety  of  a  more  particular  namtioo  <A 
the  events  vdiich  relate  to  the  United  States,  for  whose  paiticular  a* 
fhi  preMDteditkw  of  this  woik  is  intended.  i 

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UNITED  STATES*  4St> 

t.  The  honour  of  accomplishing  an  exploit  so  suhlime  as  that  of  the 
discoveiy  of  this  western  hemisphere,  was  gained  by  Christopher 
Columbus.  This  great  man,  a  native  of  Genoa,  descended  from  a 
respectable  famUy,  was  well  qualified  by  nature  and  education  to  be- 
come distinguished  on  the  ocean.  Ardently  inclined  towards  that 
t* lenient,  he  went  to  sea  at  the  afe  of  fourteen.  After  a  variety  of 
.'adventures  serving  to  enlarge  his  Knowledge  more  than  to  increase  his 
u  >rtiine,  he  went  to  Lisbon.  Here,  having  married  the  daughter  of 
IV.ix.^strello,  a  Portuguese  navigator  of  much  celebrity,  his  lavounte 
|»:ts?ion  of  making  discoveries  was  rendered  more  irresistible  by  read- 
it  i;;  the  iounials  of  his  father-in-law,  which  had  fsillen  mto  bis  hands. 

J.  The  attention  of  the  Portuguese  was  at  that  time  directed  to  the 
i'l ruling  a  passage  by  water  to  the  East  Indies  ;  and  they  intended  to 
p'CoiupliAb  this  purpose  by  passing  to  the  south  until  they  reached  the 
5«ajtliem  extremity  of  Atrica,  and  then  taking  an  easterly  course. 
'1  lie  spherical  fi^re  of  the  earth  was  then  known,  and  its  magnitude 
h  id  been  ascertained  with  some  good  degree  of  accuracy  ;  and  the 
3rtive  mind  of  Columbus,  after  liaving  attentively  compared  the 
oiiservations  of  modern  navigators  with  the  conjectures  of  the  ancients 
::t  last  came  to  the  conclusion,  that,  by  sailing  directly  to  tlie  west. 
iM*>T  countries,  which  it  was  likely  formed  a  part  of  the  great  continent 
of  Asia,  must  be  discoverecL  His  opinion  was  strengtoened  by  the 
xii^coveiy,  after  a  long  course  of  westerly  wind,  of  pieces  of  cane<» 
wood,  trees,  and  canes,  and  dead  bodies,  the  natives  of  another  clime 
driven  on  the  shores  of  the  Madeira  isles  and  the  Azores. 

4.  Fully  satisfied  with  the  truth  of  his  systenu  Columbus  was  im 
f  .itient  to  bring  it  to  the  test  of  experiment.  He  first  made  applica- 
tion to  the  senate  of  Genoa  for  patronage,  desirous  that  his  native 
r V  >iifitTy  should  reap  the  fruits  of  bis  labour  and  ingenuity ;  bat  hert 
his  proposals  were  rejected  as  the  dream  of  a  chimerical  projector 
Not  discouraged  by  this  repulse,  he  laid  his  plans  before  John  kinf 
ni  Portugal,  who  basely  attempted  a  fraud  on  him,  by  despatching  > 
>«wsel  in  pursuit  of  the  discovery,  af^er  drawing  from  Columbus  ^ah 
Tlie  information  which  treachery  could  devise.  The  pilot  selected  foi 
this  purpose,  being  no  less  deficient  in  courage  than  were  his  em- 
l>loyen  m  dignity  and  justice,  returned  to  Lbt^n  without  making  anj 
di-cover)'. 

3.  Disgusted  with  the  treachery,  Columbus  instantly  went  to  Spain, 
and  laid  nis  plan  before  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  at  the  aami*  time  thai 
lie  sent  his  brother  Bartholomew  to  England,  for  the  purpose  of  n^^ 
ti  iting  for  the  patronage  of  Hemy  Vil.,  reported  to  be  one  of  tlie 
most  iiagack)us  and  opulent  princes  of  the  aee.  Accident  deprived 
Kngrland  of  the  renown  of  this  discovery  ;  tne  brother  of  Columbus 
1  m  bis  way  being  captured  by  pirates,  ana  detained  in  captivity  many 
yvoTS  :  afthough  amving  in  England  in  great  indigence,  Hemy  re- 
re  tred  the  overtures  of  Columbus  more  favourably  than  any  other 
monarch,  and  invited  him  to  that  country.  But  it  was  too  late.  The 
^reat  discoverer,  afler  combating  mxnj  and  sore  disappointments, 
succeeded  at  length  in  securing  i&  Spanish  court,  aided  oy  two  rkh. 
(Tcnerous,  and  vigilant  patrons,  Q,uintanella  and  Santai^l.  Ferdinand 
was  still  restrained  by  his  characteristic  caution  and  reserve ;  but 
Isabella,  alive  to  the  glory  which  must  accrue  from  the  accomplish* 
merit  of  so  grand  an  enterprise,  declared  her  resolution  to  employ 
Cnlambus  ;  and,  in  the  low  state  of  her  finances,  consequent  on  a  loitg 
and  serioas  contest  with  the  Moors,  who  had  then  but  just  been  ex^ 
p>eJl^  ^fom  Spain,  offered  to  pledge  her  jewels  in  order  to  complete 

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426  UNITED  STATES. 

the  preparations  of  the  vavsge  :  Santaqgel  however  relieved  the  diffi- 
culty, by  advancing  finom  nis  private  purse  the  necessanr  sum. 

6.  April  17, 1,492,  more  than  seven  years  after  the  date  of  his  Erst 
ftppHcation,  an  agreement  with  Columbus  was  concluded.  The  ex- 
pedition was  fitted  out  at  Palos,  a  small  town  of  the  province  of 
Andalusia ;  but  it  was  badly  suited  to  the  service  for  which  it  \m 
intended.  It  consisted  of  three  vessels,  the  Santa  Maria,  the  Pinta, 
and  the  Nigna — the  first  of  inconsiderable  burthen  commanded  Ly 
Columbus  as  admiral ;  and  the  two  last^  not  superior  In  size  to  large 
boats,  hj  two  brothers,  Martin  and  Vincent  Pinzon :  the  whole  pro- 
vided with  ninety  men,  and  victualled  for  twelve  months. 

7.  August  3,  Columbus  set  sail.  He  touched  at  the  Canary  islands, 
where  he  refitted  his  crazy  vessels,  and  departed  from  GomcM, 
Sept.  6.  Here  he  took  his  course  due  west,  leaving  the  track  of  all 
former  navigators,  and  stretched  boldly  into  seas  unknown.  Veiv 
soon  bis  sailors,  alarmed  at  the  distance  they  had  proceeded  without 
finding  the  expected  land,  began  to  mutiny,  and  placed  Columbus  in  a 
situation  in  which  any  other  man  would  have  yielded  to  their  entreaties 
to  return.  Fertile  in  expedients,  possessing  a  thorough  know]e<^  of 
mankind,  an  insinuatir^  address,  and  a  happy  talent  at  governing,  be 
succeeded  day  after  day  in  beguiling  the  discontented  seamen  far 
beyond  their  own  determinations,  untileveiy  succeeding  hour  pre«eDt* 
od  stronger  and  stronger  indications  that  land  could  be  at  no  f^reat 
distance.  For  some  days  the  sounding  line  had  reached  the  bottom  ; 
the  flocks  of  birds  increased,  and  some  of  them  of  a  kind  supposed  to 
fly  not  far  from  shore  ;  the  clouds  around  the  sun  assumed  a  new 
appearance ;  the  air  was  more  mild,  and,  during  the  night,  the  wind 
l>ecame  uneoual  and  variable.  On  the  evening  of  Oct.  11 ,  he  ordered 
the  ships  to  lie  to,  in  the  fear  of  running  ashore.  That  night  Colum- 
bus obser\*ed  a  light,  which  seemed  to  be  carried  about  from  place  to 
place  ;  and  a  little  tiler  midn^ht,  was  heard  irom  the  Pinta  the  joyful 
ay  of  Land  ! 

Q.  When  the  morning  dawned,  an  island  was  seen  about  two  leagues 
to  the  north :  its  verdant  fields  were  well  stored  with  wood,  presenting 
the  aspect  of  a  delightful  counby.  All  the  boats  were  immediatelv 
manned  and  anned.  The  Spaniards  rowed  towards  the  shore  witA 
their  colours  displayed.  As  they  approached  the  beach,  they  saw  it 
covered  with  a  multitude  of  people,  whose  attitudes  and  gestures  db- 
covered  wonder  and  amazement.  Columbus  was  the  first  who  set  fool 
on  this  new  world  which  he  had  discovered.  His  men  followed;  and 
all  kneeling,  kissed  the  ground  that  they  had  long  desired,  but  never 
expected  to  behold :  here  he  erected  a  crucifix,  returned  thanks  to 
God,  and  with  the  usual  formalities  took  possession  of  the  coimtr]^' 
To  this  island,  called  by  the  natives  Guanabana,  Columbus  gave  die 
name  of  St.  Salvador :  it  is  one  of  the  large  cluster  called  the  Baha> 
mas,  n^3re  than  three  thousand  miles  west,  but  only  four  degrees  south 
of  Gomera,  the  port  of  the  Canaries  which  he  last  lefL 

9.  AAer  discovering  several  other  islands,  amongst  which  were 
Cuba  and  Hayti ;  and  using  eveiy  precautwn  to  secure  the  benefit  of 
a  first  discoveiy,  by  erecting  a  fort  and  leaving  a  party  of  men  on  the 
island  of  Hayti ;  on  the  4tb  of  January,  1,493,  Cfolumbus  set  sail  for 
Europe.  The  shattered  condition  of  his  vessels  would  have  rendered 
the  voyage  at  any  time  unsafe  ;  but  a  succession  of  storms  had  well 
nigh  committed  to  the  bosom  of  the  deep,  and  with  it  the  secret  of 
his  discovery,  his  little  flotilla.    The  whole,  however,  arrived. 

10.  At  first  it  was  generally  supposed,  from  a  similari^  in  the 

f 

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UNITED  STATES.  4« 

productions,  that  the  discovered  counliy  wax  a  part  of  those  vast  re* 
gions  of  Asia,  comprehended  under  the  general  name  of  India.  The 
tame  of  India  was  given  to  it  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  ;  and,  al\er 
the  error  which  gave  rise  to  the  ooinion  was  detected,  the  name  ot 
West  Indies  has  remained,  and  the  aoorigines  arc  called  Indians. 

11.  In  1,498,  Columbus,  on  his  third  voyage,  reached  the  continent, 
and  landed  in  several  places  in  the  provinces  of  Paria  and  Cumana. 
DiJl  be  was  deprived  of  the  honour  of  associating  his  name  with  this 
v.i^t  portion  ot  the  earth,  being  supplanted  by  Amerigo  Vespucci,  a 
nrttiveof  Florence,  who,  in  1,499,  ;\ent  on  a  voyage  to  America,  and 
who  published  an  account  of  his  adventures  so  iiigeniously  framed  as 
t«>  make  it  appear  tliat  he  had  the  gloiy  of  first  discovering  the  con»i- 
ivent  of  the  new  world. 

12.  On  tlie  20th  ot  November,  1.497,  Vasco  de  Gama,  employed  by 
iJje  king  of  Portugal,  first  doubled  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  which 
opened  a  passage  to  the  East  Indies ;  and  twenty-three  years  afttr 
flie  first  aiscoveiy  of  America  by  Columbus,  Magellan,  a  native  of 
Portugal,  in  the  service  of  Spain,  penetrated  into  the  Pacific  ocean, 
by  the  strait  which  bears  his  name,  situated  at  the  southern  extremity 
ol  the  American  continent. 


SECTION  11. 

DISCOVERIES  BY  THE  ENGLISH.    SETTLEME^•T  OF  VIRGINIA. 

1.  The  English  were  tlie  second  people  that  discovered  the  new 
world,  and  the  first  that  discovered  the  continent  of  America.  On  the 
t4lh  of  June,  1,497,  Giovanni  Caboto,  (or  Cabot,)  and  his  son  Sebas- 
ti.in,  who  were  commissioned  by  Heniy  VIII.  to  sail  in  auest  of  new 
rnuntries,  discovered  a  laige  island,  to  which  they  eave  tne  n.ime  ol 
Piiraa  Vesta,  or  first  seen;  now  called  Newfoundland.  From  this, 
they  steered  to  the  north,  in  search  of  a  passage  to  India  ;  but  finding 
no  appearance  of  a  passage,  they  tacked  about,  and  ran  as  far  a£ 
Florida,  the  island  of  Cuba,  as  he  relates,  being  on  his  left. 

3.  On  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  to  the  crown  of  England,  a  period 
rommenced,  higlily  auspicious  tc  mercantile  extension.  The  coast  of 
Labrador  was  explored  by  Martin  Frobisher,  under  her  auspices,  id 
the  years  1,576  '7-'8  ;  and  sir  Francis  Drake,  about  this  time,  accom- 
filisned  his  celebrated  voyage  around  the  globe. 

J.  In  1,584,  sir  Walter  lialeigh,  a  favourite  at  that  time  of  the 
fjueen,  despatched  two  small  vessels,  under  the  command  of  Philip 
Aniidas  and  Arthur  Barlow,  which  reached  the  coast  of  North  Carolina 
iv\  tJie  4th  of  July,  making  their  passage  in  sixty-seven  days  by  way 
of  the  Canaiy  islands  and  the  West  Indies.  On  their  return  Amidas 
And  Barlow  gave  a  splendid  description  of  the  countiy  ;  of  its  beauty, 
tt;rtility,  mildness  of  climate,  and  serpnity  of  atmosphere  ;  and  Eliz- 
tilyeth  gave  to  the  country  the  name  of  Virginia,  as  a  memorial  that 
this  happy  land  was  discovered  under  a  maiden  queen. 

4.  In  1,585,  sir  Walter  Raleigh  fitted  out  a  squadron  of  seven  small 
%-e«sel5,  with  one  hundred  and  eighty  adventurers,  which  sailed  from 
Plymouth,  under  the  command  of  sir  Richard  Greenville.  This 
oilony  was  left  on  the  island  of  Roanoke,  under  the  care  of  captain 
Laiie  ;  but  through  bad  management,  tumipg  all  their  attention  to  tfa« 


y  Google 


428  UNITED  STATES. 

search  for  gold  and  silver,  the;]^  were  sood  assailed  by  a  two-ibld 
calamity,  the  hostility  of  the  natives  and  the  orospect  of  famine.  Sir 
Francis  Drake,  on  his  return  from  the  West  indies,  at  the  unanimous 
request  of  the  colonists,  carried  them  back  to  England,  and  thus  ended 
the  yi-conducted  exoeriment,  affcer  a  trial  of  nine  months. 

5.  Early  in  the  followine  year,  three  more  vessels  arrived  at  the 
same  spot,  with  one  hun£^  and  fifty  settlers.  In  about  one  month 
after,  tne  daughter  of  captain  White,  who  commanded  tlie  expedition, 
and  the  wife  of  Ananius  Dare,  one  of  his  assistants,  gave  birth  to  the 
first  English  female  child,  which  was  named  Vinpnia.  Mtsfoitune 
pursued  this  infant  settlement  The  threatenea  Spanish  armada 
engrossing  the  attention  of  the  parent  countiy,  the  coloiiy  received  no 
supplies,  and  the  inhabitants  periled  miserably  by  flaimuie,  or  by  the 
hands  of  their  surrounding  enemies. 

6.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  being  engaged  in  other  ambitious  mider- 
takings,  so  vast  and  various  as  were  oeycnd  his  power  to  aocompUsh« 
and  becoming  cold  to  the  unprofitable  scheme  of^  effecting  settlements 
in  America,  assigned  his  interest  in  that  country  to  sir  Thomas  Smith 
and  a  company  of  merchants  in  London,  in  1,596.  These  were  satis- 
fied for  the  present  to  pursue  a  pet^  traffic  with  the  natives,  and  made 
no  attempt  to  take  possession  of  the  soil. 

7.  But  in  the  succeeding  reien  of  James,  who  having  concluded  as 
amicable  treatjr  with  Spain,  ana  tenninated  a  tedious  war,  the  period 
was  more  auspicious  for  settlements  in  America.  The  attention  of  the 
monarch  was  called  to  this  subject  by  the  efforts  of  distinguished 
geographers  and  men  of  science.  James  divided  into  districts  of 
nearly  equal  extent,  that  portion  of  North  America  which  stretches 
fronn  the  34th  to  the  45th  degree  of  north  latitude,  excepting  the 
territory  of  any  other  christian  prince  or  people  already  occupied : 
one  called  the  First,  or  South  Colony,  the  other  the  Second,  or  North 
Colony  of  Viiiginia.  In  1 ,606,  be  authorized  certain  gentlemen,  most- 
ly residents  of  London,  to  settle  in  a  limited  district  of  the  former : 
nn  equal  extent  of  the  latter  he  allotted  to  several  gentlemen  of 
Bristol.  Plymouth,  and  other  parts  of  the  west  of  England.  The?e 
grants  laid  the  first  foundation  of  states  which  in  a  few  centuries  wen 
destined  to  become  rivals  to  the  mother  countiy  in  wealth,  in  science, 
and  in  power.  The  supreme  government  of  Uie  colonies  was  vested 
in  a  council  resident  in  England,  to  be  nominated  bj  the  king ;  the 
subordinate  jurisdiction  in  a  council  which  was  to  reside  in  America, 
and  also  to  be  named  by  the  crown,  and  act  confonnably  to  its  in- 
structions. Whatever  was  required  for  their  sustenance,  or  for  the 
support  of  commerce,  he  permitted  to  be  shipped  from  England  firee 
of  duty,  during:  the  space  of  seven  years  ;  and  as  an  incitement  to  in- 
dustry, granted  them  the  liberty  of^  trading  With  other  nations,  appm- 
priatjn^  tlie  duties  to  be  laid  on  foreign  traffic  for  twenty-one  years,  as 
a  fund  for  their  exclusive  benefit. 

8.  A  vessel  of  one  hundred  tons,  and  two  barks,  under  the  command 
of  captain  Newport,  sailed  with  one  hundred  and  five  men.  destined 
to  remain  in  the  countiy  :  among  these  was  a  Mr.  Pen^,  brother  of  tbt 
earl  of  Northumberland,  and  several  officers  who  had  served  with  rep> 
utation  in  the  precedinc:  reign.  The  fint  land  that  was  discovered  was 
a  promontoiy,  the  southern  bounds ty  of  the  Chesapeake,  April,  1,607? 
his  was  named  cape  Heniy,  m  honour  of  the  prince  of  Wales.  The 
ipacious  inlet  was  entered,  and  the  expedition  coasted  the  aoathen 
ihore,  and  up  a  river  sixty  miles,  called  by  the  natives  Powhatan,  to 
irhich  the  Engli&h  gave  the  name  of  James  river,  in  honour  of  their 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


UNITED  STATES*  4<9 

sofrerefen.    Here  a  site  ^vas  fixed  for  the  infant  settlement,  which  was 
named  James  Town. 

9.  Imprudent  in  their  conduct  towards  the  natives,  this  feehle  socie* 
ty  was  earljr  involved  in  war.  Scarciljr  of  provisions  introduced  dis- 
eases ;  and  in  a  few  months  half  their  original  number  was  swept  away, 
aj;d  the  remainder  lefl  sickly  and  dejected. 

10.  The  government  soon  devolved  on  captain  John  Smith,  who 
was  originally  one  of  the  council  appointed  by  the  king,  but  who  had 
unjustly  been  deprived  of  his  authority  by  the  colonists.  This  gentle- 
man, who  was  emphatically  the  father  of  Virginia,  was  a  native  of 
Lincolnshire :  he  had  distinguished  himself  in  feats  of  courage  and 
chivaliy,  particularly  while  engaged  in  the  Hungarian  army  against 
tiie  Turks.  His  undaunted  temper,  deeply  tinctured  with  ihe  ro» 
inantic  spirit  of  the  times,  was  happily  aaapted  to  the  present  tiying 
situation  of  the  colony.  Soon  afler  he  had  been  called  as  their  leader, 
ivhile  hunting  in  the  woods,  he  was  attacked  by  two  hundred  Indians, 
who  poured  m  upon  him  a  continued  flight  of  arrows.  After  perform- 
ing wonderful  feats,  he  sunk  in  the  une(}ual  contest,  and  was  made  a 
prisoner.  Charmed  by  his  arts  and  his  valour,  they  released  him 
from  captivity.  Aftenvards  he  was  beset  by  three  hundred  more  of 
these  ferocious  people,  pursued  into  a  marsh,  and,  after  he  had  thrown 
away  his  arms,  which  he  could  no  longer  use  by  reason  of  the  cold,  he 
was  taken  and  carried  in  triumph  to  rowhatan,  the  principal  chieftain 
of  Virginia.  Here  the  doom  ot  death  was  pronounced  u]K)n  him,  and 
he  was  about  to  receive  the  fatal  blow,  when  the  favourite  daughter  of 
Powhatan,  interposed  in  his  behalf.  This  amiable  child  (not  then 
thirteen  years  of  age)  not  only  prevented  the  execution  of  Smith  by 
lier  entreaties  and  tears,  but  caused  him  to  be  set  at  liberty,  and  sent 
him,  from  time  to  time,  seasonable  presents  of  provisions. 

11.  The  colony  was  now  reduced  to  thirty -eight  persons.  Soon 
at^er,  however,  succours  arrived  from  Er^land,  and  an  addition  of  one 
hundred  new  planters  was  added  to  their  number.  But  the  culture  of 
the  land,  and  other  useful  employments,  were  neglected,  in  the  futile 
idea  that  ^Id  had  been  discovered  issuing  from  a  small  stream  which 
emptied  mto  James  river.  The  effects  of  the  delusion  were  soor. 
severely  felt  in  the  prospect  of  approaching  famine.  In  the  hope  of 
obtaining  relief.  Smith,  in  a  smaH  open  boat,  and  with  a  feeble  crew, 
went  in  search  of  aid  from  the  Indians.  In  two  different  excursions, 
that  occupied  upwards  of  four  months,  he  visited  all  the  countries  oo 
the  eastern  and  western  shores  of  the  Chesapeake  bay,  enterincr  the 
principal  creeks,  and  tracing  the  rivers  as  far  as  their  falls,  ana  ob- 
tained a  supply  of  food  for  the  sufferira^  colon;|r«  In  these  tours,  he 
ciiled  upwards  of  three  thousand  miles,  amidst  almost  mcredible 
bajrdships,  and  brought  back  with  him  an  account  of  that  large  tract  of 
country,  now  comprehended  in  the  two  states  of  Viieinia  and  Maiy* 
land,  io  full  and  correct,  that  his  map  is  the  onginalfrom  which  m 
•ubsequent  delineations  have  been  formed  until  lately. 

IS.  About  this  period,  the  old  charter  being  found  inoonTement  and 
omfessive,  a  new  charter  was  granted  by  James,  by  which  the  boim- 
daiies  of  tlie  colony  were  enlaiced ;  the  council  in  Viiginia  was  abolish* 
ed,  and  the  government  vestea  entirely  in  one  residing  in  London,  th» 
members  of  which  were  to  be  chosen  by  the  proprietors,  and  these  to 
nominate  a  governor,  who  was  to  reside  in  VtKinia  and  cany  their 
orden  into  execution.  Lord  Delaware  was  at  mi  appointed  to  this 
ofioe ;  but  as  this  nobleman  could  not  immediately  leaye  EngUind» 
the  power  was  vested  in  sir  lliomaa  Gates  and  sir  Qeoige  Somen, 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


UNITED  STATES. 

i  despatched  from  Eneland  with  five  hundred  planters.  A 
jrricane  separated  the  fleet  on  their  way  ;  and  the  ships  witb- 
fficers  only  arrived  at  James  Town.  Presently  every  ihiiy 
ced  to  a  state  of  anarchy  ;  captain  Smith,  at  once  the  shield 
word  of  the  colony,  beii^  disabled  by  an  accidental  explosion 
)wder,  the  >vretchedness  which  followed  is  beyond  desciip- 

I  the  arrival  of  Gates  and  Somers,  who  had  be«n  cast  away 
the  Bermuda  islands,  although  it  saved  the  wretched  sur- 

James  Town  from  immediate  death,  was  unable  to  presen-v 

II  the  autumn.  Nothing  remained  but  to  seek  immediate 
) ;  and  with  only  sixteen  days'  provision,  the  colony  set  sail^ 

of  reaching  the  banks  of  Newfoundland^  and  getting  reiiel^ 
-e  they  had  arrived  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  tney  met  lord 
J,  who  brought  a  large  supply  of  sustenance,  new  settkn, 
y  thing  requisite  either  for  cultivation  or  defence.  Under 
il  admmistiation  of  this  nobleman,  the  colony  began,  occ« 
assume  a  promising  appearance.  He  was  6uccee<6d  by  sir 
Dale,  who  concluded  a  treaty  of  friendship  with  the  Pon-in- 
of  the  most  powerful  and  warlike  tribes  ol  Virginia, 
cahontas.  the  amiable  female  who  had  preserved  the  life  of 
mith,  frequently  visited  the  English  settlements  ;  and  during 
course,  she  was  betrayed  on  Iboard  a  vessel,  and  there  in*- 
Her  father,  who  loved  her  with  the  most  ardent  affection, 
ed  to  discontinue  hostilities  on  such  conditions  as  were  die- 
his  treacherous  enemy.  She  was  afterwards  solicited  br 
3,  a  respectable  planter,  in  marriage.  Powhatan  consented, 
narriage  was  celebrated  with  extraordinary  pomp.  Fn»m 
the  most  friendly  intercourse  subsisted  bebveen  the  colonists 
ndians.  Rolfe  and  his  wife  went  to  Er^land,  where,  by  th« 
ion  of  captain  Smith,  Pocahontia  was  received  bv  the  court 
respect  due  to  her  birth ;  she  was  instructed  in  the  rhristlaii 
and  publicly-  baptized.  About  returning  to  America,  Ptxa- 
led  at  Gravesend ;  leaving  one  son,  from  whom  are  sprur^ 
he  most  respectable  families  of  Viiginia. 
therto  no  individual  right  of  property  in  lands  w^as  establish- 
as  holden  and  dealt  out  in  common.  But  the  governor,  in 
ided  a  considerable  extent  of  land  into  small  lots,  and  grant- 
these  for  ever  to  each  individual ;  fiom  which  period  the 
pidly  extended.  The  culture  of  tobacco,  since  become  the 
3le  of  Virginia,  was  introduced ;  but  the  eager  demand  ibr 
e  in  England  caused  for  some  time  a  scarcity  of  food  in  the 

out  this  time,  a  Dutch  ship  from  the  coast  of  Guinea,  having 
I  James  river,  sold  to  tne  planters  a  part  of  her  negroes ; 
:e  has  been  augmented  in  Viiginia  by  successive  importations 
itural  increase,  till  it  forms  more  than  one  third  part  of  tin 
n. 

1,619,  sir  George  Yeardley,  the  governor  impelled  bj  that 
spirit  of  freedom  which  has  ever  been  the  characteristic  of 
s,  called  the  firat  general  assembly  which  was  held  in  Vii* 
t  this  time  eleven  corporations  sent  representatives  to  the  ocx^ 
ehich  was  p^mitted  to  assu^ne  legislative  power,  the  natural 
of  man.  The  supreme  authority  was  looged  part^  in  the 
partly  in  a  council  of  state  appointed  by  the  compaoy,  and 
"al  assembly,  composed  of  representatives  of  the  peciple.  A 
fiect  of  the  happy  change  was  an  increase  of  agriculture 


yGoogk 


UNITED  STATES.  451 

The  company  extended  the  trade  of  the  colony  to  Holland  and  other 
coontries.  This  measure  produced  the  first  difference  of  sentmaent 
between  the  colony  and  the  parent  state.  Jealous  at  seeing  a  com- 
modity, (tobacco,)  for  which  the  demand  was  daily  increasine,  con- 
ducted to  foreign  ports  beyond  its  control,  thereby  causing  a  (fiminu* 
tion  of  revenue,  the  latter  endeavoured  to  check  this  colonial  enterprise, 
without  considering  that  the  restraint  was  a  breach  of  the  sacred  prin- 
ciples of  justice. 

17.  The  suspicion  of  the  monarch  James  was  soon  roused,  and  tha 
charter,  by  decision  of  the  kine's  bench,  was  declared  forfeit,  and  the 
company  dis^^olved.  Charles  I.  adopted  all  his  father^s  maxims  in 
ruspect  to  Vii^inia,  which  during  a  g^at  part  of  his  reign  knew  no 
other  law  than  the  royal  will.  But  the  colonists  resisting,  Charles 
yielded  to  the  popular  voice  :  he  recalled  Han'ey,  the  obnoxious 
(Tovemor,  and  appointed  sir  William  Berkeley,  a  man  of  great  abiii- 
iU'S,  prudent,  virtuous,  and  popular  ;  whose  influence  was  directed  in 
tiiinlly  restoring  to  the  people  much  the  same  share  in  the  government 
as  they  had  enjoyed  previously  to  the  revocation  of  the  charter. 

18.  Alter  the  execution  ot  the  king,  and  the  establishment  of  th« 
rornmonweallh  under  Cromwell,  through  the  influence  of  the  governor, 
tlnr  colonists  continued  to  adhere  to  their  loyalty  to  the  king.  In  1,651, 
i»jc'  English  commonwealth  took  vigorous  measures  to  reduce  the  Vir- 
iriniaiis  to  o))edience.  A  numerous  squadron,  with  land  forces,  Tvas 
dii^patched  for  this  purpose.  Berkeley  resisted,  but  was  unable  to 
fnaintain  an  unequal  contest,  and  was  soon  defeated.  The  people 
were,  however,  allowed  to  retain  the  privileges  of  citizens ;  but 
lierkelev  retired  as  a  private  citizen.  CromwelPs  parliament  framed 
nets  prohibiting  all  intercourse  between  the  colonies  and  foreign  states, 
and  allowing  no  trade  but  in  English  ships.  On  the  death  of  Mathews, 
ijio  last  governor  appointed  by  Cromwell,  the  Virginians  bui^t  out  in 
f  K  w  violence.  They  called  sir  William  Berkeley  trom  his  retirement, 
i Mildly  erected  the  royal  standard,  and  proclaimed  Charles  II.,  son  of 
their  late  monarch,  to  be  their  lawful  sovereign.  Charles  was,  how- 
i'VCTf  soon  placed  on  the  throne,  and  the  Virginians  were  thus  saved 
from  the  chastisement  to  which  they  were  exposed  by  their  previous 
iieclaratk)n  in  his  favour.  But  the  new  king  and  parliament  rewarded 
their  fidelity  by  increasing  the  restraints  upon  colonial  commerce  I 

13.  The  number  of  inhabitants  in  Viiginia  in  1,688,  exceeded  sixty 
thoisand,  and  its  population  in  the  previous  twenty-eight  years  was 
doubled.  In  1,691,  the  college  of  William  and  Mary  was  founded. 
To  aid  in  its  erection  and  support,  the  sovereigns  whose  name  it 
beais,  eave  nearly  two  thousand  pounds  out  of  their  private  puise,  and 
granted  twenty  thousand  acres  of  land,  and  a  duty  on  tobacco,  for  its 
turtfaer  encouragement. 


SECTION  ni. 

arTTLEMENT  OF  MASSACHUSETTS,  RHODE  ISLAND,  COIU 
KECTICUT,  NEW  HAMPSHIRE,  MAINE,  MARYLAND,  NORTH 
A5D  SOUTH  CAROLINA,  NEW  YORK,  NEW  JERSEY,  FENN- 
SYLVAliA,  DELAWARE,  AND  GEORGIA. 

1.  Thi  partition  of  the  great  tenitory  of  Virginia  into  North  iod 
South  cotaies  has  abeady  been  mentioDed.    Still  mo»  feebb  wem 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


4«  UNITED  STATES 

Hie  operations  of  ^be  nytnodtb  Company,  to  wh  nf  iririrtl|ml  fbt 
conduct  of  the  northern  divl^idn^  although  animaled  bf  Qie  letl  of  sir 
John  Popham,  chief  justice  of  £f^)and,  sir  FerdiDafl4oOoi)(peS|  ano 
other  public  spirited  gentlemen  of  the  west. 

2,  In  the  year  1,607,  the  same  in  which  James  T0H9»wa»  t6assit'\, 
a  small  settlement  was  commenced  on  the  river  Sagadahoc,  now  cailt-vi 
the  Kennebee* ;  but  this  was  sooD  abandoned.  Some  fisliti^.  Tffls  N 
visited  Cajje  Cod  several  times ;  among  them,  one  comxnaftdni  ^y 
captain  Smith,  who  returned  with  a  hign-wix}Ught  description  of  Th* 
coast  and  country  *  exhibiting  a  mnrp  of  the  bays,  harbours, -Ac.,  «.r 
which  he  inscribed  "  New  England  p  the  prince  of  Wales,  delighii«ii 
frith  the  representations  of  Smilb,  immediately  confirmed  the  name. 

S.  To  the  operations  of  religidn,"  rather  than  to  the  desire  of  pecu- 
niary emolument,  are  the  various  settlements  of  New  England  indebt- 
ed for  their  origin.  The  sacred  rights  of  conscience  and  of  private 
judgment  were  not  tlien  properly  imdcrstood ;  nor  was  the  charily 
and  mutual  forbearance  taught  christians  by  their  divine  master  prac- 
tised  in  any  countiy.  Every  church  employed  the  hand  of  power  in 
supporting  its  own  doctrines,  and  opposing  the  tenets  of  anolner.  In 
relorming  the  rituals  and  exterior  symbols  of  the  church  of  England, 
Elizabeth,  lest  by  too  wide  a  departure  from  the  Romish  church  fhi: 
might  alarm  the  populace,  had  allowed  many  of  the  ancient  ceremonit^ 
to  remain  unaltered.  With  several  of  these  a  laige  number  of  her 
subjects  being  dissatisfied,  they  wished  to  address  their  Creator  ac- 
cording to  their  own  opinions,  but  were  subjected  to  very  rigorou« 
penalties.  Those  who  dissented  from  the  established  church  obtained 
the  general  name  of  Puritans,  a  term  applied  to  them  because  tliey 
wished  for  a  purer  form  of  discipline  ana  worship.  Among  the  mf«si 
popular  and  strenuous  declaimers  against  the  established  church  Wi-re 
the  Brownists,  a  sect  fonned  about  1,581,  by  Robert  Brown,  who  al"ter- 
wards  renounced  his  principles  of  separation,  and  took  orders  in  tlw 
church  against  which  ne  had  so  loudly  declaimed.  The  Rev.  Jc4in 
Robinson,  the  father  of  the  first  settlement  of  New  England,  is  said  lo 
have  been  a  follower  of  Brown,  but  aftenvards  renounced  tlie  principk-9 
of  the  BroWnists,  and  became  the  founder  of  a  new  sect,  denominated 
buiependents.*  Mr.  Robinson  affirmed  that  all  christian  congregations 
were  so  many  independent  religious  societies,  that  had  a  ri^ht  to  Ik 
governed  by  their  own  laws,  independent  of  any  foreign  jurisdictiiKi 
Beinj^  persecuted  in  England,  he,  with  many  others  embracing  hi:* 
opinions,  removed  to  Holland,  where  they  formed  churches  upon  meir 
own  principles.  Remainii^  there  some  years,  the  society  were  de- 
sirous to  remove  to  some  other  place  :  tney  turned  their  thoughts  to 
America,  and  applied  to  James,  who  though  he  refused  to  give  them 
any  positive  assurance  of  toleration,  seems  to  have  intimated  somv 
promise  of  passive  indulgence. 

*  By  sereral  respectable  historians  of  this  country,  the  Independent! 
have  been  connected  with  the  BrownistSjbetween  the  opinions  and  prao 
tices  of  whom  was  a  wide  difference.  The  Independents  excelled  ths 
Brownists  in  the  moderation  of  their  sentiments,  and  in  the  order  of  ihr'a 
discipline.  They  possessed  candour  and  charity,  believing  that  true  r^ 
ligion  and  solid  piety  might  flourish  in  those  commnnitieB  under  the  inns- 
diction  of  bishops,  or  the  goremments  of  synods  or  pr^sbyteiies.  They 
•pprcrved  of  a  regular  minbtry.  While  the  Brownists  allowed  promlscu- 
•osly  all  ranks  and  orders  of  men  to  teach  in  public,  the  Independents  re- 
-^aind  a  proper  examination  of  the  capacity  and  talents  of  their  teeners* 

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UNITED  STATES.  4^ 

4.  They  readily  procured  a  tract  of  land  from  the  Plymouth  con*' 
naiiy.  One  hundred  and  twenty  persons  sailed  from  Plymouth  id 
i.o'io,  their  destination  being  Hudson's  river  :  by  some  treachery  of 
•fie  Ddtch,  who  then  contemplated  and  afterwards  eflfected  a  settlement 

•  th.ll  place,  they  were  carried  to  the  north,  and  landed  on  cape  Cod, 
hf  deventh  of  November  of  that  year.  They  chose  for  their  resi- 
<(•  fire  a  place  called  by  the  Indians  Patuxet,  to  which  they  gave  the 
'  M  i'.  of  New  Plymouth.    Belbre  spring,  half  their  number  were  cut 

•  'I  I >y  famine  or  disease.  In  a  few  days  after  they  landed,  captain 
•';  ojlish  was  ei^ra^ed  in  skirmishing  with  ihe  Indians  ;  and  the  many 

•  .  vi^ters  which  followed,  tc^ether  with  the  implacable  hostility  of  the 
i.ilians,  which  always  has  subsisted,  are  pfrliajps  more  owing  to  the 
imprudence  of  the  first  settlers,  than  to  liie  had  disposition  of  the 
n.'(tives. 

5.  This  colony,  like  that  of  Virs^inin,  at  first  held  their  goods  and 
I'^'TH^rty  in  common  ;  and  their  proeitr-ss  \va«  rctanied  as  well  by  this 
« 'rriimstaiice,  as  by  the  impulse  of  iniatcinury  inspiration,  which  reg- 
' !  i<*d  all  their  actions.  At  the  end  often  yoars,  these  well  monning 
I 'I  l>le,  when  they  became  incorporated  with  (Iioir  more  powerful 
r.*«;^'hl»ours  of  Massachusetts  bay,  did  not  excee<l  thn^e  hundre<J. 

fi.  In  the  year  1,6*9,  Mr.  \Vhite,  a  non-conlonnist  minister  at 
'Dorchester,  having  formed  an  association,  purchased  from  the  Ply- 

"Ulh  company  a  tract  extending  in  length  fn)m  three  miles  north  ol 
*Urrimack  river  to  three  miles  soulli  of  Charles  river,  and  in  breadth 
.nru  the  Atlantic  to  the  Southern  ocean  ;  and  obtained  a  charter  froR 
^  JKirles,  similar  to  that  given  to  the  two  Virginian  companies  by  James. 
1  ive  "hips  were  fitted  out,  on  board  of  which  were  enibarked  ui>wards 
•♦  tiiree  hundred  souls,  amongst  whom  were  several  eminent  non- 
I  ntiinmng  ministers.  On  their  arrival,  they  found  the  remnant  of  si 
't:  ill  pa.rtv  that  had  left  England  the  preccdirig  year,  under  the?  con- 

•d  of  Mr.  Endicott,  who  had  l)een  appointed  hy  his  awipaninn* 

'■\nity  governor.  They  were  settled  at  a  place  called  by  the  Indians 
'>  urnkeag,  to  which  he  had  given  the  scripture  name  of  I?aletn.  The 
»^  colonists  immediately  formed  achiircli,  elected  a  pastor,  teacher, 
•r.'I  elder,  disregarding  tne  intentions  of  the  king.  They  disenrum- 
•rr^'J  their  public  worship  of  eveiy  sirperiluous  ceremony,  and  re 
'.•irt'd  it  to  the  lowest  standard  of  calvinistic  simplicity. 

Hut  much  as  we  respect  that  noble  spirit  which  enabled  them  to  part 

v:h  their  native  soil,  we  must  condemn  the  persecutir»g  spirit  of  the 

nista  themselves.    Some  of  the  colonists,  retaining  a  hijrh  venera- 

•  n  lor  the  rituil  of  the  church  of  England,  refused  to  join  the  colonial 
*'•  establishment,  and  assembled  separately  to  worship :  Kndirott 
.€'{  }>efore  him  two  of  the  principal  offenders,  expelled  tlxin  trom 

"  roiony,  and  sent  them  home  in  tne  first  ships  returning  to  Etii;inhd. 

T.  The  government  o(  the  colony  was  soon  transt'erred  to  America, 
■\'\  vested  in  those  members  of  the  company  who  should  r^^ide  ther>. 

im  Winthrop  was  appointed  governor,  and  Thomas  Dudhy  i!epij»y 
-pernor,  with  eigrhtprn  ••    i-tanls.     In  the  course  of  tl.e  nrxt  y»;.i, 

*^'K>,  dfteen  hundn  1  [  •-.  ■«  >  arrived  in  Massachusetts  trom  KruJ:lan«J, 
r  '.r^^t  whom  wen.  -»       •   '  liistinguished  families,  some  of  them  hi 

V,  and  others  in  lu'  .  rcum^lances  ;  and  Boston,  Charlestown, 

•  rrfiester,  Koxbury,  .         ner  towas,  were  settled. 

n    The  first  genei'  •.  •  »»dd  at  Charlestown,  ventured  to  deviate 

•  ai  their  charter  ii  r  <vl'  great  moment :  a  law  was  pas^^ed, 
'  daring  that  dock?  ^'<  tVf'eriien,  or  be  entitled  to  any  share  ia 
^k  guvemnMnt,  eict.i>'  \  ho  liad  been  received  at  members  d 

Oo  56 

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434  UNITED  STATES. 

the  church.  The  fanatical  spirit  continued  to  increase.  Aininiilci 
of  Salem,  named  Roger  Williams,  having  conceived  an  ave^^ion  |.> 
the  cross  of  St.  George,  a  symbol  in  the  English  standard,  dcclahnea 
against  it  with  great  vehemence,  as  a  relic  of  superstition  ;  and  Endi- 
cott,  in  a  transport  of  zeal,  cut  out  the  cross  from  the  ensign  displayed 
before  the  governor's  gate.  This  frivolous  matter  dividea  the  colony ; 
but  the  matter  was  at  length  compromised  by  retaining  the  cross  in 
the  ensigns  of  forts  and  vessels,  and  erasing  it  from  the  colours  oi  the 
militia. 

9.  In  1,636,  Williams  was  banished  from  Salem;  and,  accompanie! 
by  many  of  his  hearers,  the  exile  went  south,  purchased  a  tract  o:' 
land  ot  the  natives,  to  which  he  gave  tlie  name  of  Providence ;  aiwl  j 
Mr.  Coddington,  witli  seventy-six  others,  exiled  from  Boston,  Wi^h' 
a  fertile  ijjland  on  Narraganset  bay,  that  acquired  the  name  of  Rhode- 
laland.  Mr.  Coddington  embraced  the  sentiments  of  the  Quakers.  I'l 
Friends  ;  he  received  a  charter  from  the  F>ritish  parliament,  in  whicit 
it  was  ordered,  that  "  none  were  ever  to  be  molested  for  any  diffeienc*- 
of  opinion  in  I'eligious  matters  :"  yet,  the  veiy  first  assembly  conic  fr 
ed  u'.ider  this  autluM'ity,  excludea  Roman  catholics  from  votir^r  . ' 
elections,  and  from  every  office  in  the  government ! 

10.  To  similar  causes  the  state  of  Connecticut  is  indebted  f--  - 
origin.  Mr.  Hooker,  a  favourite  minister  of  Massachusetts,  \\::\. 
about  one  hundred  frimilies,  after  a  fatiguing  march,  settled  on  tb 
western  side  of  the  river  Connecticut,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  H.ir!- 
ford,  S})iingfit  Id,  and  Weathersfield.  Their  right  to  this  tcrriV.n 
was  disputed  hy  the  Dutch,  who  had  settled  "at  the  mouth  of  tli 
Hudson,  and  by  the  lords  Say-and-Seal  and  Brook,  who  hud  o.n,- 
inenced  the  scltlenient  called  Say-Brook.  The  Dutch  were  soon  ^> 
pelled;  and  the  others  uniting  with  tlie  colony,  all  were  incorpcT:tfc 
by  a  ro^^al  charter. 

11.  New-Hampshire  was  first  settled  in  the  sprin?:  of  I.O^j.  vn-;*  •■ 
the  patronage  ol  sir  Ferdinando  Gorares,  captain  .Tohn  Mason,  :j; 
several  others,  who  sent  over  David  Thompson,  a  Scot,  Edw:,rd  .-i:- 
William  Hilton,  and  a  number  of  peonle,  furnished  with  the  requi-r* 
supplies. "  One  cx)mpany  landed  at  a  place  called  Little  Harbour  ;  t'w 
others  settled  at  Dover.  Mr.  Wheelwright,  a  cleigyman  banished  fna 
Massachusetts,  founded  Exeter,  in  1,638, 

12.  Maine  was  not  permanentljr  settled  until  1,635.  Goig-es  ob- 
tained a  grant  of  this  territon%  which  remained  under  its  o^vn  grj^eni- 
ment  untU  1,652,  when  its  soil  and  jurisdiction,  as  far  as  the  middle  .  ' 
Casco  bay,  was  claimed  by  Massachusetts. 

13.  The  mutual  hostility  of  the  English  and  Indians  commence  : 
with  the  first  settlement ;  but  it  was  not  until  the  year  1,637,  that 
systematic  warfare  was  begun.  The  Pequods,  who  brought  into  tl» 
field  more  than  a  thousand  warriors,  were  exterminated  in  a  tr.^' 
months  by  the  combined  troops  of  Massachusetts  and  Connecticuf. 
In  the  nignt,  the  Pequods  were  attacked,  near  the  head  of  Mistic.  t--^ 
the  Connecticut  troops  and  Narraganset  Indians,  commanded  bj  ch'^ 
tain  Mason  :  in  a  few  moments,  five  or  six  hundred  lay  gasping  r 
their  blood,  or  were  silent  in  the  arms  of  death.  "  The  darkness,  •  t 
the  forest,"  observes  a  New-England  author,  "  the  blaze  of  tfcr 
dweUings.  (he  ghastly  looks  of  the  dead,  the  groans  of  the  dying,  tl*- 
shrieks  of  the  women  and  children,  the  yells  of  the  friendly  savage*, 
presented  a  scene  of  sublimity  and  terror  indescribably  dreadful. 

14.  In  1,643,  an  alliance  for  mutual  defence  was  formed  between  !h« 
Peir-England  colonies,  exceptii^  Rhode-Island,  which  Massacbusttto 

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UNITED  STATESJ.  435 

T\a<  unwilling  to  admit.     This  alliance  continued  until  the  charten 
Were  annulled  by  James  the  second. 

15.  Up  to  1,638,  twenty-one  thousand  British  subjects  had  settled 
in  New-England  ;  and  the  country  had  begun  to  extend  the  fisheries, 
.'.nd  to  export  com  and  lumber  to  tne  West  Indies.  In  1,656,  the  per- 
spculion  of  the  Quakers  was  at  its  height.  A  number  of  these  inoffen- 
sive people  having  arrived  in  the  Ma>sachiisetts  colony,  from  England 
an<i  Barbadoes,  and  given  ofl'ence  to  the  clergy  ot  the  established 
<  fiurch  by  tlie  novelty  of  their  religion,  were  imprisoned,  and  by  the 
fjr-t  opix)rtunity  sent  away.  A  law  was  passed,  which  prohibited 
masters  of  ships  from  bringing  Q^iakers  into  iMassachusetls,  and  them- 
*••  Ives  from  coming  there,  under  a  graduated  [Penalty,  risii^,  in  case 
ft  a  return  from  banishment,  to  death.  In  conaecjuence,  several  were 
hinr^cd!  These  proceedini^s  are  &lill  the  more  reprehfMi.'ihle  and  re- 
j:.. likable,  when  contrasted  with  a  previous  declaration  of  their  o;"overn- 
1  .-nt,  which  tendered  **  hospitality  and  succour  to  all  christian 
?iang'ers,  tiying  from  wars,  lamine,  or  the  tyranny  of  ptrsrcution.'* 
'i'tiv  anabaptists  were  also  persecuted  ;  many  were  dialiaiichised,  and 
^1••pe  were  banished. 

16.  On  the  accession  of  James  II.,  several  of  th'»  New-England 
<:.']. -nits  were  deprived  of  their  charters  ;  but  these,  with  \arious  un- 
»  .*ortant  modincations,  were  restored  alter  the  evolution.  Sir 
V»  niiara  Phipps,  a  native  of  31aiue,  who  rose  to  wealiii  ami  power  in 
.1  'iianiier  the  most  extraordinarv,  was  the  tirst  governor  of  Massachu- 
-fUj>  under  the  new  charter.  With  a  force  of  s<'ven  bundled  men,  h« 
V  -»-ied  from  the  French,  L'Acadie,  now  called  Nova  Scotia.     He 

.irr\%ards  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  on  Quebec,  wiih  the  loss  of 
i    If  ttiousand  men.     The  new  charter,  whilst  it  curtailed  the  liberties, 

♦  \*«rKtcd  the  territory  of  Massachusetts  ;  to  it  were  now  annexed  New 
J'  _^  'iiouth,  Maine,  and  Nova  Scotia,  with  all  the  conntiy  hetueen  tiie 
:  .::fr  and  the  river  St.  Lawrence  ;  al>o  Elizabeih  i-la?)ds,  Martha's 
\  'ff*-yard,  and  Nantucket.     The  j)eople,  lumever,  had  jn*»l  reason  to 

•  .  tripl.iin  that  they  no  longer  cho'^e  tlurir  governor,  under  wiiose  control 
»..i^  the  militia,  and  who  levied  taxes  without  their  consent,  and  tried 

i«.Vil  t>ftence'i. 

IT.  About  this  time  the  pillars  of  society  were  shaken  to  the  fbun- 

iri«vij,  in  and  about  Salem,  by  imaginary'  witchcraft.     The  delusion 

■  '«:fn€»nced  at  Salem  village,  now   Danvers,  in   die  family  of  Rev. 

-  .  ■luel  Paris.     Two  young  girls,  one  a  daughter  of  Mr.  Paris,  aged  9 ; 

.  '  otiicra  niece,  aged  11,  u(  re  afiected  with  sinijular  nervous  dis- 

>  r^,  which,  as  they  baill(»(i  die  skill  of  the  physician,  were  diou^ht 

»   :»n)ceed  from  an  *' evil  hand.'*     The  children  were  believed  Ly 

i.-    iieia:hbour5  to  be  bewitched,  aiul  the  belief,  sanctioned  by  the 

■ni«^n  of  the  physician,  bec^tnie  general  thnnighout  the  vicinity. 

,    -e  more  the  girls  were  noticed  and  pitied,  the  more  singular  and 

crav  agant  was  their  conduct,     Up)on  the  advice  of  the  neighbouring 

"MUrters,  two  or  three  private  t'a>ts  \\ere  lirst  kept ;  at'terwaitis  a  pub- 

<    I  >ne  in  the  village  and  other  cona;regations ;  and  finally,  the  general 

^jrt    appointed  a  fast  through  the  colony.     This  course  gave  the 

f  ciirrences  a  solemn  aspect,  and  probably  contributed  to  tlie  public 

r«  'iulitj,  till  tJie  suppased  witchcuft  had  extended  throughout aereat 

'irt  of  th«  county  ot  Essex.     The  infiituation  prevailed  from  Blarch 

I  October,  1,69S.  during  which  time  twenty  persons,  men  and  women, 

ere  executed.    It  was  then  that  suspicion  roused  from  its  letbaigy ; 

:>ncleiBDatioo  ceased ;  the  accusers  were  silent ;  those  under  sentenot 

err  repriered,  and  afterwards  pardoned 

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UNITED  STATES. 

n  the  years  1.627  and  '38,  '63  and  '70,  New-Ei^Jand  expe- 

violent  earthquakes.  In  the  year  1,638,  Harvard  coll^e^ 
)ston,  the  oldest  seminary  of  leamine  m  the  United  States,  was 
i.  Four  hundred  poundb  were  voted  to  it  by  the  eeneral  court ; 
5  sum  was  nearly  doubled  by  a  bequest  from  Mr.  John  Harvard, 
ter  of  Charlestown.  This  institution  is  now  the  most  richly 
;d  of  all  the  American  colleges.  Yale  college,  at  New-Haven, 
jnded  in  1,701,  ten  years  after  that  of  Wilfiam  and  Maiy,  in 
a  ;  and  Dartmouth  college,  in  New-Hampshire,  was  founded 
).    The  first  printing  press  established  in  tlie  British  colonies 

1,639,  at  Cambridge,  superintended  by  Stephen  Daye;  but 
;  chiefljr  at  the  eipense  of  Mr.  Glover,  an  English  clergyman, 
id  on  his  passage  to  America. 

Vlaryland,  the  hrst  colony  that,  from  its  beginning,  was  directly 
h1  as  a  province  of  the  British  empire,  was  iounded  bv  sir 

Calvert,  baron  of  Baltimore^  in  Ireland ;  a  Roman  catholic 
an,  bom  in  England.  He  first  went  to  Virginia  ;  but  meetir^ 
cicome  reception  there,  on  account  of  his  religion,  he  fixed  hi? 
»n  to  the  lands  north  of  the  Potomac,  and  obtained  a  grant  <a 
•om  Charles  1.  Tliis  country  was  called  Maryland,  in  honour 
(piecn,  Henrietta  Maria.  The  religious  toleration  establifbrti 
charier,  the  first  draft  of  which  is  said  to  have  been  ivriltcn  by 
)n^e  himself,  is  honourable  to  his  memory.  The  ^rant  w« 
to  his  eldest  son,  Cecilius,  who  succeeded  to  his  titles ;  but 
d  Calvert,  brother  to  Cecilius,  was  the  first  governor,  and  made 
t  stand,  at  an  island  in  the  Potomac,  which  he  named  Si. 
its,  in  1,6:.:3.  He  made  several  purchases  of  the  Indians,  v^\ii 
he  cultivated  a  constant  friendship,  as  well  on  the  Potomac,  a- 
I  shores  of  the  Chesapeake.  Never  did  any  people  enjoy  mcr* 
ess  than  the  inhabitants  of  Maryland.  Whilst  V  ireinja  har:**^>* 
vlio  dissented  from  the  English  church,  and  the  northern  colonu ? 
)  dissented  from  the  puritans,  the  Roman  catholics  of  Maiy)?Jrt'- 
tvho  in  the  old  world  never  professed  the  doctrine  of  toleratii  i;, 
d  and  protected  their  brethren  of  every  christian  church,  ar>a 
Illation  was  rapidly  increased. 

About  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  some  ciiiigran*%, 
from  Virginia,  began  a  settlement  in  the  county  of  Albemarle ; 
on  afterwards,  another  establishment  was  commenced  at  cspe 
>y  adventurers  from  Massachusetts.  These  were  held  togeth«  r 
laws  of  nature,  without  any  written  code,  for  some  time.  Bi;: 
s  II.  compeilea  the  colonists  to  become  subservient  to  hh  hjI*  . 
anted  to  lord  Clarendon  and  others  the  tract  of  land  which  now 
ses  North  and  South  Carolina  :  perfect  freedom  in  religion  vr- 
1  in  the  charter.  The  first  settlement  was  placed  uuder  il" 
ind  of  sir  William  Berkeley,  governor  of  Virginia,  whoas^igrt 
liority  to  Mr.  Drummond.  In  1,761,  the  proprietors  extemlei 
2ttlements  to  the  banks  of  Ashley  and  Cfooper  rivers,  wL«^  ii 
ston  now  stands  ;  and  eventually  this  became  the  separate  st..jf 
th  Carolina.  The  culture  of  cotton  commenced  here  in  l,7<>". 
it  of  indigo  in  1,748. 

New-Yora  was  first  settled  by  the  Dutch,  and  was  bv  thr-^ 
>r  about  half  a  century.  It  was,  however,  clauned  by  E!D||lai>i 
first  discoverer.  Peter  Stuyvesant,  the  third  and  last  Duta 
lor,  b^;aD  his  administration  in  1,647,  and  was  dislingui^icd  tv 
r  his  fidelity  than  his  vigilance.    In  1 ,664  the  colony  surreodezfd 

Sf^lish ;  and  the  whole  territory  now  comprising^  New*Toii' 

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A. 


UNITED  STATES  437 

New-Jersey,  together  with  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  and  a  part  of 
Connecticut,  was  assigned  by  Charles  11.  to  his  brother  the  cfuke  oi 
York.  The  Dutch  inhabitants  remained;  Stuyvesnnt  retained  his 
estate,  and  died  in  the  colony.  The  country  was  governed  by  the 
< lake's  officers  until  1,688  ;  when  representatives  of  the  people  were 
allowed  a  voice  in  the  legislature. 

22.  In  1,664,  the  duke  of  York  sold  that  part  of  hi?  grant  now  cnll- 
rd  New-Jersey  to  lord  Berkeley  and  sir  George  Cnrt(  ret.  It  l»:td 
previously  been  settled  by  Holmnders,  Swedes,  and  Danes.  The 
i  ounty  of  Bergen  was  the  first  inhabited  ;  and  veiy  yoon  the  t(ma«  o{ 
Kiizaoeth,  Newark,  Middleton,  and  Shrewsbui^r  wcn^  «ett]e<l.  Tha 
t'ollegc,  originally  established  at  Newark,  was,  in  1,748,  finally  fixed 
at  Princeton:  its  chief  benefactor  was  governor  Belcher.  Among  the 
rovcmors  of  New-Jersey  was  the  celebrated  Barcl'V,  author  of  tLe 
Apology  for  the  Quakers,  of  which  sect  a  large  number  hud  eitabl imb- 
ibe mselves  there. 

23.  Pennsylvania  was  founded  by  William  Pcnn,  son  of  a  disJiii- 
•jTui'hed  admiral  of  the  same  name.  From  principle  this  (!xcrll(  nl 
j-nn  joined  tlie  Quakers,  then  an  obscure  and  persecuted  Fcct.  As 
*  nt;  ot  the  members,  and  a  preacher.  Penn  was  repeatedly  impriscmrd  ; 
!  ut  he  plead  his  own  cause  with  great  boldnes?,  and  procured  his  own 
:i<  quittal  from  an  independent  jury,  who  with  himseli  were  impri<(jiied 
until  an  unjust  penalty  was  paid.  In  1,681,  he  purchased  of  Chailws 
the  tract  now  called  Pennsylvania,  for  an  acguittance  of  sixteen  thou- 
-rind  pounds  due  to  his  father  ;  and  soon  after,  he  obtained  from  the 
iliike  of  York  a  conveyance  of  the  town  of  New-Caslle,  with  the 
cvnintry  which  now  forms  the  state  of  Delaware.  The  fii-st  co!(.ny, 
who  were  chiefly  of  his  own  sect,  began  their  settlement  above  the 
confluence  of  the  Schuylkill  and  Delaware  rivers.  In  August,  1,6^'^, 
ibi^  amiable  man  embarked,  with  about  two  thousand  emigrants,  aixl 
in  October,  arrived  in  the  Delaware.  Besides  his  own  people,  ]j«» 
\\:vi  aided  in  the  first  settlement  by  Swedes,  Dutch,  Finlanders,  and 
tether  English.  The  first  legislative  assembly  was  held  at  Chr^ter.  nl 
tint  time  called  Upland.  Among  the  first  laws  was  one  which  d- 
clared  "  that  none,  acknowledging^  one  God,  and  living  pcattiilily  ii> 
<  ^ciety,  should  be  molested  for  his  ojiinions  or  his  practice  ;  nor  I  «.• 
compelled  to  frequent  or  maintain  any  ministry  whatever."  Phila»i(  !- 
f 'hia  was  begun  in  1,683  ;  and  in  1,699,  it  contained  seven  huiidn  .1 
houses,  and  about  four  thousand  inhabitants.  Durir«  the  first  seven' y 
years  of  this  settlement,  no  instance  occurred  of  the  Indians  kil!:ii; 
unanned  people.  The  wise  and  good  man,  Penn,  made  every  v\(  r- 
tioii  and  sacrifice  to  promote  the  peace  and  prosperity  of  his  favciiri'..' 
ojlonv  ;  and  between  the  persecution  he  had  to  encounter  in  Eni^!.  1 1 
.ind  the  difficulties  in  Pennsylvania,  his  life  ^vas  a  continued  scene  n 
vexation — bis  private  fortune  was  materially  iniured  by  the  aclvanci  is 
lie  made— be  was  harassed  by  bis  creditors,  and  obliged  to  undeigo  a 
I  einporaiy  deprivation  of  his  personal  liberty.  He  died  in  London,  in 
1,710,  leaving  an  inheritance  to  his  children,  ultimately  of  immense 
value,  which  they  enjoyed  until  the  revolution,  when  it  was  assignt  d 
to  the  conunoDwealth  (or  an  equitable  sum  of  money.  In  the  interval 
l^tween  1,730  and  the  war  of  the  revolution,  in  this  state,  there  wa5  a 
freat  iiflux  of  emigrants,  principally  from  Germany  and  Ireland  ;  atui 
tbese  j^eopfe  early  brought  the  useful  arts  and  manufactures  into  Peiui- 
sjiraoMu  To  the  Germans,  she  is  indebted  for  the  spinning  and 
weaving  oi  troen  and  woollen  cloths ;  to  the  Irish,  for  varioui  tradw 
Ipdiipeaiable  to  useful  agriculture. 

Oo« 

-Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


438  UNITED  STATES. 

24.  Delaware  was  hrst  settled  in  1,627,  by  the  Swedes  and  Fin- 
landers,  and  the  colony  bore  the  name  of  New-Sweden.  It  was 
afterwards  conquered  by  the  Dutch  from  New-York,  and  remained 
«ubser>'ient  to  that  colony  until  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
finglish. 

26.  Georgia  was  the  last  settled  of  the  thirteen  colonies  that  re- 
volted  from  Britain.  It  received  its  name  from  GeoiKe  II.  In 
November,  1,732,  one  hundred  and  sixteen  persons  enobarked  at 
Gravesrnd,  under  general  Oglethorpe  ;  and  early  in  the  ensuing  year 
arrived  at  Charleston.  Froin  this  port  they  proceeded  to  their  destin- 
ed territory,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  Savannah.  The  Spanianis 
laid  claim  to  this  territory,  and  made  extensive  preparations  to  attack 
it.  But  through  the  finesse  of  Oglethorpe  in  practising  an  innoce>.i 
<leceptic  n,  then*  plans  were  defeated.  For  many  years,  this  settle- 
ment lai^i:uished  from  a  variety  of  causes.  General  Oglethorpe  wa* 
distingui^^hed  as  a  soldier,  a  statesman,  and  a  philanthropist.  At  the 
beginning:  of  the  American  revolution,  he  was  oflered  the  command  of 
the  Brili-h  army  in  America,  but  this  from  principle  he  decUned. 
After  the  contest  was  decided,  he  died  at  the  age  of  ninety-jevtu 
years,  be  ing  the  oldest  general  in  the  British  service. 


SECTION  IV. 

WAR    WITH    FRANCE,    AND    CONQUEST    OF    CANADA.    DIS- 
rUTF.S  WITH  GREAT   BRITAIN,   AND  WAR  OF  THE  REVO 

LUTION. 

1.  Nearly  coeval  with  the  first  English  settlement  at  James  Town, 
in  Virginia,  was  the  establishment  of  a  French  colony  at  Qpebec.  ofi 
the  great  river  St.  Lawrence.  The  question  of  boundary  between 
England  Phd  France,  had  long  been  a  subject  of  unavailing:  negoti;*- 
tion.  France,  beside  having  Canada  in  the  nortli,  had  also  di^covertil 
a/»<i  settled  on  Missis- ij'pi  in  the  south  ;  and  in  1,753,  she  strove,  by  .» 
militaiy  chain,  the  links  of  which  were  to  be  formed  by  outpn^i-'i 
stretching  aloiig  the  Ohio  and  the  lakes,  to  connect  these  two  exlnn- 
ities,  and  thus  restrain  the  British  colonists  to  a  small  territoiy  on  t!> 
Atlantic  octnn,  if  not  entirely  expel  them  from  the  countiy.  T... 
question  of*  jurisdiction  remained  to  be  decided  by  the  sword,  lu- 
peatod  complaints  of  violence  having  come  to  the  ears  of  the  goverr*  - 
of  Viiginia,  he  detemjined  to  send  a  suitable  person  to  the  frcut  :> 
commandant  at  fcut  Du  Quesne,  (now  Pittsburgh,)  demaixiing  t!.<« 
reasun  of  his  hostile  proceedings,  and  insisting  that  he  should  evncu  .'^ 
the  fort  which  he  had  recently  erected.  For  this  arduous  undertakir^ 
(ieoi-ge  Wahhi!i*»lon,  a  mnior  of  militia,  then  little  more  than  twcnt)- 
one  years  of  .'  j;e,  otic* red  his  ser\'ices.  The  execution  of  tlj»  t  ♦'.. 
seems  to  have  hiLii  acc()n)pli>hed  with  all  that  prudence  and  coun-^i' 
which  were  so  eminently-  displayed  by  this  hero  in  afterlife.  A 
imminent  peril,  beiu^  waylaid  and  fired  at  by  Indians,  he  not  otiU 
faithfully  accon;pli.she(l  the  errand  on  which  be  had  been  sent,  btl; 
gained  extensive  information  of  the  distances  and  bearings  of  pjaci^. 
aiid  of  the  number,  size,  and  strength  of  nearly  all  the  enemy  s 
fortresses. 

8.  The  reply  of  the  French  commander  brought  matters  to  a  crise; 
and  in  1,764,  the  Virginian  assembly  oiiganized  a  regiment,  to  mpport 


yGoogk 


UNITED  STATES.  430 

the  claims  of  the  English  over  the  territory  in  di^pule  :  of  this  regi- 
ment a  Mr.  Fiy  was  appointed  colonel,  and  the  young  Wa«hineton 
lieutenant  colonel.  Colonel  Fry  dv'ing,  the  command  of  the  whole 
devolved  on  Washington.  The  French  having  been  stixjngly  reir>- 
iurced,  Washington  was  obliged  to  fall  back,  was  attacked  in  works 
uhich  he  had  not  time  to  complete,  ami,  after  a  brave  defence,  wai 
obliged  to  capitulate  ;  the  enemy  allowing  him  to  march  out  with  the 
h<»nuurs  of  war,  and  to  retire  unmolested  to  the  inhabited  parts  ol 
Virginia. 

i.  The  next  year,  1,755,  general  Braddock  was  sent  from  Europe 
to  Virginia,  with  two  regiments,  where  he  was  joined  by  a-s  many 
provincials  as  made  his  force  amount  to  twenty-two  hunditd.  Brad- 
«lock  \\as  a  brave  man,  but  lacked  that  courtesy  which  could  conciliate 
(lie  Americans,  and  that  modesty  which  bhouid  profit  from  the  knowl- 
edge of  tha<e  who  better  knew  the  ground  over  which  he  was  to  \yd9% 
and  the  mode  of  Frcmch  and  Indian  warfare,  than  himself.  He  pu^h- 
im1  on  incautiously,  until,  within  a  few  miks  of  lort  Du  Quelle,  he  fell 
into  an  ambush  of  French  and  Indians.  In  a  short  time,  Washington, 
who  acted  as  aid  to  Braddock,  an<l  who.^e  duty  called  hini  to  be  on 
lMii>eback,  was  the  only  person  mounted  who  was  left  alive,  or  not 
Wounded.  The  van  of  the  army  was  forced  liack,  and  the  wlioie 
t*m»wn  into  confusion.^  The  sianiihtc  r  was  di-eadhil.  Braddock  was 
Mortally  wounded.  What  was  remarkable,  the  pix>\  incial  troops  pro- 
^nvetl  their  order,  and  covered  the  retreat  under  \Va>hington  ;  while 
the  ngukirs  bmkii  their  rank«,  and  could  not  be  rallii-d. 

4.  Thixic  successive  cam})aigns  j)rocured  nolhiiii^  but  expense  and 
•  'is,i|)pointmeijt  to  tlie  En^li-jh.  With  an  interior  tone,  the  French 
I.  \d  succeeded  in  every  campaiu^n  •  an<l  gloomy  apprehension^  v^ere 
.  ritortahied  as  to  the  destiny  of  the  Biili>h  colonies.  But  in  1,756,  a 
olr^ngp  of  mini-tiy  in  England  took  place.  \\  illiam  Pitt  was  placed 
.<t  the  helm.  To  despair,  succeeded  hope  •  and  to  hope,  victoiy. 
Stijjplies  wc^re  granted  >\ilh  liberality,  and  given  without  re  luclanctj; 
-  ^idiei-s  er»li.-trd  iVeely,  and  fousrhl  with  enthusiasm.  In  a  -hort  time, 
tiie  Fn  IK  h  ucrii  dispossessed,  not  only  of  all  the  territerit  •*  in  ili>}^Mte, 
t:ut  ofC^aebM',  and  her  ancient  proviuce  of  Canada  ;  so  that  all  uhicli 
-emaiiied  to  h(  r  ot  her  nuinenjus  settlements  in  North  Aintrica.  was 
>ovv-Orleans.  with  a  few  plantations  on  the  .Mi>yis>ij)i'i.  Full  of 
Aotith  and  spirit,  the  gallant  g<  neral  \S  olte,  who  led  I'ne  iMuopean  and 
i  o!t>Mi.d  tifjops  to  >ictory,  fell  beibro  the  w.ill.^  of  tinebtc,  in  the 
inouientof  Micce>s.  In  1,762,  lu>stiiities  ha\ing  raut  d  nearly  eiirlit 
yi'.«r»,  a  geiural  neace  was  concluded  :  Fnuice  cedetl  Canada,  and 
^j>'un  relmipji-jhed,  as  the  price  of  recovering  Havana.  '\Aljirh  bad 
».vrn  taken  by  the  Brili>h,  both  the  Floridas  to  Great  Britain. 

5.  Allliou*^!!  the  American  colonies  had  principally  contributed  tX) 
»*'"  f,^reat  evten-ion  of  the  power  of  Great  Biitain,  co-operating  with 
T  ■-'  vij^ilance  ai  more  than  lour  hundred  cruisers  on  the  ?ea,  and 
:  -iJii^hnrj;  more  than  twenty-four  thousand  soldiers;  yet  the  latter  re- 
J  wded  her  plantalioiLs  as  mere  ia»^trumeiits  in  her  hands.  On  the 
.  orilrar>\  the  hii;h  sentiments  of  lU/erly  and  independence  nurtured  in 
I  he  colonies  fn>in  their  local  situation  and  habits,  were  increased  by 
the  removal  of  hostile  nei^^hbours.  Ideas  favourable  to  independence 
increased:  and  whibt  combu>tibIe  materials  weru  collecting  in  this 
iiew  world,  a  brand  to  enkindle  them  was  preparing  in  the  old. 

6.  If]  1 ,765,  under  tlie  auspices  of  the  minister,  Geoige  Grenville, 
the  obnoxious  stamp  act  passed  in  the  British  parliament ;  by  which 
ibc  instnuntnts  of  writing  in  daily  use  were  to  be  null  and  voia,  unlets 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


440  UNITED  STATES.     . 

executed  on  paper  or  parchment  stamped  with  a  specific  duty :  }&\i 
documents,  leases,  deeds,  and  indentures,  newspapers  and  advertise- 
ments, almanacs  and  pamphlets,  executed  and  printed  in  America- 
all  must  contribute  to  the  British  treasury.  The  bill  did  not  p:t59 
without  the  decided  opposition  of  patriots  in  the  British  le^ature. 
who  foretold  the  result,  and  who  declared  that,  the  coiomes  bciij^ 
planted  by  British  oppression,  and  haringr  assisted  the  mother  country, 
tiiat  the  mother  had  no  claim  on  tlie  child  to  derive  from  it  a  revenue 
The  bill  did  not  take  effect  until  seven  months  after  its  pass^^e ;  thus 
giving  the  colonists  an  opportunity  of  leisurely  examining  ana  viewrit^ 
the  subject  on  every  side.  They  were  struck  with  silent  coostenu* 
tion  ;  but  the  voice  of  opposition  was  first  heard  in  Vii^ginia.  Patrick 
Henty,  on  the  20th  of  May,  brought  into  the  house  of  buigesses  Ln 
that  colony  a  number  of  resolutions,  which  were  adopted,  and  which 
concluded  with  declaring,  "  That  every  individual,  who,  by  speakinp 
or  actin?,  should  assert  or  maintain,  that  any  person  or  body  of  mere 
except  the  general  assembly  of  the  province,  had  any  r^t  to  ini{>t?t 
taxation  there,  should  be  deemed  an  enemy  to  his  majesty's  cokK)y." 
These  resolutions  were  ,immediately  disseminated  thnxigb  the  otlier 
provinces  ;  the  tongues  and  the  pens  of  well-informed  men  Jaboun^i 
m  the  holy  cause — the  fire  of  liberty  blazed  forth  from  the  piess.  Thf 
assembly  of  Massachusetts  passed  a  resolution  in  favour  (^a  cootinenul 
congress,  and  fixed  a  day  tor  its  meeting  at  New-Yoric,  in  Oclobt;, 
The  other  colonies,  witn  the  exception  of  four,  accepted  this  inviu- 
tion,  and  assembled  at  the  appointed  place.  Here  tney  agreed  on  i 
declaration  of  their  rights.  There  was,  however,  a  considerable  de- 
gree of  timidity  evinced  in  this  congress.  The  boldest  and  most  iir.- 
press ive  arguments  were  offered  by  James  Otis  of  Massachusetti. 

7.  The  time  arrived  for  the  act  to  take  effect ;  and  the  aversion  to 
it  was  expressed  in  still  stronger  terms  throughout  the  colonies^  By  a 
common  consent,  its  provisions  were  disregarded,  and  business  i>:ii 
conducted,  in  defiance  of  the  parliament,  as  if  no  stamp  act  wa^  In 
exjjstence  :  associations  were  formed  against  importing  British  manu- 
factures until  the  law  should  be  repealed ;  and  lawyers  were  prohib- 
ited from  instituting  any  action  for  money  due  to  anjr  inliabitanl  tt 
England.  The  spiritea  conduct  of  the  colonists,  affecting  the  iDteK">ti 
of  the  British  merchants,  had  the  desired  effect.  Warm  di9c«ssi«u* 
took  place  in  the  British  parliament ,  and  the  ablest  speakers  in  Ik  ) 
houses  denied  the  justice  of  taxing  the  colonies.  The  opposilioB 
could  not  be  withstood  ;  and  in  March,  1,766,  the  few  was  repealed. 

8.  Simultaneously,  however,  with  repealing  this  act,  the  Britisli 
parliament  passed  another,  declaring  that  the  British  parliament  h.vi 
a  right  to  make  laws  binding  the  colonies  in  all  cases  whatever ;  an  i 


ki  its  new  form.  The  best  talents  throughout  the  colonies  wtu 
engaged,  in  tlie  public  prints  and  in  pamphlets,  to  work  up  the  pul  li- 
feeling  against  the  arbitraiy  measures  of  the  British  parliament.  Nt'«« 
associations  were  formed  to  suspend  the  importation  of  British  manu- 
fiactures.  The  Massachusetts  assembly,  havijig  passed  resolutions  h- 
this  effect,  drew  forth  the  marked  .displeasure  of  the  crown  ;  and,  vu 
fheir  refusal  to  cancel  their  resolutions,  were  dissolved. 

9.  In  1,768,  Mr.  Hancock's  sloop  Liberty  was  seized  at  Bostcm,  fff 
lot  entering  all  the  wines  she  had  brought  from  Madeira  :  this  tnfiameo 
Hm  populace  to  a  high  degree  of  resentment*    Soon  afterwaids,  tnp 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


UNITED  STATES.  441 

Hritish  legiments,  and  some  armed  vessels,  were  sent  to  Boston,  to 
assist  the  revenue  officers.  The  parliament,  encouraged  by  the  ex- 
(K-ctation  of  quelling  the  refractory  by  their  arms,  continued  to  dis- 
Mjlve  the  opposing  assemblies  ;  but  the  colonies  remained  firm  in  their 
purposes. 

10.  Lord  North  succeeded  the  duke  of  Grafton,  as  British  premier 
in  1,770  ;  and  the  act  was  repealed  imposing  a  duty  on  glass,  pap<?», 
nnd  painters'  colours  ;  but  that  on  tea  was  retained.  Some  sltglit 
prospect  of  allaying  the  difficulties  succeeded.  But  on  the  secorul  of 
^Iarch  an  afiray  took  place  in  Boston,  between  a  private  soldier  nnd 
nn  inhabitant.  This  was  succeeded,  in  a  few  days  aftenvards,  by  a 
mob  meeting  a  party  of  British  soldiers  under  arms,  who  were  dared 
to  fire,  and  who  at  lengtli  did  fire,  and  killed  five  persons.  The  ca}»- 
•;iin  who  commanded,  and  the  troops  who  fired,  were  alterwards  tried 
I..T  murder,  and  acquitted. 

XI.  Things  continued  in  this  mode  of  parti;;!  irritation  until  1,773, 
%\Iien  the  Britfeh  East  India  company  were  authorized  to  export  tluir 
*L.i  to  al!  places,  iVec  of  duty.  As  this  wouhi  enable  them  to  <;ell  th  tt 
.  .tide  clicapt^r  in  America,  with  the  govermncnt  exactions,  tlmn  tl.er 
{.  til  before  S(»ld  it  without  them,  it  was  confidently  calculated  that  \cS* 
•'  iicht  be  extensively  disposed  of  in  the  colonies.  Larere  con^iyrnrm  iil& 
•  tea  were  sent  tx)  various  parts,  and  agents  appointedfor  its  tli^jpo-rd. 
riie  consiicnees,  in  several  places,  were  compelled  to  rel'nqiji>h  tli(  .r 
.  'ijointn^onts.  Popular  venjreance  prevented  the  landinj;  nt  \c ''> 
\  ♦.rk  or  Fliiladel]>hia.  In  liuston  it  was  otherwihe.  'J'Im*  lea  Tor  {'mi 
-.>l»p!y  of  that  port  was  consigned  to  the  sons  and  particular  frieiuN  »  f 
i'\emoT  HutchinM>n.  The  tea  wns  landed  by  the  strenuous  evrtioib 
.  tlie  governor  an  I  con^i^noes.  Bui  <oor)  a  party  of  men,  div-^-c^'i  ;  •« 
l:.-linnN,  boards i  the  tea  i>hij)S,  broke  o|/en  the  CMiicots.  :ind  threw  htv 
t  "Atvr.U  into  the  se.-i.  Enrasred  n'/ain^t  the  peoplf  of  Ho^lc-n,  ih"  p;  y- 
'  Merit  re-olved  to  take  hi^islitive  ver.ii:rat:ct' on  iIkJ  (!< -.(►ted  t>\Mw 
1  M-re;r:«rdii'j:  the  lo^ns  of  tlie  iJrit'^h  conNiimtion,  by  which  lione  ;!rv 
i  ♦  be  I'uni-hrd  without  trial,  they  p;>»ed  a  hill,  ch»«»friir,  in  a  roiMr..«  :- 
»  .  il  sert^,  its  ])i)rt :  its  cu^^tom  house  and  tr.^'lc  wtrv  sfjun  alter  jr*- 
i.'.ovc-d  to  Sale  n.  The  charter  of  the  col'  ny  was  n'».v  {rioiirllcd,  -o 
♦'  t  th<'  wh.oit*  executive  government  w.5s  tak'-ri  fn»m  the  people,  ;  :i  1 
'.!'•  iv.min.t'jon  to  all  importnit  olfice?  vr>l»'d  in  the  cro^nl  ;  ^nl  it  v. ..«« 
t  :«trlt'd.  ih.'tt  \t  any  person  \\?s  indicted  h)r  any  capital  o(l«.-n(e  co.?>- 
I.  i'.'ed  in  ai.linir  the  nr.gist rales,  he  niiirht  be  >ent  to  Great  Hiiliin  it 
..r.otlier  C">!<.ny  K.r  trial.  Property,  liberty,  arui  life,  were  thus  sul  jcct 
Vi»  uiini^Ii'ii.'l  caprice.  The  f^ailian^nt  went  still  further,  and  pa. -«.-il 
an  act  e\te?,.liM:  the  boui.d.'.ries  of  (.'aruda,  southward  to  the  Dh-o, 
\-.  e^lwai.!.  to  the  M'«-^i'->ip]M,  and  rK»rthward,  to  the  borders  of  tli« 
I  Jud«on\>  b;.y  cr.  'vmy,  a>-iinilaling  its  laws  with  the  French,  ^\hich 
•  'spim^ea  \Mih  lh<*  tnal  by  Jury,  and  rendering  the  inhabitarjts  i>a^siv« 
.-  jrents  in  the  bands  of  innvfr.  ' 

12.  The  flam'.-  w.is  now  kindled  in  e^ery  breist  ;  and  associations 
\\€:ie  formed,  and  comn>itlees  of  correspondence  ueiti  Chlablisbef^ 
v>  hich  protluced  a  unity  of  thou;;ht  and  action  lln'tujrhout  the  colonies. 
*»t-neral  Gcjjre,  the  British  connnander-in-cbief,  arrived  in  Boston,  id 
1,774,  with  more  trK^ps,  with  the  avowed  intention  of  dragooning  tht 
i-efractoiy  Boston i,^ns  into  compliance.  A  t^t^ieixil  sympathy  was 
excited  for  the  sutfenng  inhabitants  of  Boston  :  adtlresse^  poured  in 
trum  all  quarters ;  Marolehead  offiered  to  the  Boston  merchants  tfa» 
vae  of  her  whar\*es,  and  Salem  refused  to  adopt  the  trade,  the  o£fer  of 
fvhicb  had  been  proflRered  as  a  temptation  to  her  cupidity^    Afibin 

56 

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442  UNITED  STATES 

jrapidly  approached  a  crisis.  The  preparations  foi  ofience  and  defence. 
induced  general  Gage  to  fortify  Boston,  and  to  seize  on  the  powdeT 
lodged  at  the  arsenal  at  CharlestowTi. 

13.  In  September,  deputies  from  most  of  the  colonies  met  in  con- 
gress, at  PhiJadelphia.  These  delegates  approved  of  the  coDdud  of 
the  people  of  Massachusetts ;  wrote  a  letter  to  general  Gage  ;  pub- 
lished a  declaration  of  rights  ;  formed  an  association  not  to  import  or 
use  British  goods  ;  sent  a  petition  to  the  king  of  Great  Britain  ;  aL 
address  to  the  inhabitants  ot  that  kingdom  ;  another  to  the  inhabilaiib 
of  Canada ;  and  another  to  the  inhabitants  ot  the  colonies.  In  xhf 
lieginning  of  the  next  year,  (1,775,)  was  passed  the  Jisiiery  biU^  \~ 
which  the  northern  colonies  were  forbidden  to  fish  on  the  banks  «i 
Newfoundland  for  a  certain  time.  This  bore  hard  upon  the  conimerc»' 
of  tliese  colonies,  which  was  in  a  great  measure  supported  by  ti:e 
fishery. 

14.  Soon  after,  another  bill  was  passed,  which  restrained  the  trarir 
of  the  middle  and  southern  colonies  to  Gi^at  Britain,  Ireland,  and  tht' 
West  Indies,  except  under  certain  conditions.  These  repeated  act' 
of  oppression  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain,  alienated  the  affectioa^^  t.) 
America  from  her  parent  and  sovereig"n,  and  produced  a  combirnd 
opposition  to  the  wliule  system  of  taxation.  Preparations  began  to  bt 
made  to  oppose  by  lurce  the  execution  of  these  acts  of  parliamenl 
The  militia  of  the  country  were  trained  to  the  use  of  arms — gn*::r 
encouragement  was  gi\en  to  the  manufacture  of  gunpouiier,  b\,i, 
measures  were  taken  to  obtain  all  kinds  of  mil itar\' stores. 

15.  In  Febniaiy,  colonel  Leslie  was  sent  with  a  detachment  *.' 
troops  from  Boston,  to  take  pn^sossion  of  some  cannon  at  Salem.  E.;: 
the  people  had  iiitellifrcuce  o<  the  desi^r, — took  uj>  the  drawbridge  ir. 
that  town,  and  prevented  the  troops  tVom  passing:,  until  the  camu  i» 
were  secured  ;  so  that  liic  expedition  failed.  In  April,  colonel  Smiiii 
and  major  Pitcairn  Avero  sent  with  a  body  of  tmops,  to  destroy  l!:;? 
mih'tar}'  stores  which  had  Leen  collected  at  Concord,  about  t^^^en-j 
miles  iVoin  Boston.  At  LeAin'j:ton  the  militia  were  collected  on  a 
green,  to  oppose  the  incur- ion  ol"  the  British  Ibrces.  These  were  fin-u 
upon  by  the  British  troo]!s.  and  ei{?,ht  men  killed  on  the  spot. 

16.  The  militia  wore  dispersed,  and  the  tnnjps  pmceeded  to  Co*:- 
conl ;  where  they  destroyed  a  tew  stores.  But  on  their  return  lb<y 
were  incessantly  harassed  by  the  Americans,  who,  inflamed  withbfl 
resentment,  iircd  upon  ihem  iVom  houses  and  fences,  and  pursued  [uvm 
to  Boston.  Here  was  spilt  {he first  blood  in  the  war  which  severed 
America  from  the  British  empire.  Lexington  op^ied  the  first  seen*- 
y){  the  great  drama,  whieh,  in  its  progress,  exhibited  the  most  iDu-itn- 
ous  characters  and  events,  and  closed  with  a  revolution,  equsJ'y 
glorious  for  the  actors,  and  important  m  its  consequences  to  the  huniaji 
race.  This  battle  roused  all  America.  The  militia  collected  frtm 
all  quarl^Lji-s,  and  Boston  was  in  a  few  days  besieged  by  tiventy  thou- 
sand men.  A  stop  was  put  to  all  intercourse  between  the  town  and 
country,  and  the  inhabitants  were  reduced  to  great  want  of  provisions. 
General  Gage  promised  to  let  tixi  j^cople  depart,  if  they  would  deliver 
up  their  arms.  Tlie  people  roni]»lied  ;  but  wheu  the  general  had 
obtained  their  arms,  the  perfidious  wretch  refused  to  let  the  people  go, 

17.  In  the  mean  time,  a  small  nmnber  of  men,  under  the  command 
of  colonel  Allen  and  colonel  Kaston,  without  any  public  orders,  sur- 
prised and  took  the  British  garrison  at  Ticonderoga,  without  the  k»s 
of  a  man. 

18.  In  June  foUowirig,  our  troops  attempted  to  fortify  Bunker's  faii^ 

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UNITED  STATES.  443 

^hich  lies  in  Charlestown,  and  but  a  mile  ami  a  half  from  Boston. 
Thoy  hail,  during  tho  nit(ht,  tbro^vn  up  a  small  breastwork,  which 
>h»,'ltert*d  ihciu  from  the  fire  of  the  Biitis>h  camion.  But  tin*  next 
nMniinir,  the  British  anny  was  sent  to  drivo  th(;ni  from  the  hill  ;  and 
:.'ti  lii.4  uiidtT  cover  of  their  cannon,  they  set  fne  to  Clijrh'>tonn,  wiijch 
w.is  coii^uined,  and  marched  to  attack  ourtr()f)i)s  in  tlie  eritrencli.iu:nt>. 
\  ^cNt-re  enirii'.^ffnpiit  ensued,  in  which  thc^  hriti^h  sulTcnil  a  \it>- 
cr»Mt  In-^,  boil)  of  ollicers  and  privates.  'I'liey  were  icpuNed  ,it  tijst, 
:.nd  tun)\\n  into  disorder  ;  hut  th«^y  linnlly  carrit'«i  the  f.rti'ii  Mlir.n 
ufth  the  [Hiirjt  ot'  the  bayonet.  'I'hr  Americans  sutferr d  a  sin-^.il  li>ss 
i  o'iip.!rrd  \vi'ii)  \\ii]  l>riti>l» ;  but  thf  death  of  the  brave  geiu  nil  W.irren, 
^•.  h«»  I<-ll  in  the  action,  a  martyr  to  the  cau'-c  ol  his  countiy,  wa^  M,*vci-e- 
ty  lell  and  univervniiy  lamented. 

I'J.  About  thi.'s  ti^iie,  the  continental  conirrefs  apfxiintcd  (ieor^e 
''y..w),i,mi«.u,  i-^q.  to  the  chief  command  of  the  contineiitid  nrmy, 
'J'n  -  i:»-ri(leman  had  been  a  distlr^i^ui-hed  ai.d  surce^-lul  i'*H''er  in  the 
I  ♦•re.ii/i:r  unr,  and  lie  Kemrd  de-lined  IjV  Ib'avi  n  to  f/e  {\>v  sa\  i^.ui 
oi  'u\<  ciuji.lry.  ile  accepted  tin*  appointment  uith  a  dilfi  h  \h  e  «iiich 
'A.is  a  pri»ot  of  his  y^rudence  and  his  {j^rcatin-^^.  lie  relived  •»ry  pay 
t  r  ei'^hl  ytiirs'  l.iboiious  and  arduous  sL'r\  ice  ;  ami  by  h':  mit(  hi*  4 
>\jll,  toi'itude,  and  p<*r-evcrance,  coUvliiclevl  Ameiicn,'  tluuuiih  inde- 
vi  nbahie  d::ii«-uUie>,  to  independence  and  tumci*.  Wliije  true  uiwit  i« 
«-v-t»'emc  1,  «»r  viiiuf  htinoureci,  nnnkind  will  neviT  c<:ise  to  it  >(•:♦•  the 
i!\.Mnory  ca  i!ii^  l.e:o:  and  nliile  errpfiliidc  ir'eains  ju  tlic  human 
brea-t,  the  prai-es  ()f  W.vsmNcJToN  shall  i'\\\vi\  on  evt-ry  Au'.crlcan 

'in.  Uen^-ral  W'l^-hiiicjion.  wi:h  f»ther  olTicer^  a;'T^uli.t<d  by  coinire*'?, 
^r*i\ed  ai  Canibri(!;re,  and  t«K>k  conimand  oi  tlif  AKa-iic'i  .'Tmy  in 
J'lly.  Fmm  (bis  time,  the  alfnr-  of  A-nerica  bitran  \o  a^-n.'a:' the 
-  '  [•«•:« nmce  of  a  regular  and  general  opposition  to  llie  furct.-  ol'  (urat 
i;''it.iin. 

^1.  In  autupin,  a  bo«iy  of  tn'K>}>'^,  un»!er  tho  couMuand  v\  l*^<  r.rr-d 
/•Ton*2:omeiy,  Ix'-iej^ed  and  took  tin?  li^arriMiu  ,"t  St.  Johif-.  u'ni(h 
C'tnnnand^  the  eiilrance  into  (Canada.  T'lw  ]»r!-«>':«  i-s  ani'iuileti  to 
a^  out  St*  \«u  Imtidred.  Creneral  iMontironnMV  [nn-u^'l  hi>  s':r  < .  -,  and 
to  jk  Moiitri'.d,  and  (!e"^iG:ned  to  pu-.h  his  \  icioriv-s  to  i^a*  !'ec.  A  bo'iy 
r.f  tHHip-,  co'nmandf'd  l)y  Arnold,  was  onlf-red  to  march  to  ('.'na<ia, 
'  y  the  livcr^Kt'unebec,  and  thi-otijrh  the  wiId<Mne^>.  Aiier  fti'liiini^ 
^".  Hjy  har-i'-Itip,  and  tlu^  mo^st  distrf'^-irr^  h:mL,cr,  thrv  a]ri\ed  in 
^*-!i;ida,  and  were  joined  by  general  Ab»ni;rom»*r>',  before  i-{i:**bcM- 
'J  fus  city,  uliich  was  commaU'led  by  pnernor  (' tIi  ton,  wa-^  injux- 
ijiite'y  b"«-I('^i<l.  But  lli'Te  ljt;i:)'Z  little  hope  of  t.tkinj;  the  tuwn  by 
•  >ieue,  it  uaw  di'tf-imiiK'd  to  storm  it.  The  atlnck  wa<  nia<Ie  ('U  the 
(  *-^t  day  of  Decembei,  but  proved  nnsucces«jfnl,  and  lata!  to  die  hrave 
."fiicrai,  who,  with  his  aiti,  was  kilb*d  in  att«*mj)tin2:  to  scait  the  ual!?, 
<  >f  the  ti*ree  divi^ion^  which  attacked  the  toun,  one  only  enl»)*  d,  and 
tJi.it  was  compelled  to  surrender  to  superior  force.  After  tin-  deffat, 
AmoldjWho  now  commanded  the  tnv^ps,  continm  d  some  monlh>  beu.re 
C|^ebec,  although  his  troop>  sulfered  incrediblv  by  cold  and  5ickr.<  ;»s. 
f)yt  the  next  spring:  the  Americans  were  ot»lit^c({  to  retreat  from  Canada. 

42.  About  this  time  the  lai-ire  and  flouri^hins:  toivn  of  Norfolk,  in 
Viii^inia,  was  wantonly  bunit  by  order  of  lord  Duntnore,  the  royal 
^ovemor.  Genera)  Ga?e  went  to  England  in  September,  and  was- 
succeeded  in  conunand  oy  genera)  Howe.  Falmouth,  a  considerable 
towD  in  the  province  of  Maine,  in  Massachusetts,  shared  the  fate  of. 
tioiUk ;.  being  laid  in  a.slies  bj  onler  of  the  BriUsh  adminL 


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♦44  UNITED  STATES. 

t3.  The  British  klvg  entered  into  treaties  with  s:  me  of  the  Gemtti 
princes  for  about  seventeen  thousand  men.  who  were  to  be  sent  to 
America  the  next  year,  to  assist  in  subduing:  the  colonies.  The  British 
parliament  also  passed  an  act,  forbiddii^  all  intercourse  with  America; 
and  while  the^  repealed  the  boston  port  and  fishery  bills,  they  declar- 
ed all  American  property  on  the  hie^h  seas  forfeited  to  the  capton. 
This  act  mduced  con^ss  to  chang^e  the  mode  of  carryipg  on  the  war ; 
and  measures  were  taken  to  annoy  the  enemy  in  Ebston.  For  this 
purpose,  batteries  were  opened  on  several  hills,  from  whence  shot  and 
oombs  were  thrown  into  the  town.  Rut  the  batteries  which  were 
opened  on  Dorchester  point  had  the  best  effect,  and  soon  obliged 
general  Howe  to  abanaon  the  town.  In  March,  1,776,  the  Britisb 
troops  embarked  fur  Halifax,  and  general  Washii^on  entered  tbe 
town  in  triumph. 

24.  In  the  ensuing  summer,  a  small  squadron  of  ships,  under  the 
command  of  sir  Peter  Parker,  and  a  body  of  troops  under  the  gene 
rals  Clinton  aiKl  Comwallis,  attempted  to  take  Charleston,  the  capital 
of  South  Carolina.  The  ships  made  a  violent  attack  upon  the  fort  on 
Sullivan's  island,  but  were  repulsed  with  great  loss,  and  the  expedition 
was  abandoned. 

55.  In  July,  congress  publislied  their  declaration  of  independence, 
whicii  for  ever  separated  America  from  Great  Britain.  This  great 
event  took  place  two  hundred  and  eighty-four  years  after  the  first  dis- 
covery of  America  by  Columbus — one  hundred  and  seventy  from  tbe 
first  eflectual  settlements  in  Virginia — and  one  hundred  and  fifty-six 
from  the  first  settlement  of  Plymouth  in  Massachusetts,  which  were 
the  earliest  Englisti  settlements  in  America.  Just  after  this  declara- 
tion, general  Howe,  with  a  powerful  force,  arrived  near  New- York, 
and  landed  the  troops  upon  Staten  Island.  General  Washington  was 
in  New- York,  with  about  tliirteen  thousand  men,  encamped  either  in 
the  citjr,  or  in  the  neighbourine:  fortifications. 

56.  riic  operations  of  the  BriliJ^li  began  by  tbe  action  on  Long 
IfcJand,  in  the  month  of  August,  The  Americans  were  defeated,  and 
general  Sullivan  and  lord  Sterling,  with  a  large  body  of  men,  weie 
made  ])ris.»ners.  The  night  after  the  engagement,  a  retreat  was 
ordered,  :ind  executed  with  such  silence,  that  the  Americans  left  the 
isLuid  nitliout  alarmino;  their  enemies,  and  without  loss.  In  Seplem- 
hor.  ihe  city  of  New- York  was  abandoned  by  the  American  army,  and 
Uiken  l>y  tlie  British. 

27.  In  November,  fort  Washirerton,  on  York  Island,  was  taken,  and 
more  than  two  thousand  men  made  prisoners.  Fort  Lee,  opp<isite  to 
fort  Washinj^ton,  on  the  Jersey  shore,  was  soon  after  taken,  but  ihe 
garrison  escaped.  About  the  ^ame  time,  general  Clinton  was  sen:» 
w  ith  a  body  ol  troops,  to  take  possession  of  Rhode  Island,  and  sue- 
ceefi<'d.  In  addition  to  all  these  losses  and  defeats,  the  American 
anil}*  srffered  by  desertion,  and  more  by  sickness,  which  was  epidemic, 
and  veiy  mortal. 

2{{  The  northern  army,  at  Ticonderoga,  was  in  a  disagreeable 
situation,  particularly  after  the  lj;:(lie  on  lake  Champlain,  in  which  the 
American  force,  consisting  of  a  tew  light  vessels,  under  the  comm;aod 
of  Arnold  and  general  Waterbury ,  was  totally  dispersed.  But  general 
Carleton,  instead  of  pursuing  his  victory,  landed  at  Crown  Pomt,  w- 
coonoitered  our  posts  at  Ticonderoga  and  Mount  Independence^  and 
wtunied  to  winter  quarters  in  Canada. 

29.  At  the  close  of  this  year,  the  American  army  was  dwiodbd  to  A 
^Mkadiul  of  men ;  and  general  Lee  was  taken  prispner  in  New-J«j»ej. 

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UNITED  STATES.  445 

Far  fimn  hewg.  discouraged  at  these  losses,  congress  took  measures  fr 
raise  and  establish  an  army.  In  this  critical  situation,  general  Wash- 
ington surprised  and  took  a  large  body  of  Hessians,  wix>  were  cantox>- 
ed  at  Trentcm:  and  soon  after,  another  body  of  the  British  troops,  at 
Princeton.  Toe  address  in  planning  and  executing  these  enterprisee, 
reflected  the  hi^est  honour  on  the  commander,  and  the  success  reviv* 
ed  the  desponding  hopes  of  America.  The  loss  of  general  Mereer,  a 
gallant  officer,  at  Princeton,  was  the  principal  circumstance  that  allay- 
ed the  joy  of  victory. 

30.  The  following  year,  (1,777,)  was  distinguished  by  very  mcmo- 
mble  events  in  favour  of  America.  On  the  opening  of  the  campaign* 
trovcroor  Tiyon  was  sent,  with  a  body  of  troops,  to  destroy  the  stores 
at  Danbury,  in  Connecticut.  This  plan  was  executed,  and  the  town 
mostly  burnt.  The  enemy  suffered  in  their  retreat,  and  the  Americans 
}c«?t  general  Wooster,  a  brave  and  experienced  officer.  General  Pre?*- 
cott  was  taken  from  his  quarters  on  Rhode  Island,  by  the  address  and 

•  nterprise  of  colonel  Barton,  and  conveyed  prisoner  to  the  continent. 
Cm  neral  Buigoyne,  who  commanded  the  northern  British  amy,  took 
jK».*session  ofxiconderoga,  which  had  been  abandoned  by  (he  Ameri- 
c.ins.  He  pushed  his  successes,  crossed  lake  George,  and  encan){>ed 
(i|Kin  the  banks  of  the  Hudson,  near  Saratoga.  His  pro^i^s  )vas 
J.owever  checked  by  the  defeat  of  colonel  Baum,  near  Bennington,  in 
which  the  undisciplined  militia  of  Vermont,  under  general  Stark,  ai»- 
f 'j'aycd  unexampled  bravery,  and  captured  almost  the  whole  detach- 
ivent.  The  militia  assembled  from  all  parts  of  New-England,  to  stop 
»lje  progress  of  general  Buigojme.  These,  with  the  regular  troop5, 
fomied  a  respectable  army,  commanded  by  general  Gatrs.  Alter 
ruo  severe  actions,  in  which  the  generals  Lincoln  and  Arnold,  behaved 
^\  ith  uncommon  gallantly,  and  were  wounded,  general  Burgoyne  found 
.'i.inself  enclosed  with  brave  troops,  and  was  forced  to  surrender  his 
.'.  liole  anny,  amounting  to  seven  tnousand  men,  into  the  linmLs  of  »Ho 
Aiuericaas.  This  happened  in  October.  This  event  diffused  a  uni- 
,  t  rral  joy  over  America,  and  laid  a  foundation  for  the  trealy  with 
France. 

31.  But  before  these   transactions,  the  main  body  of  the  British 

.  .rces  had  embarked  at  New- York,  sailed  up  the  Chr>npeakc,  oikI 

.    udod  at  the  head  of  Elk  river.     The  army  boon  hc^un  Uicir  march 

•••r   Philadelphia.     General  Washington  had  dctormincd  to  oppose 

'.•••m,  and  for  this  purpose  made  a  stand  upon  the  luitrlits  near  Brandy* 

\.  ,'fK»  creek.     Here  the  armies  onsraged,  and  the  Anif  rlrnns  wore  ovcr- 

.wfTcd,  nnd  suffered  jrrcat  !o>s.     The  cnriny  f.nri  |  ui>utMl  tiieir 

itch,  and  t<K)k  possession  of  Philadelphia  to\v-ir«!>^  ri.o  cln^o  of  Sep- 

.  il>er.     Not  long  alter,  the  two  annlcs  were  r^.iin  ( i.'<;  ir»  d  rt  (j^t- 

T.town,  and  in  the  hfgimmis:  of  the  action  l!ie  Anu-ricnnv  had  the 

S^'ntacre  ;  but  by  some  unlucky  accident,  the  fortune  <»f  tlie  day 

• '     -  liiriK'd  in  favour  of  the  British.     Both  side«  suffered  con5ideral>fe 

*-  :  on  the  side  of  the  Americans  was  p:enor4l  Nai>h. 

2.   Jn  an  attack  upon  the  forts  at  Mud  Island  and  Hod  Bank,  the 
'  f    ->ians  were  unsuccessful,  and  their  commander,  colonel  Donop, 

•  ilrd.  The  British  also  lost  the  Augusta.  ii  ship  of  the  line.  But 
\%^  forts  were  afterwards  taken,  and  the  navigation  of  the  Delawair 
•Toned.  General  Washington  was  reinforced  with  part  of  the  troopt 
\  hicfa  had  composed  the  nortbem  army,  under  general  Gates :  aiid 
•ritb  armies  retired  to  winter  quarters. 

33.  In  October,  the  same  month  io  which  general  Buigoyiie  WM 
ijiceo  at  Santc«;a,  general  Vau^aD^  with  a^  small  4eet,  sailed  Uf 

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446  UNITED  STATES 

Hudson's  river,  and  wantonly  burnt  Kir^ton,  a  beautiful  Dutch  settle 
ment,  on  the  west  side  of  the  river. 

34.  The  beginning  of  the  next  year  f  1,778)  was  distinguished  by  k 
treaty  of  alliance  between  France  and  America  ;  by  which  we  oblruih 
ed  a  powerful  ally.  When  the  English  ministry  were  informed  ibrit 
this  treaty  was  on  foot,  they  despatched  commissioners  to  Americ:^. 
to  attempt  a  reconciliation.  But  America  would  not  now  accept  tli-.i 
offers.  Early  in  the  spring,  count  de  Estaing,  with  a  fleet  ol  hiUr: 
sail  of  the  line,  was  sent  by  the  court  of  France  to  assist  America. 

35.  General  Hone  left  the  army,  and  returned  to  England ;  ih»- 
command  then  devolved  upon  sir  Ihuiy  Clinton.  In  June^  the  Biiih'i 
army  left  Philndeli^hia,  and  nia relied  for  New- York.  On  their  w..-:^:. 
the}'  were  much  annoyed  by  the  Americans ;  and  at  Mcnimouth  a  vipr 
regular  action  took  place  between  part  oi'  the  armies ;  the  enemy  ^\'r^r 
repulsed  with  great  loss  ;  and  had  general  Lee  obeyed  his  orei»i-.  - 
signal  victoiy  must  have  })cen  obtained.  General  Lee,  for  his  ill  (■  r- 
duct  that  day,  was  suspended,  and  was  never  allerwaixis  permillel  i 
join  the  army. 

u6.  In  August,  general  Sullivan,  with  a  large  body  of  troops,  :;t- 
tempted  to  take  possession  of  lihode  l.^laml,  bi:t  did  not  succui 
Soon  after,  the  slorcs  and  shippinir  at  indlord,  in  Massncliuselts,  u*  :t 
burnt  by  a  parfy  of  British  troops.  The  same  year,  Savannah,  iir 
capital  ot'  (i('<  ii'^ia,  was  taken  by  the  l^ritl^h,  under  the  comir;a:jvi  < : 
Cotom^l  Canipbell.  In  the  tollowii^g  year,  (1,779,)  gcDend  Lirc'  r 
was  appoi!)ted  to  the  co!nman<i  of  the  southern  army.  Goui!  : 
Tryon  and  sir  George  Collier  made  an  incursion  into  ConrKcli  'i! 
and  bunit,  with  wanton  barbarity,  the  towns  of  Fairfiekl  and  Nor.- :  v 

ol.  But   the   American  arms  were  cn^wned  with  success  in  a  •  - 
attack  upon  Ston}^  Point,  which  was  surpri.^ed  antl  taken  by  ge;-- 
Wayne,  in  the  nicrht  of  tin;  15th  of  Jnly.     Five  bundled  r.ien  \'.' 
made  ])risoners,  Avith  a  small  loss  on  eiti^er  side.     A  party  of  Br" 
luixres  attempted,  this  suni.in<'r,  to  build  a  fort  on  Penobscot  river.  : 
tiie  purpose  of  cutting  timber  in  the  nei^hi^DuriiiLC  forests.     A  plan  w:..- 
mid,  by  Mas'^achusetls,  to  (b'>lo»!Lfe  tliei!),  and  a  considerable  n«*et  •:.  1- 
lected  tor  the  purpose.     But  the  pl.Mi  fiiied  (/f  sucre.><^,  and  the  v.h  • 
marine  force  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British,  except  some  ve-~^S. 
which  were  })urnt  by  the  Americans  then^.-elves. 

3{J,  In  October,  general  Lincoln  and  count  dc*  Eslaing  mink  ;n 
assault  upon  Savannah;  l>ut  they  were  repul.-ed  with  consider:  ..<: 
hrts.     In  this  action,  the  celebrated  Polish  count  Polaski,  who  h'  i :.  "- 

auired  the  reputation  of  a  brave  soldier,  was  mortally  wounded.  I' 
lis  summer,  general  Sullivan  marched,  with  a  body  of  troops,  »' '. 
the  Indian  countiT,  and  burnt  and  destroyed  all  tlieir  provisioits  ai.i 
settlements  that  fell  in  his  way. 

39.  On  the  opening  of  the  campaign,  the  next  year,  (1,780,)  tlx 
British  troops  left  Rhode  Island.  An  expedition  imder  general  Cint- 
ton  and  lord  Cornwallis,  was  undertaken  against  Charleston,  Sf  u:?i 
Carolina,  where  general  Lincoln  commanded.  This  to\vn,  after  a  cltr^ 
siege  of  about  six  weeks,  was  surrendered  to  the  British  commanJtr 
and  general  Lincoln,  and  the  whole  American  garrison,  were  noa  i 
prisoners. 

40.  General  Gates  was  appomted  to  the  command  in  the  soulhen 
department,  and  another  army  collected.  In  August,  lord  Corawallii 
attacked  the  American  troops  at  Camden,  in  South  Carolina,  and  mul- 
ed them  with  considerable  loss.  He  afterwards  marched  through  tht 
Vothein  states,  and  supposed  th^m  entirely  subdued..  Tho  mim 


yGoOgk 


r  A  v.i 


UNITED  STATES.  447 

^mmer,  tnc  British  troops  made  frequent  incursions  from  New- York 
intu  the  Jerseys ;  ravaging  and  plundering  tlie  country.  In  some  ot* 
tlic*'e  descents,  the  Rev.  Mr.  Caldwell,  a  respectable  clergyman  and 
warm  patriot,  and  his  lady,  were  inliumanly  murdered  by  the  savage 

41  In  July,  a  French  fleet,  under  Monsieur  de  Temay,  with  a 
I  o<lj  of  land  forces,  commanded  1)V  count  de  Uocbambeau,  arrived  at 
hhi^le  Island,  to  the  great  joy  of  the  Americans. 

4'2.  This  year  was  also  diatinp^wished  by  the  infamous  tn*nsnn  o( 
Nniold.  General  W  .•>hiiiij;ton  havinj^^  some  business  to  tian>act  at 
»f .  allierslickl,  in  Conncclicut,  lel't  Arnold  to  command  the  important 
l'*.>'i  otWest  Point,  which  piards  a  pass  in  Hudson's  river,  about  sixty 
«  .ht-s  Ihmi  Ncw-\oik.  Arnold's  conduct  in  the  city  of  Philadrlphia, 
I:..-  pn'cedinp:  winter,  had  been  censuri'd,  and  thf  treatment  he  recuiv- 
r  i   in  coiL<»cquence  had  given  him  oilcnce.     He  dfcterminoil  to  \\a\r 

*'i'h^t  ;  and  tor  thi-J  puror>-e  he  entered  into  a  nesrotiation  with  .sir 

i  HIT  Clinton,  to  (Iciiver  \V(  >t  Pomt  and  the  army  into  the  huul.^  i!' 
i.r  British.  While  irt'urral  WaHhinirton  was  a[)sent,  Ik;  di-infunt«Ml 
::.c  cannon  in  some  of  the  l*ort>,  and  took  other  ste])s  to  roiuirr  (he 
...king  ot'  the  po?t  ea^-y  for  the  em  iny.  Hut  by  a  providential  'iicov- 
-y^  the  whole  plan  was  ilel'uatL'd.  3Iajor  Andre,  aid  l(.  L''iiH'rd 
'^  mton,  a  brave  olljrcr,  who  had  been  up  the  river  as  a  sj^y.  t)  cnn- 
■•t-il  the  p! m  of  4»pciMtionh  uilh  Arnold,  wa*  taken,  condtniU.  d  1  y  a 
i '.urt-martial,  and  exe-cutcd.     Arnold  made  his  e>cape  hy  g«  ''ini;  on 

•  ■'.mi  the  Vulture,  a  Hritish  vessel  which  lay  in  the  river.  l\  <  cow- 
i-jct  ha.s  stamped  him  with  infuny,  and,  like  all  traitors,  be  is  «i«  ..j-i-i  d 
♦y  all  mankiiitl.  dentiial  \V'a>hini^ton  arrived  in  camp  ju>i  alter 
i-nold  had  made  his  uscai)e,  and  rc^tonnl  onler  in  tho  e:irri-'.n. 

-t'J.  Alter  the  drrcat  ol  general  (iates,  in  Carolina,  gem-MJ  fJrrt  n 
\  .-  appointed  to  the  connnanvi  in  the  soulhcin  drpartnuMil.  Fn  ni 
.^  pt  riod,  thini:>i  in  this  quarter  wore  a  more  ihvouiihli' a-jTCt. 
t  • '}»»ijtd 'i'arli'ton,  the  active  eonnnanilt.'r  nt"  the  Hriti'-h  lfir''';i,  wa^ 
•:•  (■•alt'd  hy  ^i  nrr.il  .Morgan,  the  intrepid  conjMandtr  of  tin  k:''"hji. 
\:*i'r  a  varirty  of  nioNernents,  the  two  antii*  s  nj-.t  at  (jmlfitr>!,  in  N'Mih 

•  iioiina,     Ik-re  \a.is  on<'   of  the   best  tou^iit 'icti«»ns  dm iti-j*  the  w;ir. 
I  iierrl  Cin-ene  and  hud  C\4nw:'llis  e\ert»  d  thcm^i-lvr-^  .a  lUt-  hr::>\ 

t   tbfii  n'«<pective  aniiii  "J,  and,  aUhouuh  the  Atuericans  wt-re  ohl'iicd 
'.»   ri  tire  from  tho  rield  of  haitle,  yet  ttie  lirilidi  .Tny  ^-uffcn  «!  an  im- 
.,  i.M-  lo»,  and  c(5u!d  not  pur-ue  the  victory.     This  action  happcnMj- 
ti  liie  i:>th  of  Maiih,  1,7J;1. 

14.   In  liM"  .sprii./,  Arnold,  who  was  made  a  briL^•Mli(■r-£r^nr•rnl  in  the 

..••*h  .-c^rMie,  wiili  a  >m;  II  number  of  t:»K»T)s,  »^'iN  «1  lor  XiiL-inir*,  :\\)i\ 

..  h lured  tlic  country.     'I' his  called  the  atl(  ntion  of  tlie  French  lit  ut 

:fiat  quarter,  ami  a   m\al  errgageinent  tcKjk   ]dare,   between  the 

•  jrlish  and  French,  in  which  >o;ne  of  ihe  Lngli>h  ships  were  much 

'laged,  ariil  on*:  uritin  ly  di>ahled. 

-.  f.   At'ter  the  battle  at  (iuilford,  general  Greene  moved  towards 

-   .  i'h  Carolina,  to  drive  the  British  from  their  po5«ts  in  that  state. 

1'  :v  loni  llawdon  ol)tained  an  inconsiderable  advantage  over  the 

\  i;t.»ricarxs,  near  Camden.     But  general  Greene  more  than  recovered 

:.-  disadvantage,  J )y  the  brilliant  and  successtbl  action  at  the  £ut2W 

rrng"; ;  u'faerc  cilieneral  Marion  distinguished  himself  sod  the  brave 

.  .«>nk:l  Washington  was  wounded  and  taken  prisoner.    Lord  Com- 

\  •  liis  finding  s^eneral  Greene  successful  in  Carolina,  marched  to  Vif^ 

r  II  It  a,  collected  his  forces,  and  fortilied  himself  in  YorkiowD.     In  tht 

ii4raD  tiiDe«  Arnold  made  ao  incursioD  into  Conoecticut,  burnt  a  paA 

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448  UNITED  STATES. 

of  New-London,  took  fort  Giiswold  hj  storm,  and  put  tbe  ganisoo  U 
the  sword.  The  gfarrison  consisted  chiefly  of  men  suddenly  collected 
from  the  little  town  of  Groton,  which,  by  the  savage  cruel^  of  th« 
British  officer  who  commanded  the  attack,  lost,  in  one  hour,  almost 
all  its  heads  of  families.  The  brave  colonel  Ledyard^  who  command- 
ed the  f(H*t,  was  slain  with  his  own  sword,  after  he  had  surrendered. 

46.  The  marquis  de  la  Fayette,  the  brave  and  generous  nobleman, 
whose  services  command  the  gratitude  of  eveiy  American,  had  bees 
despatched  from  the  main  anny  to  watch  tlie  motions  of  loiti  Com- 
wallis,  in  Virginia.  About  the  last  of  August,  count  de  Grasse  arrived 
with  a  large  neet  in  the  Chesapeake,  and  blocked  up  the  British  troo{>« 
at  Yorktown.  Admiral  Greaves,  mth  a  British  fleet,  appeared  <^  lb- 
Capes,  and  an  action  succeeded,  but  it  was  not  decisive.  Genem! 
Washington  had,  before  this  time,  moved  the  main  body  of  his  armj. 
together  with  the  French  troops,  to  the  southward  ;  and,  as  s^>on  as  la- 
iieard  of  the  arrival  of  the  French  fleet  in  the  Chesapeake,  he  iniiO  * 
rapid  marches  to  the  head  of  the  Elk,  where  enibarkii^,  the  troi-if- 
soon  arrived  at  Yorktown.  A  close  siege  immediately  commeiRt .. 
and  was  carried  on  with  such  vigour  by  the  combined  lorces  of  An  er- 
ica and  France,  that  lord  Corn>vallis  was  obliged  to  surrendrr.  This 
glorious  event,  which  took  place  on  the  19th  of  October,  1 ,781 ,  de- 
cided the  contest  in  favour  of  America,  and  laid  tlie  foimdation  oi  a 
general  peace.  A  few  months  after  the  surrender  of  Cornwall  is,  th- 
British  evacuated  all  their  posts  in  South  Carolina  and  Geoigia,  st-! 
retired  to  the  main  army  in  New- York. 

47.  The  next  spring  (l,785)  sir  Guy  Carlton  arrived  in  New-Vcrk. 
and  took  command  of  the  British  army  in  America*  Immediate  v 
after  his  arrival,  he  acquainted  general  Washington  and  coiigres-?,  th* 
negotiations  lor  a  peace  had  been  commenced  at  Paris.  On  the  3i::. 
of  rfovember,  1,782,  the  provisional  articles  of  poace  were  sigiKc 
Paris,  by  which  Great  feritain  acknowiedeied  the  independence  ^.ivl 
sovereignty  of  the  United  States  of  America. 

48.  Thus  ended  a  loi^g  and  arduous  conHict,  in  which  Great  Drit:  in 
expended  near  a  hundred  millions  of  money,  with  n  hundred  tJuHj'jrni ! 
lives,  and  won  nothing.  America  endured  every  cniell}*  and  distrt-- 
from  her  enemies  ;  lost  man^r  lives,  and  much  treasure — but  deliver.  : 
bei^self  from  a  foreign  dominion,  and  gained  a  rank  anK>ng  the  nati*  i.- 
of  the  earth. 


SECTION  V. 

ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  STATE  AND  NATIONAL  GOVEU^ 
MENTS.    WARS  VVITH  TRIPOLI  AND  THE  INDIANS,  A*. 

1.  The  important  revolution,  as  regarding  the  dependance  of  tjr 
colonies  on  Great  Britain,  required  a  correspondinfi:  alteration  in  ili^d 
governments.  Conventions  were  assembled  in  the  several  state- 
which  formed  new  constitutions,  agreeably  to  the  strictest  pnncipl - 
of  republicanism ;  retaining  whatever  was  desirable  in  the  origir- 
tostitutions,  and  at  the  same  time  providir^  additional  security  agaiist 
tyranny  or  corruption.  The  statute  and  common'^  laws  of  £ii^an-l 
tormerly  observed  in  the  provincial  courts  of  justice,  remain  in  prac- 
tice^ as  before.  The  inestimable  privilege,  of  British  oriffin^  a  trbk 
by  juiy ;  the  freedom  of  the  press,  with  tlie  additional  ri^t,  io  case 
ui  pzo«ecutiog  for  a  libel,  of  giving  the  tnifb  in  evidence  ^  aie  de- 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


UNITKU  STATUES. 

claraa  10  be  iimdampnta]  principles.  The  govemmentt  resen 
\htiT  principal  oi^nization,  the  frame  of  the  new  federal  consti 
ihey  consist  of  tnree  branches — a  governor,  a  senate,  and  a 
house  of  representatives.  The  elections  recur  finequentl^,  in 
in  most  of  tne  states,  every  freeman  has  a  right  to  participate. 
2.  As  yet  the  general  government  was  not  established  on 
f<»uijdation.  The  articles  of  union,  formed  under  tlie  pressure  c 
riion  danger,  were  found  inadequate  to  the  efficient  management 
<,r.u(i  country  in  the  selfish  periods  of  peace  and  security.  No  e 
Hind  had  been  provided  to  pay  the  interest  of  the  national  del 
\\.o  ])uhlic  securities  fell  to  one  tenth  of  their  nominal  value.  A 
]>  'i^tunce  to  the  government  was  made  in  Massachusetts,  headc 
I'-rsm  of  the  name  of  Shays.  Danger  increased,  and  the  frit 
iational  liberty  became  alarmed. 

r..  The  Viiiginii  legislature,  in  1,787,  in  accordance  with  a 
rn  tde  by  James  Madison,  made  a  proposal  to  tlie  other  stites  t 
in  convention  for  the  pui-pose  of  digesting  a  system  of  gove 
» 'jual  to  the  exigencies  of  the  tinion.  The  convention  met  at 
•  :•  ipbia,  May  25,  1,707,  and  chose  general  Washington  pre^ 
.'f.d,  after  deliberating  with  closed  doors  until  the  17th  of  Septi 
.rreed  on  a  new  plan  of  national  government :  this  was  alte 
rjiilied  by  the  several  states.  This  new  constitution  not  only  fi: 
i..*lional  government  on  a  republican  basis,  but  guaranties  to  eac 
i*t  the  faniily  a  republican  form  of  government,  and  binds  the 
ii)  protect  each  against  foreign  invasion  or  domestic  violence. 
»  r.'f  VVa^^hington  was  unanimously  chosen  first  president  under  tl 
.  'institution.  March  4,  1,789,  the  first  congress  under  the  new 
{•jtion  assembled  at  New-York  ;  and,  in  1,790,  duties  were  le^ 
•ni/orted  merchandise,  to  replenish  an  empty  treasunr.  The 
.1  bt  incurred  during  the  i-evolutionaiy  war  was  funded,  and  b 
.  t  once  to  its  par  value.  A  national  bank  was  established,  not 
f  ver  without  opposition.*  An  excise  duty  laid  on  domestic  spirit 
fared  an  insurrection  in  the  western  part  of  Pennsylvania  ;  b 
!  !U.s  were  executed,  and  on  the  intervention  of  an  armed  force 
,[  idlity  was  restored  without  bloodshed. 

4.  Two  new  states  were  admitted  into  the  confederacy,  viz. 

'  ■  .  'Ol  in  1 ,791,  and  Kentucky  in  1,792.     A  war  with  the  Creek  h 

>»  l.'i'jc  fighting  men  amounted  to  about  six  hundred,  some  time  < 

"I   the  Irontier  of  Georgia :  peace,  however,  was  restored  ll 

1 .700.     A  sanguinary  warfare,  with  various  success,  was  for  soin 

'.t]>t  up  with  the  north-western  Indians.     In  1,791,  general  h 

\\  t\  dfcteated,  in  the  Ohio  country,  with  tlie  loss  of  three  hundn 

\:v  men  killed.    General  St.  Clair,  at  the  head  of  two  th« 

.  iftia  and  regulars,  was  subsequently  worsted,  near  the  Indian  v 

•j  the  Miami,  with  the  loss  of  thirty-eight  officers,  and  nea 

indred  privates.     St.  Clair  was  succeeded  by  general  Wayn 

jnpletely  itnjted  the  savage  foe,  and  drove  toe  Indians  out 

luntry.     In  the  year  after,  Wayne  negotiated  a  satisfactory 

t  peace  with  the  hostile  Indians  ;  and  at  this  time  commer 

.iiniane  system  for  ameliorating  their  condition. 

5.  Whilst  the  United  States  were  employed  in  quelling^  the 

.  'ly,  and  restraining  the  inroads  of  a  subtle  enemy  witbm  th(; 
i.-om,  new  sources  of  difficulty  discovered  themselves  in  tlM 
*nvuUions  of  Eurone.    The  French  revolution  bad  commence 

uat  oatlon  was  uiKier  the  wild  misrule  of  its  directory.  Clai 
-^istanca  were  made  on  tiie  United  States.  Genet,  the  French 
Pp2  67 

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160  UNITED  STATES. 

baTi'n^  arrived  at  Charleston,  undertook  to  authorize  the  arming  U 
vessels  in  that  port,  and  the  enlisting  of  men  ;  giving  comm^tons,  u 
the  name  of  the  French  government,  to  cruise  at  sea,  and  commit  he*, 
lilities  on  land,  against  nations  with  whom  the  United  States  were  2: 
peace.  The  British  minister  remonstrated.  The  president  issm:  i 
orders  for  defeating  the  unwanantable  interference  of  the  French  au  - 
hassador.  Genet  threatened  an  appeal  to  the  people,  but  was  so- 1 
after  recalled.  Aftenvards,  the  French  directory  authorized  the  i- 
discnmlnate  capture  of  all  vessels  sailing  under  the  flaff  of  the  Unirf  i 
.States  ;  and  oitiered  the  American  envoys  to  leave  France.  T^i^ 
severe  actions  occurred  in  the  West  Indies,  between  the  Americ  r. 
friixate  Constellation,  of  thirty-eight  guns,  and  the  French  frig.  :- 
L'Insurgente,  of  forty,  and  the  same  frigate  and  the  La  yettse:ince.*^ 
liily  guns,  in  which  L'Insurgente  was  captured,  and  La  Vengc^im^ 
worsted. 

6.  In  1,797,  John  Adams  was  chosen  president;  and  in  the  jei: 
af\er,  Wa.^hington  was  called  to  the  head  of  the  army,  in  tlie  prospec: 
of  a  protracted  war  with  France.  But  speedily  alter  the  overthrt-i^ 
ot  the  directory  government,  all  the  disputes  between  France  and  tii« 
United  States  were  amicably  arranged. 

7.  Although,  since  the  definitive  treaty  of  Paris,  tliere  occurred  r:o 
open  liostilities  between  England  and  the  United  States,  yet  they  wer*r 
tlir  lioia  being  on  terms  of  amity  and  conciliation.  On  various  j>re- 
tfcxls,  the  English  retained  possession  of  tlie  forts  on  tlie  south  side  01 
the  lakes,  furmiiig  the  northern  boundaiy  of  the  United  States  ;  sr^: 
irritatioM  w.hs  continually  excited  by  the  Ei^lish  insisting  on  the  ri^i'i. 
ot'  searching  American  ships  for  enemy's  property.  Mr.  Jay  was  *^^- 
puted  envoy  to  London,  and  negotiated  a  treaty,  in  1,795,  which  s*'- 
tled  the  ditlerences  between  the  two  nations,  nut  tlie  terms  of  wh>  ij 
were  much  opposed  in  the  United  States. 

8.  December  14,  1,799,  died  tlie  illustrious  Washington,  of  an  r.- 
flamniatory  soi-e  throat  and  fever,  contracted  from  a  sliirht  exposure  ic 
the  wet  weather,  after  an  illness  of  only  about  twenty-four  hours. 

9.  The  seat  of  governmciit  had  been  removed  from  New- York  t*' 
Philadelphia,  both  of  which  places  being  deemed  inconvenient,  pa- 
vjsion  was  made,  at  the  second  session  after  the  fonnatiou  of  g-ovei:,- 
ment,  lor  the  removal  of  the  government  to  a  district  on  tlie  PofrwiiLC. 
which  was  ceded  to  the  United  States  by  Virginia  and  iMniyland  ;  ?m 
in  l/iOO,  the  public  ol"Hccs  were  removed  to  the  infant  capital.  ' :: 
which  maGfuilicent  buildings  had  been  erected.  This  city  beax!<  \lr 
name  of  Wasliington,  and  the  district  that  of  Columbia. 

10.  The  war  with  Tripoli  commenced  in  1,801,  by  an  engT^jemtiit 
of  tlie  Enterprise,  captain  Sterrett,  with  a  Tripolitan  corsair,  oil  ^ilin. 
in  which  the  American  was  victorious.     Commodore  Murray,   !i  • 
following  year,  in  the  frigate  Constellation,  was  attackeil,  while  cnji- 
ing  ofl' Tripoli,  by  a  formidable  number  of  gun  boats,  but  obliirt 
(hem  to  retire  in  confusion.     In  1,803,  the  Philadelphia  frigate,  c^'[ - 
lain  Bainbridge,  ran  uoon  a  rock,  in  the  very  jaws  of  tlie  pirates;  w.c 
obliged  to  strike,  and  hfr  oQicere  and  crew,  amounting  to  three  bur 
dred,  were  made  prisoners.     This  vessel  was,  however,  recapture 
and  burnt,  while  lyiiig  in  the  harbour  of  Tripoli,  February  16,  l^Bi^. 
by  captain  Stephen  Decatur,  jr.,  and  seventy  men — one  of  tlie   tnc-* 
daring  and  gallant  exploits  on  record.     From  the  3d  to  the  29tb  -.j 
August  following,  commodore  Preble  made  three  general  attacks  ui>c^ 
the  Tripolitan  batteries.     The  barbarian  enemy  continued  to  tr»  i' 
llie  Ainerican  prisoner^  with  the  most  atrocious  cruelty.    Aooihtt 

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UNITED  STATES.  451 

expedient  ma  tried  by  the  American  government.  Geoeial  Eaton 
^^  .ts  despatched  to  co-operate  with  Hamet,  who  had  been  driven  from 
the  g:overament  of  Tripoli  by  the  usurpation  of  his  brodier.  TraveJ- 
.viic  to  Egypt,  he  found  the  exile,  and  proceeding  fifty-two  days 
•iiU'U^h  a  hideous  desert,  he  arrived  before  Derne,  a  city  in  the 
'•  .Cincy  of  Tripoli,  an<l  carried  the  town  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet. 
I^\ice  did  the  enemy  attempt  to  retake  the  tonn  ;  but,  aiiainst  learful 

'I-,  they  weix*  repulj^ed  by  Eaton.  This  brought  the  reiirning 
'-.-Iiiiw  to  terms  ;  a  peace  wa^  concluiied  by  colonel  Lear,  and  the 
•I  -.i.(Tsiong(lfetained  in  captiviiy,  wt-re  released. 

II.  Tonnes.-<ee  in  1,796,  and  Ohio  in  l,J;oo,  were  added  to  the  ijtates 
"f  !)}«  union,  in  1,803,  I^niisiima  was  purchased  from  the  Freuch 
:-  \.  inment,  for  the  sum  of  fifteen  milh'ons  of  dollars  ;  and  in  1,812,  a 

•I  -ii'ii  of  this  extended  territory  was  erected  into  a  state  by  that  nan)e. 
'•V  ^Ui:^  cession,  the  United  States  have  acquired  a  tcrrituiy  of  va.st 
' '.  jf.ilude,  and  extraordinary  fertility,  from  which  new  states  wid 
•■•  .  iiiuc  to  be  incorporated. 

1'-.  In  the  autumn  of  1,806,  Aaron  Burr  was  detected  in  an  enter- 
'  'i«e  of  great  moment,  the  separation  #f  the  western  states  from  the 

1:11,  and  the  subjui!,ation  of  New-Orleans  :  his  plan  was  del'eated  by 

>•    vigilance  of  the  government ;  Burr  was  anested  on  a  chare:e  of 

-'^h  treason — but  no  overt  act  being  proved  on  him,  he  was  released. 


SECTION  VI. 

WAR  WITH  GREAT  BRITAIN,  &c. 

I.  We  come  now  to  treat  of  those  interesting  events  which  brouj^ht 
'  a  second  contest  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  Stales. 
'!»•  custom  of  search  iny:  American  vessels  on  the  ocean,  and  impress- 
_'  iiorii  lljoni  British  seamen,  had  lone:  been  practiced  by  the  English. 
■'.•  hi'herlo  the  custom  had  been  conlined  to  private  vt«--els  :  now,  it 
-  «\tended  in  some  in^-tances  to  public  armed  ves'-els.  Four  seamen  1 
^■•iiors   from    the    British  navy,  were  reported  to  have  entered  the 

•  r  ;V,.  (,|*  the  United  Statt-^?,  and  to  have  been  received  on  board  llic 
-'••('  Cl:is:<peake,  at  the  time  lying  at  Ham[)ton  roads,  prij^arinsc  for 
•    M»-diterran«.ran.     Admir.il  Brrkeley  onlered  captain  iiumphries, 

i\r  Leopard,  to  follow  the  Chesapeake  beyond  the  waters  ot'  the 

"'•'1  States',   and  demand  the  desertei-^^ :    lliis  he  did,  and,  after 

;  '.  i\'Ui/j^   the  seamen,  fired  a  l»rtKidside  upon  the  Ameiicun  tVigal«. 

•  :-  une\iK?cteil  attack  so  di^concerttMl  captain  Barron,  that  he   im- 

liU-iy  struck  tlie  colotirs  of  the  Chesapeake,  and  peniiitted  tJie 
'i   M-'men  to  be   taken  without  resistance.     The  Leopard  carried 

■;  ,  the  Clu '«'.••  peake  only  thirty-si\  guns.  On  board  the  latter,  lour 
«i  were  killed  and  sixteen  wounded.  One  of  the  impre^ised  seamen 
'  .iftenvanLs  lian<^"ed,  and  one  died  in  prison  :  and  tliere  was  reason 
^uppo^ing  that  three  of  tiiem  were  native  Americitns.  Captain 
ir'ji,  for  nriclect  of  duty,  was  suspended  from  command  lor  five 
♦r».     'FJiis  trai^ical  occurrence   pn>duce<i   a   general    indignation. 

.'•  r»rltiMi,  ho^^ever,  disavowed  admiral  Berkeley's  onlers,  and  re- 
w  d  him   iVom  Uie  station,  but  soon  al\er  appointed  him  to  a  more 

r.<:^i;i(  one. 

'.  N'»  w  systems  of  blockacie  were   invented  by  the  bell  ice  rtntF» 

-n  nencing  with  the  French  decree  of  Berlin,  of  November  '21, 


yGoogk 


452  UNITED  STATES 

1,806  :  JaniiaiT  7,  1,807,  came  the  British  order  prohibiting  coa^tiK 
trade ,  Novemoer  11,  the  celebrated  British  oraers  in  couocO;  asd 
December  7,  the  French  Milan  decree.  December  22,  of  the  ^anw 
year,  congress,  on  the  recommendation  of  Mr.  Jefferson,  then  presi- 
dent, ordered  an  embaigo,  prohibiting  the  exportation  of  eveiy  artic* 
from  the  United  States.  March  4,  1,809,  the  embaigo  was  remoTe^v 
and  non-intercourse  substituted.  April  19,  an  arrangement  was  mack 
with  Mr.  Erskine,  which  induced  the  American  epovemment  to  rene^ 
tlie  trade  with  England ;  this  arrangement  was  subsequently  disavow- 
ed by  the  British  government.  The  insulting  deportment  of  the  ^^vn-.- 
ceedin^  negotiator,  Mr.  Jackson,  heightened  the  resentment  of  'tK 
republic  ;  and  a  rencounter  between  Qie  American  and  British  sb:^,* 
of  war.  President  and  Little  Belt,  increased  the  unirieiKlly  sentimeii?- 
d[  England. 

3.  Mr.  Foster,  a  new  British  minister,  offered  honourable  reparafV;!] 
for  the  indignity  on  the  Chesapeake  ;  but  no  change  could  be  procur- 
ed in  the  systems  practised  by  Great  Britain  and  France  agaliK 
American  trade.  The  United  States  now  offered  to  either  of  tb« 
belligerents,  or  both,  as  soon  as  they  ceased  to  violate  the  neutri 
commerce  of  the  republic,  that  the  non-intercourse  arrangemea 
should  be  discontinued.  The  French  artfully  embraced  the  o&r,  hy 
information  that  the  French  Beriin  and  Milan  decrees  had  been  re- 
voked ;  and  non-intercourse  with  France  was  discontinued  by  procL^ 
mation  of  the  president. 

4.  War  was  declared  by  the  United  States  against  Great  Brilaia 
June  18,  1,812,  too  late  to  avail  themselves  of  the  retraction  of  tt^ 
British  orders  in  council,  which  followed  the  repeal  of  the  Berlin  aiic 
Milan  decrees.  The  coi^ress  voted  an  addition  to  the  regular  army. 
of  twenty-five  thousand  men ;  authorized  a  loan  of  eleven  millioos . 
and  nearly  doubled  the  duties  on  imports. 

5.  Previous  to  the  declaration  of  war,  indications  of  hostility  h>' 
appeared  among  the  Indians  on  the  frontiers  bordering  aa  Caoath. 
A  body  of  troops,  under  governor  Harrison,  was  attacked  on  the  Tth 
of  November,  1,811,  near  a  branch  of  the  Wabash,  by  a  larger  \Ky\j 
of  Indians,  who  were  defeated,  not  without  considerable  loss  to  tii 
Americans. 

6.  On  the  12th  of  July,  general  Hull,  governor  of  the  Michbr 
territoiy,  crossed  from  Detroit  into  the  province  of  Canada^  with  3 
considerable  force.  In  this  situation,  he  soon  received  intelligence  vi 
the  capture  of  the  American  post  at  Michillimackinac.  On  the  r.'i 
of  August,  he  returned  to  Detroit,  followed  by  the  British  geotr^ 
Brock,  nnth  his  re^lars  and  Indians  ;  and  he  soon  surrendered  to  lU 
British,  not  only  his  army,  but  included  the  whole  territoiy  of  Michi- 
gan in  the  articles  of  capitulation.  He  was  afterwards  tried,  ?r ' 
iound  guilty  of  cowardice  and  neglect  of  duty,  and  sentenced  to  U 
sh(j( :  out,  in  consideration  of  his  revolutionary  services,  and  his  a£« 
the  court  recommended  him  to  mercy,  and  the  president  withdrew  u- 
punishment  of  death.  He  has  since  endeavoured,  by  letters  addn.*»- 
ed  to  the  people  of  this  country,  to  justify  his  conduct ;  and  with  tnj~ 

'  persons  his  endeavours  have  been  successful. 

7.  On  the  19th  of  August,  the  Constitution  frigate,  captain  Hii 
captured  the  British  frigate  Guerriere,  captain  Dacres,  after  an  acrr 
of  thirty  minutes :  loss  of  the  Guerriere,  fifteen  killed^  six^ic* 
wounded,  and  twenty-one  missings— that  of  the  Constitutk)D»  sevta 
killed  and  leven  wounded.  October  S5,  the  frigate  United  Stat^ 
captain  Decatur  met  the  British  frigate  Macedonian,  off  the  wcs^m 

I    Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


UNITED  STATES.  4^5 

Mes,  and  captured  ber  ailer  an  action  of  one  hour  and  a  half:  Bfitiah 
irvss,  thirtj-six  vkilled  and  sixty-eight  wouiided*-An)€rican  losi ,  seTen 
tilled,  five  wounded.  The  next  naval  achievement  was  the  capture 
ri  tlie  British  brig  Frolic  by  the  American  sloop  Wasp,  commainded 
'y  captain  Jones  :  British  loss,  thirty  killed  and  finy  wounded— 
Vmerican,  five  killed,  five  wounded.  In  December,  the  Constitution, 
rnfitain  Bainbridge,  again  met  the  enemy,  and  the  frigate  Java  was 
(.ptured  :  British  loss,  sixty  killed,  and  one  hundred  and  one  wound- 
rl— American,  nine  killed,  twenty-five  wounded.  Besides  these  vie- 
•  rif^s  of  public  ships,  numerous  privateers  swarmed  the  ocean,  and 
'  •lure  the  meeting  of  congress,  in  November,  nearly  two  hundred  and 
Lity  vessels  were  captured  from  the  enemy. 

i.  In  NovemlKir,  general  Van  Rensselaer,  with  about  one  thousand 
•■«'<p«,  crossed  the  Niagara  river  into  Upper  Canada,  and  attacked 

•  nritish  at  Queenstown  ;  and,  after  an  obstinate  engagement,  was 
zvd  to  surrender,  with  a  loss  of  sixty  killed,  and  about  one  hundred 

•  'iniled.     In  this  engragement  the  British  general  Brock  was  killed. 
'>.  Early  in  l,ni3,  an  action  was  fought  at  the  river  Kaisin,  l>etween 

'•'  American  detachment,  under  general  Winchester,  and  a  British  and 
'  .iin  lorce  under  colonel  Proctor.    The  Americans  were  defeated,  and 

■  .rrtater  part  ot'  live  hundred  prisoners  were  immediately  massacred, 
'  tor  biding  unable  or  unwilling  to  pivtect  them,  as  he  had  expresslr 

■  jl.ited !  So<M)  after,  general  ilarrison  was  attacked  and  besieged, 
..  I  Ik-  combined  British  and  Indians  at  fort  Meigs.  A  desultory  war 
'  ^  kf'pt  lip  for  some  time.    Colonel  Dudley  was  detached  from  the 

'.  la  attack  the  enemy's  battery  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  rivei, 

•  ^'!crcod(,d  in  capturing  the  battery,  but  his  troops,  imprudently 
'jfR?  the  enemy,  were  soon  surrounded  by  an  Incfian  army,  three 
>  tJieir  number,  headed  by  tlie  Indian  general  Tecumseh  ;  a  de»- 
'.'  light,  and  a  scene  of  slaughter  almost  as  terrible  as  that  at 

'  ^'H.  endued.     Of  ei.dit  hundred  men  composing  the  detacliment, 

•  y  .ii.out  one  liundrcif  and  fitly  escaped. 

^'.  On  the  21st  of  February,  the  British  attacked  Ogdensburgh,  oa 

.'~  river  St.  Lawrence,  witli  a  force  of  twelve  hundred,  and  compelled 

>■  Americans  to  evacuate  the  place.    In  April,  the  Americans,  under 

w  fH  rai  Pike,  landed  at  York,  m  Upper  Canada  ;  and,  after  some  a»- 

•  :>'  %bting,  succeeded  in  capturing  or  destroying  a  laige  amount  of 

I  i'  'ic  stores.     The  British  lost  seven  hundred  and  fiftjj^  men,  in  killed, 

Jijded,  and  captured.     The  brave  Pike  was  mortally  wounded,  by 

'  ;-  explosion  ot  a  magazine,  which  had  been  purposely  set  on  fisk 

1   p  object  of  the  expedition  being  gained,  the  American  forces  evac^ 

'jjI«  (i  I  ork  on  the  1st  of  May,  and  re-embarked. 

H.  Fort  George,  commanded  by  general  Vincent,  was  taken  by 
"'»'  American  I'orces,  under  general  Boyd  and  colonel  Miller,  May  t7, 
'-'•-r  a  sharp  conflict.  The  British  lost,  in  killed  and  wounded,  about 
'^^"  hundred  and  fifty  men,  besides  six  hundred  prisoner*— their  an- 
-.roiiists.  thirty-nine  killed  and  one  hundred  and  eight  wounded. 
^  -n  aftenvards,  generals  Chandler  and  Winder,  who  had  advanced 
'  ith  a  considerable  force,  were  attacked  in  the  night,  by  general 
^  iDccnt,  who  had  been  reinforced,  between  fort  George  and  Burling 
'  n  Uy,  and,  in  a  scene  of  confusioo,  were  both  made  prisoners  ;  theu 
r'A>ps  retired  to  fortGeoige. 

W.  Captain  James  Lawrence,  of  the  Hornet,  fell  in  withj,  and  op- 
ured.  the  British  sloop  of  war  Peacock,  February  %L  The  actkio 
isted  eight  minutes ;  and  the  JBritii^  captain  and  several  otbefB  wem 
ijjied,  and  twenty-nine  wounded— the  li<Mnet  bad  time 


Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


454  UNITED  STATES. 

The  Peacock  sunk  wxm  after  the  action,  and  thirteen  firitish  »ilcm 
went  down  with  her.  Captain  Lawrence  was  aftenvards  appointed  ti 
the  command  of  the  ill-fated  Chesapeake,  then  lying  in  Boston  harbour 
The  British  frigate  Shannon,  commanded  by  captain  Broke,  had  beco 
for  some  time  in  the  bay,  seeking  an  engagement  with  an  Americar. 
frigate.  Lawrence,  burning  with  impatience  to  meet  the  enemy,  *i:c 
i!ot  wait  to  inquire  into  the  relative  condition  of  the  vessels.  Tl>. 
Shannon  had  a  picked  crew,  and  was  accoutred  for  the  express  fM;r- 
'pose  of  engaging  an  American  frigate  of  the  largest  size.  The  Ch#  >• 
apeak( ,  not  of  the  largest  description  of  frigates,  had  recently  ili- 
ciiai'ptd  a  part  of  her  crew,  and  enlisted  others  :  several  of  her  ofeci  .i 
were  sick.  Lawrence  sailed  on  the  first  of  June  ;  and  when  he  ci.ne 
within  sight  of  the  Shannon,  addressed  his  crew,  but  they  listened  viij 
no  enthusiasm:  some  comnlained  that  they  had  not  received  liRir 
prize  money — mummrs  and  dissatisfaction  were  general  ;  in  frcl  !'" 
crow  ^'jcre  alinast  in  a  state  of  mutiny.  The  Chesapeake  closed  v  =i 
the  enemy  and  gave  the  first  broadside  ;  and  at  the  first  fire  of  ti  • 
Shannon,  captain  Lawrence  was  mortally  wounded.  A  second  ,nr.-.  i 
third  broadside  gave  the  British  a  decided  advantage,  which  wns  .\  - 
lowed  up  by  boarding  the  Chesapeake.  A  scene  of  carnage  eii?uet! : 
captain  Lawrence  was  carried  below,  exclaiming,  as  be  lett  tlie  tierk. 
**  Don't  give  up  the  ship."  EveW"  officer  qualified  for  commauti  :!j 
the  Chesapeake,  was  either  killed  or  disabl'^d  :  about  eiglily  wviy 
killed,  and  as  many  wounded.  Of  the  British,  twenty -three  vert 
killed  and  fifty-six  wounded.  The  captured  frigate  was  carried  ir 
triumph  to  Halifax.  The  brilliant  achievements  of  Wellington  in.  1 
Nelson  scarcely  called  forth  more  lively  expressions  of  exuTlaticu  r 
England,  than  did  the  capture  of  the  Chesapeake.  The  tower  pi-  - 
at  liondon  were  fired  on  reception  of  the  news,  and  the  prince  reiri  i: 
conferred  on  captain  Broke  the  order  of  knighthood. 

13.  On  the  4th  of  August,  the  American  sloop  of  war  Ai^is  ir  > 
captured  by  the  Pelican,  a  vessel  of  her  own  class,  but  said  to  be  tl^■1 
guns  superior.  Captain  Allen,  commander  of  the  Argus,  was  mortr?ii y 
wounded  at  the  first  broadside  of  the  enemy.  In  the  following  nionth. 
the  American  brig  Enterprizc  captured  the  Boxer,  a  vessel  super;: .r 
in  effective  force.  The  only  person  killed  on  board  tlie  Enteq)rize 
was  her  gallant  commander,  lieutenant  Burroughs,  and  thirleeo  were 
wounded.  The  British  loss  was  greater:  among  the  slain  was  capt:-Mi 
Blythe,  who  commanded  the  Boxer,  and  who  was  buried  by  the  siile 
of  his  antagonist  in  the  to%vn  of  Portland,  off  whose  harbour  the  action 
was  fought. 

14.  But  the  most  brilliant  achievement  this  year  was  that  of  th* 
youthful  Perry  on  lake  Erie.  The  British  force  consisted  of  six  vc  •*. 
•els,  having  sixty-three  guns  ;  that  of  the  Americans,  of  nine  ves-^l? 
and  fifty-six  guns.  The  conflict  was  tremendous.  The  Hag  ship  i>i 
Periy  suffered  dreadfully  in  the  loss  of  men,  and  was  on  the  point  of 
sinking  :  he  left  the  ship  in  the  midst  of  the  hottest  fire,  and  proceed- 
ed to  another  vessel ;  and  after  three  hours  conflict,  the  laurel  of 
victory  was  assigned  to  Perry ;  the  trium]^h  was  complete — ^not  a  sii^le 
vessel  of  the  enemy  escaped.  This  action  took  place  on  the  10ft  ot 
September,  and  made  the  Americans  masters  of  the  lake.  The  gallant 
Perry  announced  this  victory  in  the  following  laconic  epistle  to  general 
Harrison :  "  We  have  met  the  enemy  and  they  arc  ours — two  ship^ 
two  brigs,  one  schooner,  and  one  sloop." 

15.  Chesapeake  bay  was  blockaded  by  the  British  daring  the  sprmg 
«f  this  year,  and  several  predatoiy  incursions  by  their  troops 

/ 

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UNITED  STATES  455 

irade.  Much  property  was  plundered  and  destroyed,  and  many  db- 
^raceful  scenes  occurred,  particularly  at  Hampton  and  Havre  de 
(irace. 

16.  An  attack  was  made,  May  29,  on  Sackett's  harbour  by  aboutone 
•  .  u'^and  British,  who  were  repulsed  witli  considerable  loss.  General 
liuvvn  commanded  the  American,  and  sir  George  Prevost  the  British 
'ruips.  About  the  >^?ine  time  the  British  attacked  Craney  Island, 
I.  ar  Norfolk,  and  were  defeated  with  loss. 

17.  General  Dearloin,  the  American  commander,  retired  from  ser- 
\  !ce  this  year.     Fort  S  uulusky  was  invested  by  a  hvge  force  of  British 

'.)  I  hjuiaiis  :  and  tJu-  exploit  of  major  Cro^han  in  repulsing;  the  ashail- 

1  -  with  g;reat  lo>s,  called  lorlh  general  admiration.    In  October, 

.•«::uit  wa's  abanuof.  cl  by  the  British,  on  the  appn)ach  of  a  large 

>■'  .y  under  general  llniri-ion  ;  who,  soon  after,  de  tea  ted  the  enemy 

'  •.  :■  r  t!ie  cornir.and  <  f  general  Proctor,  in  Upper  Canada  ;  in  \.\\hi 

"  L  the  celel«r.ite<l  rerumseh  was  killed. 

1-.  l.iltle  ^\as  dono   this  year  towards  the  conquest  of  Canada: 

:.  ::il  \Vilkin.«^on  (h  m-«  nded  the  St.  Lawrence  iVom  lake  Ontario  in 

'.'•liber;   and  an  Mi'i:aii:ement  took   place   at   Wiliiani^bni^ch,   in 

M  me   Anuiican-  wi're  repulsed  with  the  loss  of  tlii-ee  hmulred 

•  '1.  wdun'le;!,  and  )»:  i-oners.    A  disagreement  between  the  g:enerah 
.![»(' »n  dud  Wilkir.-on,  prevented  that  concert  which  was  necessary 

•  '  ijfe  success  ;  th«-  liisign  of  attacking  iMontreal  was  relinquislied, 
;  '»:.«'  army  retired  to  winter  quarters.  Fort  Geoi>>e  was  evacuated 
:  e  !!i(  nth  of  Dereiu.  rv ;  and  mi^conceivina:  his  inslnirtions,  greneral 
^'.j.'v,  who  cunnnan-led  the  fortress,  set  tire  to  the  villr>e;e  of  New- 

\i;':^ai.i  was  allt  .uards  surprised  and  retaken  by  tht^  Britishi — 

•  I''iiii>ii  c;u<sed  over  to  the  American  side,  and  in  res<ntment  tor  tlie 
^  A  :.\>n  oi  Newark,  inirnt  Buffalo  and  some  other  villotces,  and  laid 
••'•  I  lie  whole  frontier. 

«'.  The  Cruek  Indians  who  had  been  for  some  time  in  open  hos- 
'  '  -  witli  the  United  v^lr.tes,  were  completely  bubdued  this  season 
I .  'iie  ^ucceotling  spri)i2*,  principally  by  troops  commanded  by  gen- 
.  Anirciv  Jackson. 

^'».  In  January,  1,814,  propositions  hating  been  made  by  the  prince 
^*  nt  tor  a  nea^otiation,  \nssi-s.  Russell  aixi  Clay  were  ajmointed  to 

»  fi  Mes«*rs.   Adams,  B.iy,ird,  and  Gallatin,  alr^-ady  in  Euroi>e,  an 

ii'ssioncis  to  meet  sia  h  as  the  British  povemmeni  miuht  appoint; 

I  -Mes-rs.  Giunbier,  (iitlboum,  and  William  Adam^^  were  appointed 

i.'  *A  them.     The  place  of  assembling  was  first  tixed  at  Gottenbuig, 

'  •  at'ierwards  charigtd  to  Ghent  in  Flanders;  where  tlie  commission- 

•  :net  in  August. 

•^l.  The  fritrate  Essex,  captain  Darid  Porter,  after  having  Jong 
\;-ed  in  the  Pacific  and  captured  a  great  number  of  British  vessels, 
•"  herself  captured  in  the  harbour  of  Valparaiso,  by  the  British 
•^SAUi  PhelKi  an<i  the  slop  Cherub.  The  Peacock  captured  tbt 
'  'i-h  bri^  Lpervier,  April  29,  after  an  action  of  forty -two  mioutea^ 
•-  Hornet  j.|o«>p  ol  war  raptured  the  English  national  brig  Penguin: 
I  tile  old  C<jnstitution,  ui  ier  captain  Stewart,  overcame  the  united 

•  f  s  of  the  Cyane  and  Levant- 

^2.  In  the  be^iiuiing  of  July,  fort  Erie  was  taken  by  the  Americans. 
ti  the  4th  of  July,  a  briihant  victoiy  was  gained  by  general  Brown 

<  hippewa.  On  the  25th,  one  of  the  most  sanguinaiy  battles  oo  reo- 
d  took  pbce  at  Bridgewater:  in  thb  action  the  American  gentrals 
-ott,  Ripley,  and  Porter,  with  colonel  Miller,  majors  Hindman,  Jet* 
/),  Leavenworth,   and   M'Neil.  distinguished  themselrefl*     The 

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456  UN.TED  STATES. 

British  forces  iviere  led  by  generals  DnimTnond  and  Rial.  ^  Tbe  batUi 
lasted  from  four  o'clock,  r.  M.  until  xnidnigrht.  Tbe  British  lost  mix 
hundred,  killed,  wounded^  and  prisoners :  Oie  American  loss  was  les^ 
The  latter  maintained  their  ground ;  while  the  former  retired. 

23.  The  town  of  Eastport  in  the  bay  of  Passamaquoddy,  was  thn 
year  taken  hr  a  British  naval  force ;  and  soon  aAer  the  Sritish  took 
possession  ot  Castine  and  all  that  part  of  the  new  state  of  Maine^  Ivii^ 
Mtween  that  place  and  Penobscot  river,  and  compelled  many  ot  the 
inhabitants  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  Great  Britain.  TL« 
British  this  year  landed  marauding  parties,  at  Saybrook,  Warehan}, 
Scituate,  and  other  places,  and  destroyed  much  shipping  :  in  an  as 
tempt  on  Stoniiigton,  they  were  beaten  oft*  by  the  gallant  inhabitanu 
with  loss. 

24.  From  th^  16th  to  the  20th  of  August,  about  sixty  sail  of  tk 
British  arrived  'in  the  Chesapeake,  intending  to  invade  the  State?  in 
earnest.  More  than  fifty  of  them  landed  at  Benedict*  on  the  Patuxeiil, 
about  forty  milcte  from  Washington.  On  tbe  22d  the  British  flanker? 
reached  Wood  Yard,  fourteen  miles  from  Washington.  Commodcrt 
Barney  here  blew  up  a  flotilla  of  gun  boats  to  prevent  their  falling  »•'  • 
the  hands  of  the  enemy.  On  the  23d  the  British  forces,  estimated  ai 
six  thousand,  T^achedfiladensbur^.  about  six  miles  from  Washin^Ui, 
Here  a  short  engagement  took  place  ;  but  the  greater  part  of  tin; 
American  militia  fled.     Commodore  Baniey,  with  a   few  e%fateeA 

e>unders  and  about  four  hundred  men,  made  a  ffallant  resistance  fnnn 
ladensburg  to  the  city  ;  but  he  was  wounded  and  taken  prisoner. 
The  British  here  destroyed  the  capitol,  the  president's  house,  arid 
several  otlier  public  buildings,  mutilated  the  monument  in  the  njiy 
yard,  and  committed  manjr  excesses.  In  tbe  night  of  the  26di,  iti 
British  retired,  gained  their  shipping  by  rapid  marches,  and  embaTk- 
ed  on  board  their  ships  on  tlie  27th.  Several  British  ships  umierop^ 
tam  Gordon,  at  the  same  time,  ascended  the  Potomac,  appeared  t-e- 
fore  Alexandria,  robbed  the'defenceless  inhabitants  of  a  vast  quaniiiy 
of  flour  and  other  plunder;  and  escaped  down  the  river  without  iu«:»- 
lestation. 

25.  August  14,  General  Drummond  was  repulsed  in  an  attack  on 
fort  Erie,  after  a  severe  conflict,  with  a  loss  of  hve  hundred  and  eighty 
two  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners,  two  hundred  and  twenty <.ne 
being  killed  ;  American  loss  in  killed  and  wounded,  two  hundred  and 
forty-five. 

«6.  On  Sunday,  the  11th  of  September,  admiral  Cochrane  appearvu 
off  Baltimore  with  about  fifty  sail.  The  laiger  vessels  landed  « 
North  Point,  ten  miles  from  the  city,  about  seven  thousand  troopi 
under  general  Ross  and  admiral  Cockbum.  The  next  day,  as  (htv 
advanced  towards  the  city,  they  were  met  by  general  Strieker  wit.*; 
about  tliree  thousand  militia,  and  a  severe  engagement  iock  place,  m 
which  the  British  ^neral  was  killed.  The  Americans  were  nowevt  i 
repulsed  by  superior  mmibers ;  and  on  Tuesday  evenii^,  the  Bribylt 
advanced  to  within  about  two  miles  of  the  American  entrencbinent^ 
But  so  strong  was  the  American  force,  and  so  valiantly  had  the^  kmgU 
tht  preceding  day,  that  the  British  retreated  before  momii^,  up^ 
hastily  fe-emoaiked.  A  grand  attack  was  made  on  Tuesday  on  tor. 
M'Heaiy,  on  the  otfier  side  of  tbe  city  and  ccHnmanding  the  watn 
panage  to  it,  from  frigates,  bomb,  and  rocket  vessels,  which  lasted  tl« 
whole  day  and  a  part  of  the  night,  doiitt:  but  little  damage.  In  th« 
night  about  a  thouwid  of  the  enemy  lan&d  between  the  fort  ami  tb« 
citf,  but  wete  soon  repv^  cl.    The  loss  of  the  Americans  in  kilW* 

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Ul'liXJZiJLf    OJ^lXCdQ. 


ffniaded,  a/id  prisoners,  was  two  hundred  and  thirteen  :  that 
Brithb  is  not  knoWh.    The  enemy,  thus  discomfited,  moved  doi  i 
bay. 

t7.  The  governor-general  of  Canada,  sir  Geoi^e  Pre  vest, 
from  twelve  to  fourteen  thousand  men,  made  at  attack  on  Plattst  i 
September  11.    At  the  same  time  a  naval  engagement,  on  lake  (  I 
p/nin,  took  place  in  sight  of  the  land  forces.     The  America r 
having  eighty-six  guns  and  eight  hundred  and  iwenty-six  men , 
ronmuiDded  bv  captain  M'Donough  ;  the  British,  consisting  of  n,i 
hve  guns  ana  one  thousand  and  fifty  men,  was  commanded  by 
modore  Downie.    The  action  ended  in  the  surrender  of  the  Bi 
ve&seJs,  viz.  one  frigate,  one  brig;  and  two  sloops  of  war.     Son: 
their  gallies  were  sunk ;  others  escaped.     American  loss,  fifh 
killed,   fiAy-eight  wounded  :    British  loss,  eighty-four  killed, 
imtxired  and  ten  wounded.    At  the  sanw  lime  that  the  (\ei:U 
^-Hiraged,  governor  Prevost  attacked  the  forts  at  Plattsburph  will 
Und  forces,  throwing  shells,  balls,  and  rockets  :  he  altemptrd  to 
'he  Saranac,  but  was  repulsed  at  three  dift'ercnt  places.     So  efte 
"as  the  fire  of  the  Americans,  that,  before  sunset,  the  batteries  lit 
erected  were  all  silenced;  and  at  nine  o'?l:)ck  in  the  eveniri;j 
^yl\ole  army  began  a  rapid  retreat,  leaving  rr.any  wounded,  ?nd  i 
ammunition,  [Provision,  and  bagp^^ge.     The  American  loss  this 
•ind  in  skirmishes  previous  on  land,  was  thirty-nine  kilkd,  sixt} 
"ounded,  and  t^venty  missing:    the  loss  of  the  British,  in  ki 
"uunded,  and  deserters,  besides  those  on  board  the  fleet,  was  esli 
'■  d  at  two  thousand  five  hundred.    General  Alexander  Macomb  i 
i>  Hided  the  American  land  forces. 

2«.  As  on  Erie  and  Champlain,  so  on  the  lake  Ontario,  each  i 
trove  for  a  naval  ascendency.  Several  large  ships  were  built  h] 
^niericans  at  Sackett's  harbour,  and  by  the  British  at  Kingston, 
^nirrican  fleet  was  commanded  by  captain  Chauncey,  and  the  B 
y  conuDodore  Yeo.  As  at  no  time,  one  side  equalled  the  oih 
n  ngth,  go  at  aJI  times  one  avoided  as  the  other  sonsrhl  for  an  vvn 
'*  nt.  A  partial  action  once  took  place ;  but  the  British  comniaj 
tiiat  time  supposing  his  force  inferior,  took  the  ad\ant;>s<e  ol 
iinstances  to  make  his  port.  One  ot  the  British  ves.^els  read 
1  at  the  close  of  the  war  manned  nearly  one  hundred  guns ;  ant 
the  laiigest  class  of  vessels  in  the  world  wei-e  at  the  .^wnjc 
ectii^  at  Sackett's  harbour. 

-  y.  In  a  sortie  from  fort  Erie,  under  the  command  ot  generai 
"wn.  aAer  a  severe  engagement,  tlie  British  were  defeated  wjtl 
^s  of  nearly  a  thousand,  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners : 
rierican  loss  exceeded  five  hundred. 

'0.  The  frigate  President,  commodore  Decatur,  sailed  from  } 
rk,  January  14, 1,815,  and  was  the  next  day  pursued  by  four  fri^ 
i  a  bri^  of  the  enemy.  An  engagement  took  place  bctwrri 
most  of  the  pursuing  vessels,  the  Endymion  and  the  Pre>i(i 
r  a  severe  action  of  two  hours,  the  Endjrmion  was  silenced 
tf-n  off*  The  Pamone  and  Tenedos  in  one  hour  coming  u]> 
^ident  was  obliged  to  surrender. 

7.  Odc  of  the  most  splendid  events  on  the  part  of  the  Amori 
ed  the  late  war:  it  was  the  discomfiture  atid  repulse  of  the  Bi 
>  ew-Orleans.  A  very  laige  British  force  entered  lake  Pont< 
7.  neatr  New-Orleans,  ear^  in  December,  1.8H,  defeating 
'bstinate  conflict  the  small  Amencan  naval  force  stationed  tl 
:  Biitiah  weie  comtnaiHlid  by .goneial  Pid^eoham,  one  of  ^ 
qq  58 

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4iS  UNITED  STATES. 

Ion's  invincrbles  who  had  conquered  the  ereat  Napoleon :  die  AtLff* 
can  army  was  led  by  e^eneral  Andrew  Jackson.  Several  akmni«ii« 
took  place,  in  which  the  British  were  almost  the  exclusive  sufftrtn. 
On  Sunday  morning  early,  Januar]^  8,  a  grand  attack  was  in^d*^  7 
the  British  on  the  American  troops  in  their  entrenchments.  Arur  rt 
eng'agement  of  more  than  an  hour,  the  enemy  were  cut  to  piec*-?  *  . 
decree  almost  beyond  example,  and  fled  in  confusion,  leavnij  on  •:• 
field  of  battle  Iheir  dead  and  wounded.  The  British  loss  wa?  y  •• 
hundred  killed,  fourteen  hundred  wounded,  and  five  hundred  pm>-  •« 
t!ie  generals  Packenham  and  Keane,  were  among  the  slain,  anii.-- 
eral  Cobb  was  dangerously  wounded.  The  American  loss  M:ts  -  <  " 
be  only  seven  killed  and  six  wounded !  The  attack  was  not  n  fi- ' ' 
and  in  a  short  time  after,  the  British  left  the  west. 

32.  Up  to  the  close  of  1,814,  the  British  ministry,  calcul?"  : 
bring  the  Americans  to  their  terms,  had  discovered  an  indispf^'t 
tre?at  witli  the  commissioners  of  tlie  United  Stales ;  but  the  <i».  • 
the  British  beforii  Plattsburgh,  gave  a  new  turn  to  the  iK-gotiat; 

a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  at  Ghent,  December  24,  1,C14.    ', 
nritions  agreed  to  appoint  commissioners  to  settle  disputed  bojf.' 
No  allusion  was  made  in  the  treaty  to  the  causes  of  the  war.    J>  •  * 
against  their  recurrence  rests,  however,  on  a  much  firmer  hv- 
the  provisions  of  the  most  solemn  treaty.     Britain  has  been  t».. 
appreciate  the  strength  of  the  republic.     By  this  war  the  pcf  !r. 
of  the  United  Stales  was  increased  a  hundred  millions  of  iioll*"- 

33.  It  would  too  much  extend  this  sketch  of  the  history  oJ  tf 
puMic,  to  trace  to  its  source  the  origin  of  pnrties  which  have  •: 
(lie  country  into  two  great  sections  with  aiflferent  appellali^cK. 
distinction  was  unknown  until  subsequent  to  Mr.  Jay'5  trt:r  * 
Great  Britain  in  1,795.     George  Washington  was  elected  prt- 
1,7C8,  and  re  elected  in  1,792.    He  was  succeeded  by  Jc4»n  \ 
elected  in  1,796,  between  whom  and  Thomas  JefferMm  !!♦- 
divided  in  1,800 :  the  latter  was  chosen  at  that  lime,  nc*?  h- 
until  he  had  been  balloted  for  thirty-six  times  by  the  house  of  ■ 
«^ntatives  in  congress,  the  vote  oy  states  being  at  tach  *  . 
equally  divided  between  Mr.  Jefferson  and  Aaron  Burr.    In ' 
Air.  JeffeiTion  was  re-elected.     Declining  an  election  in  1,^ 
Jefferson  gave  place  to  James  Madison.    The  latter  continur* 
vears,  James  Monroe  was  elected  to  the  presidency  in  1,816  ;    . 
veiieral  was  the  satisfaction  with  the  admmistratiorK  that  in  IJ  - 
iiad  all  the  electoral  votes  save  one  for  the  same  office. 

34.  Since  the  peace  the  attention  of  the  country  has  been  ra:  • 
tlie  propriety  of  augmenting  the  national  defence.     Cocpv**  ^ 
made  appropriations  for  the  purpose,  extensive  fortifications  h^* 
•^ia  continue  to  be  erected  for  the  security  of  the  commerc  ?'  * 
One  million  of  dollars  annually  is  likewise  appropriated  lor  [i*  - 
wal  augmentation  of  the  navy,  to  which,  independent  of  *■' 
vessels,  nine  ships  of  the  line,  twelve  frigates,  and  three  fioatirc: 
ries  aie  to  be  added. 

35.  By  an  act  of  congress  in  the  year  1,818,  a  yearhr  peue  "•*- 
c^nt  for  their  decent  maintenance,  having  been  grantea  to  tbor-r 
rfxi  privates  who  served  more  than  nine  months  at  anv  one  tiu« 
war  of  the  revolution,  more  than  thirty  thousand  tDd]ridtial&  o^' 
plication  for  relief.    The  sum  required  much  exceeded  fec»  "^ 
oectatioo ;  and  the  following  year  an  additional  act  was  passed 
^if  cumscribed  the  applicants  to  a  narrow  space.    ImpovtatioB  ' 
lessened,  the  amount  received  into  tbt  tiwsuiy  from  dntio  ^  - 

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UNITED  STAIES.  459 

i»  fAan  (he  calculations ;  and  in  1,821,  the  standing  militaiy  force 
as  reduced  from  ten  to  six  thousand,  and  the  building  of  ships  of  war 
as,  in  some  deg*«e,  suspended. 

Jo.  Since  the  admission  of  Louisiana  in  1,812,  six  other  states  have 
pen  admitted  into  the  Union— Indiana  in  1,816,  Mississippi  in  1,817, 
hi)ois  in  1,818,  Alabama  in  1,819,  Maine  in  1,820,  and  Missouri  in 
:>2L  Indiana  and  Illinois  are  sections  of  the  same  territory  from 
hich  Ohio  was  made  a  state.  Mississippi  and  Alabama  belonged  to 
'  or^ia  and  Louisiana :  Maine  was  separated  from  Massachusetts,  and 
i^Miuri  from  the  vast  tract  ceded  by  the  French,  under  the  name  of 
LHJi^iana. 

37.  A  treatjr  was  concluded  at  Washington  in  1,819,  by  which  Spain 
^ied  to  the  United  States  thai  portion  of  her  territory,  known  by  the 
line  of  Florida.  Five  millions  of  dollars  was  the  price ;  and  the 
:i],  in  pursuance  of  the  treaty,  has  been  paid  as  indemnity  to  Amer- 
iii  citizens  for  illegal  seizures  of  their  property  in  Spanish  ports. 
.»'J.  Besides  the  different  state  governments,  territorial  governments, 
th  magistrates  appointed  by  the  president  and  senate,  exist  in 
ithtgan,  Arkansas,  and  Florida. 

J9.  In  the  year  1,820,  the  fourth  authorized  cerc?us  of  llie  inhabitants 
1*  recorded.  The  progress  of  population  has  been  rapid  almost 
yiMid  a  parallel.  In  1,790,  the  population  was  three  millions  nine 
ndred  ^od  twenty-one  thousand :  in  1,800,  five  millions  three 
ndred  and  twenty  thousand  :  in  1,810,  seven  millions  two  hundred 
[1  forty  thousand  ;  and  in  1,820^  nine  millions  six  hundred  and  thirty- 
rfat  thousand. 


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> 


PART  FIFTH. 

SECTION  I. 

ADDITIONAL  FACTS,  BRINGING  DOWN  THE  GENEEAL  m 
TORY  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

1.  Ift  1 ,820,  some  commotion  was  caused  in  France  by  the  assassi- 
tion  of  the  Duke  of  Berri ;  nephew  of  Louis  XVIII.  and  son  ci: 
present  king.  He  was  stabbed  at  the  door  of  the  opera  bouse  bj  r 
obscure  person  named  Louvel.  It  appeared  that  the  assassin  «^ 
instigated  to  this  horrid  deed  merely  by  a  thirst  for  revenging;  an  l 
leged  injurv,  which  he  su£fered  many  years  previous. 

2.  Napoieon  Bonaparte  died  at  St.  Helena,  May  5th  1,821,  a^ec- 
He  was  a  man  of  talents  which  few  other  men  are  competent  to  e* 
mate  :  of  astonishing  foresight  and  intrepidity  :  of  insatiable  ambit. 
His  career  was  marked  by  the  most  splendid  achievements.    Hc/^ 
destined  by  Providence  to  humble  the  pride  of  the  Princes  oi 
earth,  to  shake  the  foundations  of  arbitrary  power,  and  then,  tf 
himself  humbled  and  debased.    To  France  he  gave  a  code  of  i 
the  influence  of  which  has  been  felt  throughout  Europe,  and  will  - 
lend  through  the  world.    He  gave  to  the  lower  classes  of  the  ccn' 
nity,an  activity  and  importance,  which  they  had  never  felt ;  but  nl> 
having  been  once  appreciated,  they  are  not  likely  to  surrender.  H 
political  maxims,  however  selfish  in  their  ends,  were  utteriy  at  v  i 
ance  with  that  baser  love  of  arbitraiy  domink)n,  which  is  tezr 
of  the  welfare  of  its  subjects.     He  loved  to  govern ;  but  his  am^ 
made  him  wish  to  govern  an  industrious,  enlightened,  and  )• ' 
world;  and  wherever  he  extended  his  conouests,  he  endeavuurt^  { 
relieve  the  oppressed,  and  break  the  shackles  under  which  buc...   i 
groaned.     The  edbrts  which  are  now  making  by  the  lo^er  ciav* 
almost  ev^ry  arbitrary  government,  to  obtain  free  constitutions  «^  I 
shall  elevate  them  from  the  rank  of  slaves  to  that  of  citizeoi,  r   | 
be  ascribed,  in  a  great  measure,  to  the  influence  of  his  institutia>. 
bis  example.    We  can  mark  no  limits  to  the  blessings  which,  u' -'i 
Heaven,  tie  dispensed  while  he  lived,  and  bequeathed  to  p<>>>  'i 
If  we  judge  him  by  the  effects  of  his  conquests,  his  institutions  :>  *  ^ 
administration  of  government,  he  will  appear  one  of  thegreale.^  '«^w 
factors  of  mankind  :  but  if  as  Christians,  we  estimate  his  chanc.:  { 
the  motives  which  he  manifested  throughout  his  career,  we  shji.  i 
ittle  in  it  to  applaud,  but  much  to  condemn.    Although  it  i^a?  < 

of  his  policy  to  ameliorate  the  condition  of  men,  a  wish  to  estr-* 
k)  secure  his  own  sovereignty  over  them  appeals  to  have  UylJ 
ruling  motive.  An  all-wise  Providence  converted  his  det^^-f 
blessing,  but  they  cannot  entitle  him  to  the  praise  of  Christian  v 
tf  his  rise  and  reign  was  all  that  men  call  glorious,  his  downi; 
hibited  a  reverse  no  less  signal.  Confined  on  one  of  the  most : 
and  dismal  islands  in  the  world, — guarded  and  controlled  by  e 
who  exercised  towards  him  a  petty  tyranny,  which  denied  not .' 
Quently  the  common  civilities  of  life,— wasted  by  a  lopg  and  f^H 
disease, — all  the  circumstances  about  him  combined  to  mock  Uf 
mer  greatness,  and  to  witness  to  an  ambitious  world,  that  ^P 
txailtth  hivMelf  shall  be  obaud. 

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ADDITIONAL  FACTS,  &c.  461 

3.  In  1,823,  France  obtained  permission  from  the  Coneress  of  Allied 
SovereigiK,  held  at  Verona,  to  invade  Spain,  and  re-establish  the  king 
m  his  former  authority.  It  was  expected  that  the  friends  of  tlie  new 
ronstitution  would  have  been  able  to  make  a  powerful  resistance  to 
his  invasion  ;  but  the  conquest  proved  easy ;  and  this  revolution. 
ike  that  of  1,820,  was  accomplished  with  veiy  little  bloodshed.  Ob 
he  16th  day  of  Sept.  1,824,  Louis  XVIII.  died  of  the  dropsy:  his 
jrother  succeeded  to  the  throne  and  took  the  title  of  Charles  a. 

4.  A  revolution  similar  in  its  character  to  that  in  Spain  took  place 
n  Portugal  in  1,820.  In  1,821,  the  Royal  Family,  with  the  exception 
•f  the  Prince  Royal,  the  king^s  son,  returned  from  Brazil.  The  king 
wore  to  the  free  constitution,  and  the  kingdom  enjoyed  a  gtxxl  de- 
cree of  tranquillity  until  May  1,823,  when  a  counter-revolution  was 
uinmenced,  and  on  the  3d  of  June  the  king  issued  his  proclamation 
iiiiKjuncing  the  restoration  of  the  Ancient  Aionarchy. 

5.  In  England,  George  IV.  succeeded  to  the  throne  upon  the  death 
't'  bis  father  George  III.  He  had  for  many  je^rs  been  Prince 
ii«;?ent.  The  year  was  distinguished  by  domestic  commotions,  of 
^liicb  the  disturbances  among  the  labouring  classes  in  Manchester 

:>!  other  manufacturing  towns,  were  the  most  alarming.     The  ai- 

•  ^'ed  cause  of  complaint  was  the  low  price  of  wages,  which  was 
t  riared  to  be  quite  disproportionate  to  tneir  services.  Large  meet- 
f.r-  were  held  in  many  places,  and  veiv  riotous  proceedings  passed, 
:>  1  the  nation  was  much  alanned  by  tbe  prospects  of  a  civil  war. 
1  he  malecontents  found  several  able  leaders,  among  whom  Hunt  and 
1  iiistlewood  were  prominent.  The  commotions  were,  however, 
('>».'lled  without  their  objects  bein|;  obtained.    Hunt  suffered  a  long 

iiprisonment ;  Thistlewood  and  tour  others  were  executed,  and  five 
'f-rxj  transported. 

6.  But  this  year  was  principally  memorable  for  the  trial  of  the 
{'K.en  on  a  charge  of  adulteiy.     This  affair  produced  a  remarkable 

•  lice  of  excitement  not  only  throughout  that  kingdom,  but  also  on 
jt'  continent  and  in  America. 

7.  Since  the  termination  of  these  difficulties  the  nation  has  enjoyed 
.  inquillity  and  a  hi^  degree  of  prosperity. 

h.  Tbe  summer  oT  1,831,  was  remarkable  for  the  scantiness  of  the 
r  T'<  in  Ireland.  The  following  winter  brought  a  most  distressing 
•:niixs  of  which  great  numbers  perished. 

9.  Since  the  establishment  of  peace  in  1,816,  the  Northern  States 
^  Europe  have  enjoyed  a  ^ood  dejfree  of  tranquillity.     Few  events 

1^0  occurred,  to  serve  as  items  of  general  history.    By  a  decree  of 

•e  Emperor  of  Russia  in  1,811,  the  government  of  that  empire  was 
I'  .hired  to  be  a  constitutional  monarchy.     Little  was  done  till  after 

•.  peace  to  limit  its  despotic  character,  but  since  that  period  some 
<'ri>titut]oaa]  privileges  nave  been  granted  to  the  subjects.    Similar 

f  ^rovements  have  l^n  made,  and  are  making,  in  the  firovemments 
:  most  of  these  States.    Prussia  has  established  assemblies,  which 

•  if  a  representative  character. 

10.  Id  1,816,  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  composed  of  the  authorities  of 
iw-tria,  France,  Great-Britain,  Prussia,  and  Russia,  made  a  solemn 

•  •  laration  of  their  resolution  to  put  a  stop  to  the  African  Slave  Trade. 
liis  wicked  traffic  was  not,  however,  diminished  by  this  measure,  be- 
lu^e  France  was  totally  unfaithful  to  her  promise.  At  the  Congress 
(  \'erona  i|i  1,8S3,  the  same  powers,  with  the  exception  of  France, 
eclared  that  this  crime  ought  to  be  assimilated  with  (bat  of  piracy, 
ad  hence  punishable  with  deaOu 

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462  HISTORY  OF  NEW  SPAIN. 

11.  In  1,816,  the  Jesuits  were  expelled  from  Mo5co%t  and  Petenr 
burgh,  and  in  1,820,  from  the  whole  Russian  empire,  and  forbidiiti 
ever  to  return. 

12.  Pope  Pius  VII.  died  Aug.  20, 1,823,  in  the  eirfity-seconil  Ter 
of  his  affe,  9  nd  the  twenty- fourtli  oi'  his  pontificate.  He  was  succW  i- 
ed  by  the  Cardinal  Delia  Genga,  who  assumed  the  title  of  Leo  XII 
The  present  Pope,  was  bom  on  the  2d  of  Aug.  1,760.  He  wa5  Nun- 
cio fourteen  jears  in  the  electorates  of  the  Rhine.  At  the  perio<i  ^ 
the  persecutions  exercised  by  Bonaparte  against  the  Catholic  Churcli 
he  was  obliged  to  quit  Rome  with  the  other  prelates  and  cardirn!' 
At  the  restoration,  he  was  the  cardinal  selected  by  Pius  VII J) 
congratulate  Louis  XVIII.  on  his  return.  The  commencement  vih^ 
pontificate  has  been  signalized  by  his  refusal  to  restore  tiie  Inquisiti. 
Ill  Spain,  declaring  it  inconsistent  with  the  liberal  spirit  of  the  ai^e. 

13.  In  the  summer  of  1,820,  an  insurrection  broke  out  in  Naj'  • 
and  Sicily,  and  so  feeble  was  the  established  government,  that  ib 
insurgents  soon  compelled  the  king  to  grant  them  a  free  constitulu  "■ 
The  Allied  Sovereigns  of  Europe  at  their  session  at  Troppau,  near  li. 
close  of  the  same  year,  made  a  formal  declaration  of  irrecoiK.ilii'  f- 
hostility  to  this  new  government.  In  1,821,  they  decided  at  the  C  •!> 
CTess  of  Laybach,  that  a  portion  of  the  Austrian  army  should  occupy 
Naples,  to  restore  the  autliority  of  the  king.  This  was  readily  nc- 
complished,  and  with  little  opposition.  The  Spanish  constitutions 
1,812,  was  granted  to  Naples  and  Sicily,  and  tranquillity  was  resti^rei. 
Similar  disturbances  took  place  at  the  same  period  m  some  of  iffc 
Sardinian  States,  but  they  were  quieted  by  the  result  of  those  in  >. - 
pies  and  Sicily 

14.  Turkey  has  enjoyed  little  tranquillity  for  many  years.  TI^ 
Greeks  revolted  from  the  Ottoman  power  in  1,821 ;  and  from  th. 
period  to  the  present  a  bloody  war  has  been  carried  on  between  lh< " 
and  the  Turks.  The  latter  have  committed  frequent  and  h<>rril  « 
massacres  of  the  Christians  in  Constantinople,  Scio,  and  other  plan« . 
and  have  endeavoured  to  reduce  their  revolted  subjects  by  eveiy  >• : 
of  cruelty  and  oppression.  The  Greeks  have  maintained  their  slnt: 
gle  for  independence  with  much  bravery  and  spirit,  which  has  ^*>{''- 
times  become  ferocity  ;  but  they  are  neither  sufficiently  virtuous  fv 
civilized  to  act  in  full  concert  in  resisting  oppression.  It  is  impo^- 1  '- 
to  judge  how  far  they  have  been  really  successful,  and  what  are  \i\<  tr 
prospects  of  ultimate  success,  owing  to  the  want  of  authentic  chanp  • 
of  information ;  but  at  thb  moment  the  existing  probability  is  dec/ 
edly  in  favour  of  their  success. 


SECTION  SECOND. 
HISTORY  OF  NEW  SPAIN. 

COMPILED  PRTNCIPALLlf  FROM  POINSETT**  NOTES  ON  MEXICO. 

1.  Whew  this  countnr  was  first  visited  by  the  Spaniards  in  l,£ii 
it  had  attained  a  high  degree  of  civilization.  Of  Inis  we  may  ju-. 
by  the  form  of  its  government,  its  laws,  and  its  civil  institutions. 

2.  The  monarch  was  chosen  from  among  the  members  of  lije  nnr 
ing  family  by  six  electors,  chosen  from  among  the  tluitr  prirK-*^-  •. 
the  first  rank.     The  political  system  was  feudal.     The  first  clasf 
nobles,  consisting  of  thirty  famjlies  had  each  one  hundred  th'H4^.t• 

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HISTORY  OF  NEW  SPAIN.  463 

vn!»5.'>ls.  Tiie  second  class  con^islcii  of  ni^re  than  lliroc  thoii.'-anJ 
faaiiiies  The  lorcis  exercised  the  right  of  life  and  dcnlh  over  tiieir 
va^.-ais.  All  tliC  lands  were  divided  into  allodial,  hereditary,  and 
contingent  estates, — the  latter  depending  upon  places  in  the  i?ift  of  the 
cnmn. 

X  The  priests  were  chai-ged  with  the  education  of  youth  ;  and  cii 
their  te?timony  of  the  merit  of  their  scliolars,  dependtid  their  luliire 
nnk.  Under  Montezuma,  the  emperor  at  this  i)eriod,  the  government 
was  despotic,  hut  he  was  subject  to  the^  hii;:h  priest.  Kach  piovince 
\\r«s  suhjeft  io  a  tribute  ;  but  certain  nobles  were  excey»tcd,  who  were 
f"mi>ellea  to  take  the  lleld  in  case  of  a  war,  with  a  stated  number  vl 
1 1  lowers.  The  tribute  was  paid  in  kind,  and  was  fLxed  at  one  thii  - 
iMth  part  of  the  crop.  The  governors  {>(  provinces  also  vied  uilh 
•  ich  other  in  the  masjnificence  of  their  presents  to  the  emj>eror. 

4.  Sacrile2:e,  murder,  and  treason,  were  punished  with  death  ;  and 
'Uc  laws  of  the  empire  were  generally  as  much  nspecled  as  in  tin' 
'rii'^t  civilized  European  nations  of  that  a^c.  The  attention  of  the 
^'.(veniment  was  principally  directed  towards  the  internal  commerce, 
•<•  ns  to  secure  an  abundant  pupi)ly  to  the  people.  Posts  were  estab- 
lished between  the  capital  and  the  remotest  provinces.  A  court  of 
:.  n  masristrates  de'.ermined  the  validity  of  contracts ;  and  oflk^i-s  were 
f  •.fi^tantly  employed  to  examine  the  measures  and  the  quality  ofgood-? 
f  \;><'-ed  for  sale. 

:>.  Hcsides  tlie  empire  of  the  Mi;xicans,  of  which  wc  have  been 

;•!  ikin^,  there  were  other  powerful  states,  whose  form  of  government 

e.is  republican.     The  most  Powerful  of  these  was  Tlascala,  the  ir<iv- 

»'ii:iient  of  which  continued  for  some  time  after  the  conquest   of 

"^r*  \ico.     It  was  a  thickly  settled,  fertile,  and  populous  country,  di- 

V  lied  into  districts,  each  under  the  authority  of  a  chief.    These  chief- 

iinirjistered  justice,  levied  the  tribute,  and  commanded  the  military 

Mice-,  but  ih'ir  rleci*ees  were  not  valid,  or  of  force,  until  confirmed  by 

lie  M-nate  of  Tlascala,  which  was  the  true  sovereig^n.     A  certain  num- 

•♦-rof  citizens,  chosen  from  the  d liferent  districts  by  pojuilar  a««>em- 

'.!if»*.  tonned  this  h  gislative  body.     The  senate  elected  its  own  chief. 

I'lie  laws  were  strictly  and  impartially  executed  ;  and  the  people  aie 

trprosfjnted  as  numerous,  wealthy,  and  powerful. 

f.  The  Mexicans  {assessed  some  knowledge  of  Astronomy,  and 
Sfdr  calendar  was  constructtrd  wiUi  more  exactness  than  that  of  t!ie 
J  rteks,  the  Romans,  or  the  t^gyptlar^s.  Their  hierxjglyphics,  drawinjis, 
ir..l  maps^their  cities  and  artihcial  roads,  causeways,  canals,  and  im- 
;•  nse  pyramids— the ir  government  and  hierarchy,  and  administration 
•  f  laws — their  knowledge  of  the  art  of  mining,  and  of  preparing  nut.il.'* 

•  r  f»rnament  and  use— tlieir  skill  in  carving  images  out  of  tiie  hnnie-*. 
:  ,!u. — in  m:4nii!'acturing  and  dying  cloths,  and  the  perfection  of  their 
L-ii«ulture,  afl'ord  ample  evidence  of  the  high  degree  of  civilization 

•  .  ined  liy  the  Mexicans.  If  we  recollect  tliat  at  this  period,  the  art 
r    I  Tinting  was  not  used  in  Europe,— tliat  the  Reformation  had  not 

!.i-ii  place. — that  most  of  the  great  improvements  in  arts  and  science 

«-  €if  more  modern  date,  we  shall  see  no  reason  to  call  the  Mexican-. 

T  ?  I, irons,  compared  with  their  proud  invaders,  or  with  otlier  nati(.i.s 

•int  period.     Their  religion  was  disgraced  by  gmss  super«tilit»n  ; 

•  1    tlic  sacritice  of  human  victi.ns  was  not  unfrequent.     But,  still, 

♦.  n  compared  with  other  nations,  they  were  not  deficient  in  practi- 

/  virtue.     Indeed  nothing  in  tlieir  character  appears   to  have  t>een 

I  {*  so  gnxs  and  antichristian,  as  the  merciless  conduct  of  their  inva 

.  -».      We  cannot  estimate  them  by  the  degraded  .'state  of  the  it:nain- 

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464  HISTORY  OF  NEW  SPAIN. 

ir^  natives ;  for  when  the  country  was  conquered,  its  aits,  and  sdences, 
and  civil  and  relisious  institutions  ceased,  because  those  classes  in  the 
community  by  whom  knowledg^e  was  possessed  and  transmitted,  were 
utterly  exterminated. 

7.  Shortly  after  the  Spaniards  under  Cortez  landed  at  Vera  Cruz, 
he  received  messen^er^  from  Montezuma,  brir^ng  with  them  presents 
to  a  considerable  amount,  and  entrcatine  Cortez  not  to  adrance  far* 
ther  into  the  country.  But  the  sight  of  this  display  of  wealth  stimu- 
lated the  cupidity  of  the  Spaniards,  and  confirmed  their  resolution  to 
penetrate  to  the  capital,  in  their  route  they  had  to  contend  against 
the  republic  of  Tiascala,  a  nation  continually  at  war  with  the  empire 
of  Mexico.  Cortez  vanquislied  them  in  two  battles,  and  found  no 
difficulty  in  cnlistine^  them  ap^.iinst  Montezuma.  Six  thousand  Tiasca* 
lans  were  added,  as  auxiliaries,  to  his  European  troops,  and  be  con- 
tinued his  march  upon  the  capital  of  the  empire  under  the  guise  of 
friendship.  As  he  advanced,  he  continued  to  augment  his  forces  by 
treaties  with  other  nations  and  tribes  which  were  inimical  to  Monte- 
zuma ;  and  with  a  European  force  of  five  hundred  infantry  and  fifteen 
horsemen,  and  a  larp:e  army  of  Indians,  he  reached  the  city  of  Tenoch* 
titlan  on  the  8th  of  Nov.  1,519.  The  emperor  received  him  with  a 
degree  of  magnificence  that  excited  the  astonishment  of  the  Spaniaids. 
The  whole  army  was  lodged  and  entertained  sumptuously,  and  Cortez 
received  presents  to  a  great  amount. 

8.  Montezuma  soon  found  that  by  admitting  an  armed  and  power- 
ful friend  into  his  capital,  he  had  delivered  himself  and  his  people 
into  the  hands  of  a  ferocious  enemy.  Cortez  demanded  tnat  the 
Mexican  general,  Qualpopoca,  who  had  committed  some  hostilities  oo 
the  colony  left  at  Vera  Cnjz,  should  be  delivered  up  to  bim,  bound 
hand  and  foot,  and  he  caused  him  to  be  burnt  alive.  He  neit  got 
possession  of  the  person  of  the  emperor  and  detained  him  prisoner.  Bui 
the  indio;nalion  of  the  people  was  most  excited  by  the  contempt  with 
which  their  religious  rites  and  idols  were  treated  by  the  Spaniards. 

9.  Cortez  was  now  compelled  to  leave  the  force  at  Tenochtitlan 
the  capital,  in  thecommana  of  Alvarado,  and  march  against  NarvatiZ 
who  had  arrived  on  the  coast  to  deprive  him  of  his  command.  Haviia^ 
vanquished  Narvaez  and  obtained  a  considerable  accession  of  force, 
he  returned  to  Tenochtitlan,  and  found  that  the  Mexicans  had  burnt  l/Jt 
vessels  which  he  had  constructed  on  the  Lake,  and  had  just  laid  siegi. 
to  the  building;  in  which  the  Spaniards  were  lodged.  The  siege  nav 
prosecuted  with  vigour  by  the  natives,  and  the  place  defended  with 
obstinacy  by  the  Spaniards.  Montezuma  having  ascended  a  terrac*- 
was  killed  by  a  stone  or  arrowy  and  his  brother  Quetlavaca  proclaimeti 
his  successor.  This  gave  such  vigour  to  the  Mexicans,  that  the  Span- 
iards were  obliged  to  retreat  with  great  loss.  At  Otumba,  Cortez  w?^ 
obliged  to  turn  and  give  them  battle.  He  was  victorious,  and  pn*- 
ceeaed  to  Tiascala  without  further  trouble.  To  secure  his  ascenden- 
cy over  this  republic,  he  made  frequent  incursions  into  the  territories 
of  neighbouring  nations,  and  with  uniform  success. 

10.  In  December  1,521,  he  returned  to  the  vale  of  Tezcuoo,  an-i 
from  this  place  continued  to  carnr  on  the  war  against  the  Mexicat.^ 
and  their  allies.  He  ordered  to  oe  constructed  at  Tiascala  tlie  frauR- 
of  thirteen  vessels,  and  they  were  brought  by  an  immense  number  tr 
Indians  to  the  Lake  Tezcuco.  When  these  vessels  were  read^,  ht 
gent  for  his  allies,  amounting  to  fifty  thousand  troops,  who  soon  arrivtnl. 
After  a  siege  of  seventy-five  days  the  city  was  captured,  Aug.  V^tU, 
1,521.    The  captured  Mexicans  were  divided  among  the  cociqucAj,^ 

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HISTORY  OF  NEW  SPAIN  465 

—one  fiftA  being  resened  for  the  king  of  Spain ;  and  they  continued 
to  be  treated  as  slaves  for  centuries,  notwitostanding  the  humane  hwa 
passed  in  Spain  for  their  relief.  This  conquest  was  completed  in  the 
reig^  of  Guatimozin  son  of  Montezuma,  Who  had  succeeded  to  the 
throne  after  the  death  of  Quetlavaca. 

11.  There  is  little  interesting  in  the  history  of  Mexico  from  this 
period  till  the  commencement  of  the  Revolution  in  1,810.  Almost  the 
only  bright  spot  in  the  page  of  its  histoiy  during  tliis  period,  is  the 
administration  of  the  viceroy  Revillagi^edo.  Good  roads,  leadir^ 
from  the  capital  to  diflferent  parts  of  the  Kingdom,  were  mftde  by  his 
orders ;  the  streets  of  the  principal  cities  were  paved  and  lighted, 
and  good  police  regulations  established.  An  authentic  statistical 
account  of  the  country  was  made,  and  almost  eveiy  salutary  law  and 
legulation,  now  in  existence,  may  be  traced  to  his  administration. 

12.  To  understand  the  nature  of  the  authority  which  Spain  exer- 
cised over  her  American  Colonies,  it  is  necessary  to  remark  that  all 
acouisitions  in  America  were  considered  as  l^longing  to  the  crown, 
ratoer  than  to  the  state.  Pope  Alexander  VI.  first  bestowed  them  as 
a  free  gift,  upon  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  They  and  their  successors 
were  to  be  held  as  the  universal  proprietors  of  tlie  regions  which  had 
been,  or  should  be  discovered.  All  officers  in  the  colonies,  whether 
civil  or  ecclesiastic,  were  appointed  by  their  authority,  and  remova- 
ble at  their  pleasure.  The  Spanish  possessions  were,  at  first,  divided 
into  two  vice  royalties.  New  Spain  and  Peru  ;  but  subsequently,  a 
third  was  established  at  Santa  l-e  dc  Bogota,  the  jurisdiction  of  which 
extended  over  Terra  Firma  and  the  province  of  Quito. 

13.  The  authority  of  the  viceroys  was  supreme  in  every  depart- 
nnent  of  government,  civil,  military,  and  criminal.  To  aid  them  in  the 
administration  of  government  in  provinces  remote  from  tlieir  residence, 
ni.tgistrates  of  various  onlers  were  appointed,  subject  to  the  viceroy  ; 
and  courts,  called  Audiences,  werr  established,  wlio.'^e  decisions  were, 
ill  most  cases,  final.  Upon  the  death  of  a  viccn>y  without  any  pro- 
vL<ion  of  a  successor  by  the  kir^,  the  suprenie  power  was  ve>tea  in 
the  court  of  Audience  resident  in  the  capital  of  the  viccroyalty,  and 
the  senior  judge,  assisted  by  his  brethren,  excrci.-ed  all  the  functions 
4>t'  the  viceroy,  while  the  office  continued  vacant. 

14*  The  supreme  government  of  all  the  Spanish  Oix^^^essions  in 
^-^tnerica  was,  however,  vested  in  the  Council  of  the  Indies.  This 
^Jouncil  was  first  established  by  Ferdinand  in  1,511.     Its  juri>diclion 

♦  •Ktended  to  every  department,  ecclesiastical,  civil,  military,aiid  com- 
rtM-rcial.  All  laws  and  ordinances  relative  to  the  government  and 
f  M,>!ice  of  the  colonies  oritrinated  there,  and  must  be  approved  by  two 
r  liirds  of  the  members,  betore  being  issued  in  the  name  of  the  liine. 
'  J.'o  it  each  person  employed  in  Anierica,  from  the  viceroy  dowmvarda, 
-v*  as  accountable.  H^-lore  it  was  laid  all  intelligence  public  or  secret, 
*-«.>4reived  from  the  colonies,  and  every  scheme  of  improving  the  ad* 
-  sinistration,  police,  or  commerce,  was  submitted  to  its  considera* 
*  z  <  >n. 

15.  Another  tribunal  was  establislicd  at  Seville  in  1,501,  called 
t  _  Visa  de  la  QnUraiacion,  or  the  house  of  trade,  h  was  designed  to 
f  « -irulate  such  commercial  atTairs  as  required  the  immediate  and  per- 
*_  .  yuaJ  inspection  of  those  apjMintcd  to  supcrintt?»  I  them.    Such  is  an 

•  tjtline  of  the  system  of  government  which  Spain  established  it  her 
,  X  merican  colonies. 

16.  In  1,808,  the  viceroy  of  Mexico,  Don  Jo«e  Iturrig.iray,  received 
^Aj^  OOltradicfconr  orders  from  the  supreme  authorities  in  Spain,  as 

69 

Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


4*6  HISTORY  OF  xVEW  SPAIN. 

to  render  it  necessary  to  call  a  Junta  composed  of  a  representative 
from  each  province.  This  measure  excited  tlie  jealousy  of  the  Eu- 
ropeans in  the  capital,  as  it  was  calculated  to  place  the  Creoles  on  an 
equal  footing  with  themselves  in  the  government.  They  therefore 
conspired  against  the  viceroy,  surprised  him,  and  sent  him  and  his 
£amily  prisoners  to  Spain.  Shortly  after  the  arrival  of  the  next  vice- 
roy, Van^as,  the  Creoles  formed  a  conspiracy  to  overthrow  hi* 
power.  They  collected  a  lai^e  force  under  Hidalgo  a  priest  of  some 
distinction,  and  for  several  months  their  success  seeroea  almost  ct-r- 
tain.  But  Hidalgo,  by  a  most  unaccountable  mismanagement  suffert-ii 
his  army  to  be  defeated  with  great  slaughter  in  Oct.  1,809,  and  their 
total  defeat  followed  in  January  1,811. 

17.  Another  attempt  was  soon  made  by  the  Creoles  and  Indiaiv^ 
under  Rayon,  a  laviyer  of  great  influence,  but  the  revolt  was  sup- 
pressed. A  Inore  formidable  army  was  gathered  by  Morelos  in  1.814 
— 15,  and  the  contest  for  independence  again  appeared  more  hopeful ; 
but  he  was  defeated,  taken  prisoner,  and  executed.  In  Nov.  l,8lfi, 
the  Patriots  were  cheered  by  the  arrival  of  General  Mina  with  a  small 
force  from  England.  Uniting  himself  with  the  army  already  in  ope- 
ration, he  sustained  the  conflict  with  great  bravery  for  one  year,  but 
was  then  defeated  and  executed.  The  Independent  army  was  now 
too  feeble  for  offensive  operation,  and  little  was  done  until  the  revo- 
lution of  Spain  in  1,821.  The  decrees  of  the  Cortez  confiscatir^  tht* 
estates,  and  reducing^  and  reforming  some  of  the  hielier  orders  of  the 
clergy,  excited  the  Indignation  of  the  church  in  Mexico,  and.  fr<nji 
lliat  lime,  the  priests  used  their  influence  in  favour  of  a  separati<"'ri 
from  Spain.  Although  their  inlluence  had  been  somewhat  dimmisbc-  i. 
it  was  still  sufficient  to  produce  the  adoption  of  almost  any  meastite 
which  they  should  reconwnend.  They  were  aided  by  the  wealthy 
Europeans  who  were  anxious  to  presene  the  countiy  in  the  purene«5 
of  despotism,  that  it  mis:ht  serve  as  a  refuge  for  the  king  of  Sp-i-n 
from  the  persecutions  of  the  Cortez,  .^nd  from  the  new  constitution. 

18.  Don  AugU5=tin  Iturbide  nas  fixed  upon  as  a  proper  pzer\\  »o 
carry  their  plans  into  efi'ect.  lie  had  distinguished  himBelf  in  the 
previous  contests  as  an  enemy  to  the  patriots,  and  the  clergj'^  little  ai- 
ticipated  that  his  love  of  tyranny  would  soon  be  exeirised  at  the  cost 
of  tfieir  dearest  plans,  ife  at  this  time  commanded  a  considerable 
arm5%  and  on  receiving:  money  to  proceed  into  the  southern  provincr*, 
he  united  himself  with  Guerrero,  one  of  the  patriot  chiefs,  and  ollcrvi 
pardon  to  all  who  would  unite  themselves  to  his  standard.  From  ih<^ 
vei^'  energetic  operations  of  the  revolutionists  in  the  capital,  the  wlll^» 
nation  was  soon  roused  iu  favour  of  independence.  The  viceroy  w .« 
deposed  ;  Iturbide  was  made  admiral  of  the  navy,  genera lis^inio  ».: 
the  anny,  and  president  of  the  Regency  which  was  established  by  the 
new  Junta.  His  ambitious  designs  now  became  manifest,  and  he  lourKi 
little  difficulty  in  raising  himself  above  the  established  autljoritie^,  anJ 
securing  the  reins  of  government.  The  Cortez  were  decidedly  op- 
posed to  him,  but  the  soldiery  were  his  friends,  and  they  compel !e  1 
Ifee  Cortez  to  declare  him  empeior  on  the  19th  of  May  1,822.  After 
havii^  attained  this  object  of  his  ambition,  he  sought  bv  every  mr^n* 
to  render  his  authority  absolute,  and  elevated  the  merabei-s  ofhis  ou-n 
fanyily  to  offices  of  state.  Many  of  the  cler^  were  far  fix>m  beinir 
satisfied  with  the  elevation  of  Iturliide.  The  archbi^op  of  Mexio-* 
refused  to  crown  him,  and  retired  from  the  capital. 

19.  The  emperor  did  ryot  long  enjoy  his  despotic  i^ign.  Santarc, 
the  governor  of  Vera  Cruz  could  not'  brook  the  control  of  a  sujx- 

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HISTORY  OF  THE  WEST  INDIES.  467 

rior.  Enjoying  an  indetiendent  command,  and  possessii^  the  coiifi- 
dence  of  a  great  part  of  the  communitjr,  he  found  no  difficulty  in  raiding 
a  formidable  force.  He  was  soon  joined  by  Guadalupe  Victoria,  who 
had  from  the  commencement  oi  the  revolution  been  a  most  failhfu! 
friend  to  the  cause  of  liberty,  but  had  been  oblig^ed,  under  the  exist- 
ing^ despotism,  to  conceal  himself  in  the  mountains.  Santana  found 
that  the  great  popularity  of  Guadalupe  Victoria  made  it  necessaiy 
to  yield  to  him  the  supreme  command.  This  bein^  readily  granted, 
they  possessed  each  others  confidence,  and  the  conndence  of  the  em- 
pire. The  array  in  all  parts  declared  for  the  republican  principles 
of  Santana,  and  the  commander  in  chief,  and  Iturbide  found  it  neces- 
sary first  to  summon  the  Cortez  which  he  had  forcibly  dissolved,  and 
afterwards,  on  the  eighth  of  March  1,823,  to  abdicate  the  throne.  He 
x^zs  permitted  to  leave  the  empire,  and  he  sailed  with  his  family  for 
Leghorn  on  the  11th  of  May.  He  returned  in  the  summer  of  1,8*24, 
but  was  received  by  republicans  who  justly  appreciated  him.  An 
order  had  been  passed  by  the  Coi^ress  for  his  immediate  execution 
in  case  of  his  arrival ;  and  as  soon  as  he  was  identified,  he  was  im- 
prisoned, and,  a  few  days  after,  was  brought  forth  by  public  order 
^nd  shot. 

20.  immediately  a Aer  his  abdication  the  nation  declared  for  a  re« 
publican  government,  and  on  the  2d  of  Februaiy  1,824,  a  federal 
c/ ►nstilution  was  adopted,  amidst  the  shouts  of  the  people  ;  and  it  is 
I  .hviously  the  form  ot  government  best  suited  to  the  interests  and  wishes 
of  a  majority  of  the  community.  The  principal  defect  in  tlieir  con- 
stitution is  the  establishment  of  the  Catholic  religion.  The  nation 
cannot  expect  to  enjoy  the  real  freedom  of  rcpuolican  institutions, 
while  their  minds  are  subjected  under  tlie  real  despotism  of  a  national 
religion.  In  other  respects  the  Con>tilution  of  tliis  republic  very  near- 
ly resembles  that  of  the  I'nited  Slates. 

21.  The  former  Captain-GtMicralship  of  Guatimala,  with  the  ex- 
roption  of  Chiapa,  declared  its  independence  at  the  same  time  with 
3f  exico,  but  refused  to  unite  with  that  government.  It  has  eiitabli>h- 
ed  an  independent,  federal  government,  uncler  the  title  of  the  Confed- 
erated States  of  the  Centre  of  America.  The  Roman  Catholic  reli;|ion 
is  established  here  also,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others  ;  and  in  nioit 
respects  their  constitution  agrees  with  that  of  the  Mexican  Republic, 


SECTION  THIRD, 
HISTORY  OF  THE  WEST  INDIES. 

1.  The  Bahamas  were  the  first  land  discovered  by  Columbus,— 
Oct.  12th  1,492.  The  first  s<»ttlement  was  made  at  Nassau  in  New 
Providence  by  the  English,  1,672.  These  islands  soon  after  became 
the  resort  of  nirates.  Their  leader  was  John  Teach,  called  Black 
y/tfttrrf,  who  (or  about  ten  years  was  the  sovereign  of  thr«e  islands, 
and  the  terror  of  the  Nortn  American  coast.  He  was  killed  off  the 
coast  of  N.  Carolina  io  1,718.  During  most  of  the  remaining  period 
the  English  have  quietly  possessed  the  Bahamas,  but  they  have  con- 
stantly served  as  lurking  places  for  some  pirates.  These  have  nwlti- 
plied  greatly  in  all  the  nest  Indies  widim  the  last  ten  years,  and  no 
oflfectual  means  have  been  devised  for  extermina litis:  them. 

*•  When  the  Bahamas  were  discovered,  the  nopuiation  was  e?ri- 
mated  at  about  40^000.    The  inhabitants  called  tticmser.  eo  laicayam 


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HISTORY  OF  THE  WEST  INDIES. 

'ere  mostly  devoted  to  maritime  life,  and  subsisted  principa]* 

fish.    They  were  ig^norant  of  the  use  of  iron,  but  made  some 

cotton  and  of  gold.    They  were  a  kind,  friendlT  people, 

0  war.  Scarcely  20  years,  however,  had  elapsed,  before  the 
us  Spaniards  transported  them  all  by  force  or  artiBce,  to  dig 
lines  oi  Hispaniola.    Being  remaricably  expert  divers,  some 

were  afterwards  transported  to  the  coast  of  Cumana,  and  em- 
in  the  pearl  fishery. 

HE  Greater  Antilles  when  first  discovered,  were  inhabited 
ce  called  Arrowauks.  They  also  possessed  a  great  part  of 
d.  It  appears  that  they  were  descended  from  the  Arrowaoks 
na.  All  of  this  name  spoke  one  laimiage,  and  had  the  same 
ons.  They  believed  m  an  invisible,  omnipotent  Creator 
Jocahuna,  but  admitted  a  plurality  of  subordinate  deities,  and 

American  Indians  generally,  thej  believed  in  a  future  8tat£ 
bution.  Their  children  were  entirely  naked,  but  the  adults 
slight  covering  of  cotton  cloth  round  the  waist.  The^  were 
and  hospitable  people,  but  effeminate  and  sensual.  The  di- 
nd  fertility  of  the  soil  naturally  made  them  indolent.    From 

till  dawn  they  were  much  engaged  in  dancing,  and  as  many 
)0  Sometimes  joined  at  once  in  this  favourite  amusement, 
hese  islands  were  divided  into  great  kingdoms,  subject  to 
s  or  hereditary  monarchs.  Each  kingdom  was  subdivided 
nerous  principalities.  The  regal  authority  was  absolute,  but 
iiinistered  with  great  mildness.  The  aboriginal  population 
n  estimated  at  3,000,000  :  but  within  20  years  after  the  dis- 
hy Columbus,  the  great  body  of  them  were  esctenninated.  A 
w  only  remain  in  the  island  of  Cuba  ;  but  the  Arrowauks  in 

are  still  a  distinct  tribe. 

here  is  liltJe  in  the  history  of  colonial  governments  that  is  inters 
md  valuable  ;  and  none  of  the  West  India  islands,'  except  St. 
^o,  have  become  independent.  The  Spaniards  have  lost  many 
slands  to  which  they  first  laid  claim  ;  but  the  present  posses- 
!  well  known  from  common  geographies,  and  the  time  fidieu 
•ifling  revolutions  took  place  is  of  little  consequence,  while  the 
produced,  were  so  unimportant.  One  fact  is  worthy  of  recoprl 
ur  of  the  Spaniards — whose  rapacity  and  cruelty  has  been 
d  by  no  other  nation  in  modem  times,  and  who  have,  of  laic 
)een  suffering  a  natural  and  just  retribution  of  their  enormitier. 
their  credit  oe  it  said,— their  treatment  of  negro  slaves  hr-s 
ore  humane  than  that  of  other  nations  ;  and  the  Spanish  laiv> 
[  in  their  favour,  have  had  a  powerful  influence  to  enlighten  the 

1  and  French  in  this  cause  of  humanity. 

he  Buccaniers,  who  were  the  lorefathersofthe  present  pirate* i 
)  some  notice.  They  consisted  originally  of  a  body  of  Frencri 
glish  planters  expelled  by  the  Spaniards  from  the  island  of  St. 
phers  m  1,629,  with  circumstances  of  outrageous  barbarity. 
irst  established  themselves  on  tlie  small  island  of  Tortuga,  near 
VV.  part  of  St.  Domingo.  They  were  here  joir«ed  by  some 
emigrants,  who  had  been  expelled  in  tlie  same  manner  iJrom 
>uz.  Their  first  occupation  was  hunting  wild  cattle  on  the 
if  St.  Domingo^  which  they  buccaned  and  Drought  to  the  place 
retreat.  The  word  buccan  signified  a  grate  of  hurdre  or 
meat  was  prepared  before  the  fire  ;  and  from  their  abondanl 
t,  these  people  werf  called  buccaniers,  buccaners^  or  huccasieert. 
Years  after  their  establishment  here,  a  Spanish  armameot 

Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WEST  INDIES.  469 

without  any  provocation,  invaded  them,  and  barbarously  murdered 
all  their  women  and  children.  This  roused  the  Buccaniers  to  re- 
venge ;  and  they  soon  became  the  most  terrible  antagonists  the 
Spaniards  ever  encountered.  Many  others  joined  them,  and  they 
Lecame  formidable  both  from  their  numbers  and  their  desperate  brave- 
ry. By  their  means  the  Spaniards  lost  the  western  part  of  St.  Do- 
mingo, and  the  whole  island  of  Jamaica,  besides  an  almost  incredible 
amount  of  property,  and  a  great  number  of  human  lives.  Their  most 
renowned  feaclers  were  Montbars,  a  native  of  Languedoc,  and  Henry 
Morgan,  a  Welshman.  The  war  between  England  and  France  m 
1 ,688,  occasioned  a  disunion  of  the  English  and  French  Buccaniei^s, 
and  greatly  weakened  their  force,  and  they  possessed  little  power 
after  the  year  1,700. 

7.  St.  Domingo  or  Hayti  furnishes  tne  most  important  items  in 
the  history  of  the  West  Indies.  Spain  ceded  the  western  half  of  the 
iaiand  to  France  by  the  treaty  of  Ryswick  in  1,697.  It  did  not  be- 
come a  prosperous  colony  till  thirty  years  after.  In  1,791  an  alann- 
irttT  insurrection  of  the  negroes  broke  out  in  the  French  colony,  which 
dtilugedhalf  of  the  northern  province  in  blood.  The  next  year,  the 
national  assembly  proclaimi'd  the  political  equality  of  the  whites, 
and  (rve  people  of  colour.  The  commissioners  of  tlie  French  govern- 
ment, in  1,793,  decreed  the  emancipation  of  all  the  slaves  in  the  colo- 
ny. On  tlie  21st  of  June  of  the  same  year,  Mocaya,  a  black,  at  the 
ficad  of  3,000  negroes,  l)r^an  an  indiscriminateslaughter  of  the  whiles 
at  cape  Fran*  ois,  and  muTtitudifS  were  njassacred. 

8.  An  expedition  from  Jamaica  in  1794-5-6,  attempted  to  reduce 
flie  island,  hut  wa«;,  each  year,  driven  off  by  the  yellow  fever.  The 
eastern  half  was  ceded  to  France  in  1,795,  l»ut  it  was  of  little  import- 
ance to  that  country.  In  1,801,  July  1st,  the  blacks  rose  and  decfared 
•h«-rnselves  in-lependent,  but  its  independence  was  not  well  established 
ttll  1,804.  The  tirst  sovereign  assumed  the  title  of  Jaques  1.  Empe- 
r.oR  OF  Hayti.  He  enjoyed  his  power  but  a  short  time,  being  killed 
•n  a  conspiracy  ;  and  was  succeeded  by  Christophe  under  the  title  of 
Hekry  I.  King  of  Hayti.  His  dominions  were  on  the  iK)rth  part  of 
flic  island  ;  the  soutliem  was  occupied  by  a  republican  party,  most- 
ly    mulatto*'*,   under   Petion  who   assumed   the  title   of  President 

.f  Hayti,  Fnquent  and  bl(K>ily  contlicls  occurred  between  these 
•\vo  parties.  On  the  death  of  Petion  in  1,B17,  Boyfr  was  appointed 
l*i€*sident;  and.  on  the  death  of  Christophe,  the  tuo  parties  united 
under  Pn-sident  r>ovKR,  and  have  now  establishe*!  a  very  efficient 
:rovemment.     He  is  an  intiilit^ent,  enersretic,  and  humane  sovereicrn  ; 

tiid  his  aduiini>lration  is  hio:hly  calculated  to  promote  the  ha}>i)iness 
.  r  his  subject-^.  In  1,80R.  thi-'Spaniards,  aided  by  the  Enjrli>li.  re- 
f.H»k  the  ca^-tern  part  of  the  island,  but  their  colony  has  little  force, 
.  .vl  lives  on  tVieri  lly  terms  with  the  blacks. 

9.  TiiR  Cariukk'vj^  Islands,  when  discovered,  were  inliahited  by  a 
rutnerous,  cultivated,  and  powerful  nation,  called  Caruihes  or  Oini- 
•    r  >.     Th^y  were  more  warlike  than  the  Arrowauks.     Towanls  each 

«.  i»er  they  were  faithful,  friendly,  and  affectionate  ;  but  retrnnled  al) 
-  •  r  ingers  as  enemies.  They  were  well  skilled  in  most  ot[  the  arte  of 
^,fc>  ;  and  their  relia:ion  acknowledged  one  supreme,  independent 
l!>oity  ;  and  tauirht  a  future  state  of  retribution.  Nearly  all  of  this 
T  iji:c  have  been  exterminated  on  these  islands,  but  they  still  remain 
,jn  the  continent  of  South  America  a  venr  powerful  nation. 

10.  There  is  little  else  that  is  intcrestuig  in  the  history  of  the  Wesi 
r  ndies,  eaccepi  to  those  who  wish  to  learn  more  of  the  aborigines^  and 

Rr  Digitized  by  ^^OOgie 


470  HISTORY  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA. 

of  the  merciless  treatment  they  received  from  toe  Spaniards.    A  very 
minute  history  of  these  islands  has  been  written  by  Edwards. 

SECTION  FOURTH. 
HISTORY  OF   SOUTH  AMERICA. 

UNITED  PROVINCES. 

1.  The  river  La  Plata  was  discovered  in  1,616.  Buenos  Ayres 
was  settled  in  1,535.  From  the  settlement  of  the  countiy  until  1,7TH 
its  history  comprises  only  a  series  of  vexations  from  the  despotism  of 
viceroys,  of  privations  from  monopolies,  and  commercial  restrictions, 
and  of  sufferings  from  wars  foreign  to  its  interests.  From  this  period 
to  1,781,  the  fiidians  from  the  upper  country  continually  harassed 
the  provinces,  burnt  many  towns,  and  destroyed  many  of  the  inhabi- 
tants ;  but  they  were  at  fength  defeated  by  the  combined  armies  of 
Buenos  Ayrcs  and  Lima. 

2.  In  1,806,  the  country  was  invaded  by  the  British,  and  Buenos 
Ayres  was  taken  without  opposition.  An  army  from  the  interior  soon 
expelled  them.  A  second  attempt  was  made  in  1,807,  but  the  people 
beginning  to  acquire  confidence  in  their  own  strength,  attacked  the 
army  while  in  the  city,  and  were  completely  successful. 

3.  On  the  25th  of  May  1,810,  in  consequence  of  the  renuncialio?i 
of  Ferdinand  VII.  in  favour  of  Napoleon,  and  the  deranged  stale  ol' 
affairs  in  Spain,  a  junta  was  convened  at  Buenos  Ayres  to  take  the 
government  into  their  own  hands,  still  administerii^  it,  however,  ic 
the  name  of  Ferdinarni.  This  was  the  commencement  of  a  revolu- 
tion which  delivered  them  from  the  slavery  they  had  suffered  Kt 
nearly  300  years.  Since  that  period,  they  have  been  in  reality  inde- 
pendent. 

4.  Since  1,810,  there  have  been  four  revolutions,  each  of  which  ha3 
changed  the  govemmeiu,  but  there  has  constantly  been  a  represcnia* 
ti?e  assembly.  On  the  9th  of  .Tuly  1,816,  the  congress  made,  ?o'i 
promulgated  a  declaration  of  absolute  independence.  In  December 
of  the  same  year  the  country  was  invaded  by  the  Porti^uese,  and  i 
considerable  part  was  conquered,  it  has,  however,  reclain>ed  it? 
possessions,  and  its  government  has  become  so  well  established,  that  \\i 
independence  has  been  acknowledged  by  other  nations. 

BRAZIL. 

1.  This  country  was  discovered  by  Pedro  Alvarez  Cabra^  a  Por- 
tuguese, in  1,500.  As  little  gold  or  silver  was  found  near  the  coas'i, 
it  was  for  a  while  wholly  neglected,  and  none  but  criminals  and  aban- 
doned women  were  sent  hither.  In  1,548,  the  inquisition,  after  pluib 
derii^  the  Jews  of  their  property,  banished  them  to  BrazlK  A 
governor  was  sent  over  the  followmg  year,  who  immediate|T  built 
Sl  Salvador.  It  was  reduced  in  1,624,  by  the  Dutch,  and  taken 
torn  them  in  1 ,625,  by  the  Spaniards.  Portugal  reclaimed  it  m 
about  1,645,  and  remained  in  undisturbed  possession  of  the  whole 
country  till  the  late  revolutions  throughout  South  Amei:ica. 

2,  In  the  latter  part  of  1,806,  in  consequence  of  the  invasion  of 
Portugal  by  the  French,  the  royaJ  family  embarked  for  Brazil,  under 
{votection  of  an  English  squadron.  Rio  de  Janeiro  continued  to  be 
<heir  lesidence  from  1,807  till  l,82U    When  they  left  Brazil^  Uie 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


HISTORY  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA.  471 

prince  royal,  the  king's  eldest  son,  remained   at   the   he.id  of  the  ' 
-overnmenl.     The  unsettled  state  of  the  governnxent  of  tJie  mother 
t ountiy.  soon  excited  a  revolutionary  spirit  in  most  of  these  provin- 
<-es,  and  they  declared  for  independence.     The  crown  w;is  offered  to 
the  prince  royal,  and  accepted  under  the  title  of  emperor. 

GUIANA. 

The  history  of  these  colonics  presents  little  worth  relating.  They 
h.-ive  frequently  changed  masters,  but  with  little  detriment  or  advait- 
I. lire.  1  neir  present  situation  is  well  known  from  common  geogra- 
r  >  1 1  ies.  A  great  part  of  the  country  is  occupied  by  Indians.  Of  these, 
ilio  Caraibea  are  the  most  numerous,  brave,  warlike,  and  industrious. 

REPUBLIC  OF  COLOMBIA. 
1.  New-Granada  originally  constituted  a  part  of  Peru.  Two  au- 
liences  were  erected  in  1,547,  the  one  at  Panama,  the  other  at  Santa 
Fc»  de  Bogota,  and  tlie  territories  under  the  jurisdiction  of  both,  con- 
stituted a  captain-generalship.  Qiiito  was  made  the  seat  of  an  audi- 
♦  'uce  in  1,563,  but  the  territories  belonging  to  it,  still  remained  attached 
*»i  Peru.  In  1,718,  New-Granada  was  erected  into  a  viceroyalty  ; 
i^uito  and  Venezuela  wrre  annexed  to  it,  and  the  audiences  of  Pana- 
ma and  Quito  were  abolished.  The?e  were  afterwards  restored,  and 
i;i  1,739,  the  territories  dependent  on  the  three  audiences  of  Panama, 
^arita  Fe,  and  Quito,  were  again  erected  into  a  viceroyalty.  A  con- 
'^vv^s  assembled  at  Carthatrena  in  Nov.  1,P11,  and  declarecl  the  coun* 
uy  independent,  but  it  was  afterwards  reclaimed  by  the  royalists. 

2.  Venezuela  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1,498.  After  several 
ill*  tTectual  attempts  to  settle  it  by  missionaries,  it  was  finally  reduced 
J  y  force,  and  assierncd  by  Charles  V.  to  the  Welsers,  a  German  mer- 
t  .'ill tile  house.  Their  administration  was  so  tyrannical,  that  they 
i\ere  dispossessed  in  1,550,  and  a  supreme  governor  was  appointed 
}>y  the  king  of  Spain.     From   ihi^  ]k  rind  till  1,806,  it  remamed  in 

jijiet  subjection  to  the  niotlur  counliy. 

3.  In  1,806,  general  iMiraiula,  a  native  of  Caraccas,  placed  himself 
.t  the  head  of  an  expedition,  ritted  out  partly  at  St.  Domingo,  and  parl- 
;v  at  New- York,  with  the  desitcn  of  liberating  this  country  iwin  the 
■^l»:ini:jh  yoke.  Finding  his  force  inadequate,  he  abandoned  his  men 
[  t  the  mercy  of  the  provincial  government. 

4.  in  1,811,  the  inhabitants  revolted  from  the  Spanish  yoke,  and 
ir-clared  themselves  independent.     The  declarati(Mi  b«-ars  date  July 

-,i\\.  1,011,  exactly  35  years  and  one  day  altir  that  of  the  United 

--i^tes.     This  revolution,   like    that  of  the   United   Province^,  was 

.iiisf»d  by  the  disorders  in  Spain,     This  country  and  Kew-Giai.ada, 

..fitinued  in  a  re\riluti<>nary  state  till  1,819,  when  they  both  achieved 

:.*'\T  indeperuience  under  the  renowned  Holivar. 

:..  On  the  17ih  of  Dec.  1,^*19,  the  congress  of  Venezuela  at  St. 
ri)otii:i>  of  Angostura,  made  a  declaration  ot  the  I'undanieutal  law  of 
^:  ^:\  of  the  Republic  of  Cohnnbia.  9"  ^^^  ^'^^^  <^*  •'^''>'  *»"^*^^-  ^^* 
.Mioeniatives  of  New-Granada  and  Venezuela,  in  general  corejresa 
.  r  '•  ne  city  of  Kosario  rle  CucuLa, declared  the  folKmintr  amorig  others, 
.jfj.iarnental  laws  of  the  union  of  the  people  of  Ci^lotnbia  ;  'J'hat  the 
♦  Mi'de  of  Npw-(iranada  and  Venezmda  be  united  in  one  body  as  a 
.  4  f  n  in,  un<ler  the  name  of  the  Rrjwblic  of  Colombia  ;  That  the  trovern^ 
I  f  !.t  t»<»  pojHiiar  and  repre^-ntalive  ;  Ihe  nation  free,  and  ind(^en- 
•♦  nl  oi  the  Spanish  roonarehy,  as  well  as  of  all  other  powcts ;  Thai 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


472  HlSrORY  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA. 

the  government  consist  of  legislative,  executive,  and  judiciaiy  au- 
thorities ;  That  the  territory  be  divided  into  six  departments,  havipg 
an  administration  dependent  on  the  national  government ;  That  when 
the  state  of  the  nation  shall  admit,  a  new  city  shall  be  founded,  as  the 
capital  of  the  Republic,  which  shall  bear  the  name  of  the  liberator 
Bolivar,  the  site  to  be  determined  by  congress  ;  That  there  be  an 
annual  festival  of  three  days  on  the  26th,  26th,  and  27th  of  Dec. 
The  constitution  resembles  that  of  the  United  States.  Since  its  adop* 
tion  the  countiy  has  been  prosperous,  and  its  independence  seems  to 
be  firmly  established. 

PERU. 

1.  A  few  tribes  inhabiting  this  countiy  had  made  considerable  ad- 
vances in  civilization  when  it  was  first  visited  by  the  Spaniards. 
Being  destitute  of  the  art  of  writing,  the  early  histoiy  of  the  Ameri- 
can Indians  exists  only  in  tradition.  There  were  indeed  some 
records  preserved  by  the  Mexicans  and  Pemvians,  but  these  were 
mostly  destroyed  by  their  conquerors,  and  the  few  that  remained 
were  not  very  intelligible  to  the  Spaniards.  Some  credit  however 
must  be  given  to  the  tradition  of  the  kir^dom  established  at  Cuza\ 
m  order  to  account  for  its  great  superiority  over  othen.     . 

2.  The  story  is  as  follows  : — Peru  was  originally  possessed  bj  small 
independent  tribes,  all  of  which  were  strangers  to  almost  evefy  spe- 
cies of  cultivation  or  regular  industiy,  without  any  fixed  resideiice. 
and  roamed  about  naked  in  the  forests.  After  they  had  struggled  kr 
several  ages  with  the  hardships  and  calamities  which  are  inevitabie 
in  such  a  state,  and  when  no  circumstance  seemed  to  indicate  the  ap> 
proach  of  any  uncommon  effort  towards  improvement,  there  is  «aBl 
to  have  appeared  on  the  banks  of  the  lake  Titicaca,  a  man  ariKl  wo- 
man of  majestic  form,  and  clothed  in  decent  garments.  Tlicy  de- 
clared themselves  children  of  the  Sun,  sent  by  their  beneficent  parest, 
who  beheld  with  pUv  the  miseries  of  the  human  race,  to  instrtjct  arai 
to  reclaim  them.  The  Peruvians  worshipped  the  Sun  ;  and*  there- 
fore, the  commands  of  these  s-traiigers  were  regarded  as  heavenly  in- 
junctions. Several  of  the  dispersed  savages  united  together,  ar»J 
followed  their  guides  to  Cuzco,  where  tliey  settled  and  began  lo  hj 
the  foundation  of  a  city. 

3.  Manco  Capac  and  Mama  Ocollo,  for  such  were  the  nanes  oi 
those  extraordinary  personages,  having  thus  united  some  wapdenc*? 
tribes,  formed  that  social  union,  which  by  multiplying  the  desiie*^ 
and  uniting  the  eflfoils  of  the  human  species,  excites  industry,  an-l 
leads  to  improvement.  Manco  Capac  instructed  the  men  in  apicul- 
ture, and  other  useful  arts  ;  Mama  Ucollo  taught  the  women  to  fpin 
and  weave.  The  blessings  of  civilized  life  were  gradually  cxlend»>i 
to  neighboqni^  tribes,  ana  the  dominions  of  succeeding  chiefe,  calieti 
Incas,  or  ClUldren  oftlie  Sun,  comprised  all  the  regions  west  of  tl« 
Andes  firom  Chili  to  Quito. 

4.  To  preserve  the  succession  of  the  Incas  pure  and  unp<^uted  bj 
mixture  with  less  noble  blood,  the  sons  of  Manco  Capac  maniel 
their  own  sbters.  As  these  Incas  assumed  the  rank  not  only  of  Uer*'^ 
lators,  but  messengers  from  Heaven,  the  whole  system  of  civil  pofkj 
was  founded  on  religion.  Their  precepts  were  received  as  mandsiia 
of  the  Deity.  Hence  their  authority  was  unlimited  and  aihscimt 
in  the  most  extensive  meaning  of  the  words.  All  crimes  were  etc- 
sideied  not  only  as  violations  of  civil  duty»  but  as  insults  ofiered  &:* 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


HISTORY  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA.  475 

the  Deity  ;  and  Ihey  were  al!  punisiied  capitally.  But  so  great  was 
the  veneration  for  the  Incas,  that  the  number  of  oft'endc!!  *.vas  ex» 
tremely  small.  The  genius  of  their  relig:ioii  \ias  exccr'lj.igly  mild, 
and  as  divine  authority  was  ascribed  to  the  Incas,  the  minds  of  the 
people  were  not  humbled  and  depressed  by  a  forced  subjection  to 
tlie  will  of  a  superior;  and  obedience  implied  no  degradation. 

6.  Thus  during  twelve  successive  reig:ns  this  happy  nation  ad- 
vanced in  knouledofc  and  virtue,  in  wealth  and  power,  and  in  all  the 
e^-ential  arts  of  civilized  life.  Agriculture  was  in  a  state  of  high 
impix)veinent ;  architecture  was  advanced  to  a  state  ^qual  to  tlieii 
u.»ra"? ;  their  roads,  bridges,  .-md  manulactures  ;  their  use  of  gold  and 
-liver  for  ulen>ils  Aid  workr;  of  ornaiuent,  all  beartestimoiiy  tnatlhey 
\rvl  advanced  far  above  the  common  state  of  savage  life.  But  there 
\vt^  no  veiy  distinct  arrangement  of  professions  ;  no  cities  were  es- 
r.ibli'ihed  except  Cuzco,  to  give  activity  to  commerce;  they  knew 
iHit  the  use  of  iron,  and  hence  were  little  qualified  to  work  in  wood 
•nd  ?lone  ;  they  appear  to  have  had  no  good  method  for  lighting  theii 
']i»u>es,;— tohave  been  ignorant  of  the  construction  of  arches, — oi  eveiy 
convenient  method  of  nxording  events,  and  of  perpetuating  the 
knowledge  they  j»osses.sed. 

6.  When  the  Spaniards  first  visited  Peru  in  1,526,  Huana  Capac 
\ho  twelfth  Inca,  was  seated  on  the  throne.  He  is  represented  as 
tininenl  for  his  virtues,  his  knowledge,  and  his  military  talents.  He 
li  id  subjected  the  kingdom  of  Quito  and  added  it  to  nis  dominions, 
fie  was  fond  of  residing  in  the  capital  of  that  province  ;  and  contnuy 
l'>  the  fundamental  law  of  the  monarchy,  he  married  tlio  daughter  of 

Im*  vanquished  monarch  of  Quito.  She  bore  him  a  son  named  Ata- 
iU  ilpa,  whom  at  his  death,  whico  seems  to  have  occured  at)out  the 
rear  1,529,  he  appoinied  his  successor  toQui  to,  eavmg  the  rest  of  his 
i«  ►minions  to  Huascar,  his  eldest  son.  This  was  no  sooner  known  at 
.'iizco,  than  it  excited  general  disgust.  The  Peruvians  were  shocked 
\i  til  is  violation  of  a  fundamental  law,  coeval  with  the  empire,  and 
I. iirided  on  sacred  authority.  Huascar  was  hence  encouraged  to  re- 
jriine  of  his  brother  to  renounce  the  government  of  Quito  ;  but  Ata- 
lu.tlpa  had  a  large  part  of  the  Peruvian  anny  under  his  control^  and 
,v3s  little  inclined  to  yield  to  the  demana.  Hence  arose  a  civD 
rvnr,  which  continued  to  rage  until  Pizarro  with  his  cruel  and  per- 
idious  band,  came  among  them  in  1,532. 

7.  The  Spaniards,  availing  themselves  of  the  existing  dissensions, 
'nund  the  concjuest  easily  attainable.  Both  the  Incas  were  put  to 
jeath  under  circumstances  of  most  awful  barbarity.  No  language 
n\  describe  the  detestable  cruelties  of  these  graceless  invaders.  \ 
ew,  indeed,  among  them  were  found  to  protest  against  it,  but  in  the 
M-art  of  Pizarro,  the  common  feeling**  of  humanity  had  been  absolute- 
y  annihilated  by  his  avarice.  Cuzco  furnished  more  valuable  spoil 
}\'an  was  ever  found  in  any  other  city.  The  whole  country  was  soor 
u ejected  ;  and  its  mines  were  seized  in  the  name  of  the  king  of  Spain. 

8.  Since  1,533,  Peru  has  remained  a  Spanish  province,  subject  to  a 
iceroy.     For  the  form  of  government  in  all  the  Spanish  provinces  in 

\riiericaf  see  Sec.  I.  Part  V.  The  country  is  now  much  smaller 
ii.ai  when  governed  by  the  incas.  In  1J18,  Quito  on  the  north  as 
ir  as  the  river  Tumbez,  was  annexed  to  New-Granada  ;  and  in  1  J78» 
^«  »t'>si  and  o^er  rich  districts  on  the  southeast  were  annexed  to  Bt*e- 
ko-  Arres. 

y.  For  several  years  Peru  has  been  in  a  revolutionary  state.  The 
fa  tier  of  the  patriots  is  Jose  San  Martin.     The  capital  has  several 


474  HISTORY  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA. 

times  fallen  into  their  hands,  but  has  been  retaken  by  tlie  royalists. 
Their  prospect  for  independence  is  yearly  increasing,  and  the  royal- 
ists now  possi!ss  only  a  small  part  ol  Upper  Peru.  This  is  the  only 
territory  now  possessed  by  the  Spaniards  on  the  continent  of  America. 
It  cannot  be  many  years  before  the  New  World  which  they  discovered, 
and  \vhich  has  sullered  so  much  from  tlieir  rapacity  and  tyranny,  will 
be  completely  wrested  fmm  their  cruel  despotism. 

CHILI. 

1.  We  know  nothing  of  the  history  of  Chili  previous  to  the  middle 
of  tlie  fifteenth  cenlury.  From  the  Peruvian  annals  it  appeai-s  thai 
Yupanqui,  the  tenth  fnca,  made  an  attempt  to  subject  the  Chilese. 
He  met  ^^ith  little  opposition  till  he  arrived  as  far  as  the  river  Repel. 
Beyond  this  was  a  formidable  nation  named  Promaucians  or^ce aoji- 
cers.  In  a  lon^  battle  Ihey  were  successful,  completely  routed  the 
Peruvians,  and  drove  them  from  their  territories.  The  Inca  imposed 
an  anntial  tribute  of  g:old  on  the  conquered  tribes,  but  no  innovation 
was  attempted,  either  in  their  customs,  manners,  or  government. 

2.  The  country  was  invaded  by  the  Spaniards  under  Almagro  in 
1,535.  He  left  Cuzco  with  570  Spaniards  and  15,000  Peruvian  aux- 
iliaries. Disresranling:  tlie  remonstrances  of  his  confederates,  be 
preferred  passing  the  Cordilleras,  to  the  entrance,  less  daiv^erous  at 
tliat  season,  by  the  desert  of  Atacama.  Winter  had  commeiKed 
when  they  readied  the  Cordillera  Nevada,  and  the  snow  fell  in  such 
abundance,  and  the  cold  was  so  intense,  that  not  less  than  10,000  Pe- 
ruvians and  150  Spaniards  perished.  In  a  second  expedition  Alma- 
gro  found  the  natives  exceedingly  friendly.  They  looked  up  to  the 
Spaniards  as  beings  of  a  superior  order,  and  were  reariy  to  yield  sub- 
mission. But  when  they  arrived  amono:  the  Promaucians,  they  met 
with  such  powerful  resistance,  as  determined  them  to  abandon  tiw 
enterprise. 

3.  ileturnin^  to  Cuzco  a  contest  ensued  between  Almagrro  an»i 
Pizarro,  in  wlilch  the  former  was  slain.  Pizarro,  now  sole  master  ot 
Peru,  determined  on  the  conquest  of  Chili.  He  entrusted  the  expe- 
dition to  Valdivia,  one  of  the  ablest  arenerals  amonp;  the  Sjpanish  ad- 
venturers. He  met  with  very  inveterate  animosity  from  all  the  tril>es 
but  their  opposition  was  too  feeble  to  arrest  the  prosrress  of  4/him 
Spaniards,  under  such  a  leader.  Having  overcome  the  Mapocbiniart- 
who  resided  on  the  river  Mapocho,  he  laid  the  foundation  of  St.  Jaar 
and  erected  a  strong  citadel  for  protection.  The  natives  continue'! 
for  six  years  their  feeble  attempts  to  regain  their  beautiful  plain,  but 
finding  their  object  hopeless,  the  few  that  remained  deslroye«i  then 
crops,  and  retired  to  the  mountains.  Valdivia,  havinsr  received  a 
reinforcement  from  Peru,  invaded  and  corjquered  the  Promaucians. 
imd  established  colonies  in  many  places.  Endeavouring  to  peiielrat* 
Mill  farther  southward,  he  encountered  the  mosb  formidable  eneiDV 

t'hich  the  Spaniards  ever  met  with  in  America.  This  was  the  na- 
tron of  the  Araucaninns.  He  gained  some  victories  over  them,  but 
was  frequently  repulsed,  and  at  length  was  completely  defeated,  him- 
self taken  prisoner,  and  his  whole  army  slain,  with  the  excentioo  t:t 
Iwo  Promaucian  auxiliaries.  Villagran,  the  successor  of  Valdiviii. 
made  a  desperate  attempt  to  revenge  tlie  death  of  that  favourite 
general,  but  was  repulsed  with  great  slaughter.  He  was,  how- 
ever, successful  in  a  very  important  subsequent  engagement,  in  which 
Lautaro,  the  Araucanian  general,  was  slain. 

4.  The  contest  continued  for  several  yeans  with  various  succe*^ 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


HISTORY  OF  SOlTH  AMERICA.  4T5 

till  Ihc  Araucirnan?  uvro  much  cnfoi-I'lrl.     They  have  not,  hourver, 
hccfi  corx^ijcrcd,  nnd  thoy  ntnin  lo  Ihi-   tiay  a  Vonsideiahle  part  of 
ihoir  aurioiit  tfrrifories.     They  jm^frvn    fficir  :*ncient  cusIojus  ami 
l.injruai^L"  in  a  considerable  (U-^rcc  of  purify.     Thcrci  are   few  Ian- 
CuntTL's  so  reirular  in  tiieir  structuio,  or  5o  cr.pioi/s  in  their  inJlections, 
as  the  Araiicanian.     They  had   made  cons-derahle  advancement  in 
civinzati(jn,  uere  remarkahly  activn  and  e^5e^^f(•ti^  in  their  bodily  and 
mental  iiabits,  s:enerous  and  diirnilicd  in  tiieir  disposition  and  deport- 
ment.   Connected  with  the  perfeelion   of  their   lan^iinire,  was   their 
habit  of  ciiltivatinp:  th<>  ait  (»i  oratory  ;  an*l  wt-  know  \ery  Uw  civilized 
nations  that  have  ^o  faithfully  o!)servfd  ihe  common  duties  of  charity. 
5.  From  iho  })erw)d  of  Ine  conquest  of  Chili   till   its  rr-vohition  in 
l,r>10,  f(iw  occurrences  of  nmch  interest  are  i-ecorded.     At  this  tinxi 
the  Chilese,  findioi^  the  same  emharrassmentii  uhich  weiT-  suffered  by 
other  province.s  on  accourjf  of  the  diM>rdei*s  in  Spain,  took  the  govern- 
ment into  their  own  hands, — ^till  luildinp:  out  the  idea,  however,  of  a 
reunion  wiih  tije  mother  country  A\ hen  circumstances    would  permit. 
In  1,C14,  the  nyal  tr(K»ps  fn»:n*I\'ni  invafh'd  Chili,  entirely  defeated 
the  patriots  at  K.';nea':::i;a,  ami  reciuiquered  the  country.     A  remnant 
ul' the  patriot  forces  tifd  over  the  Andes,  \>  here,   with  other  Chilian 
reluffees  anri  two  reeiiTients  of  nee:roes,  and  some  ofiicers,  they  were 
reorganized  by  General  San  iMartin  under  the  n:«me  of  the  Unile-d  Army 
of  the  Andes.     In  l,ni7,  they  re-entered    Chili,  entirely  vanquished 
ibe  royal  troops  at  Chacabuco,  and  restored  independence  to  llie 
countr}\     The  passaire  of  this  arm}'  (wer  the  Andes  with  its  artilleiy, 
licserves  to  be  ranked  among:  the  most  cele)>rated  achievements  re- 
<onled  in  history.     It  was  effected  wilh  the  loss  of  about  5,000  horses 
an'i  mules,  and  a  sm.dl  num!)er  of  m(?n  who  perished  with  the  cold. 

6,  On  the  12thof  Febiuary  l,fnO,  the  nalitm  madeafurmal  declara- 
tion of  absolute  indep<'ndence.  The  royal  troops  ^\ho  esr:.ped  from 
fnc  battle  of  C}iacabuc<>  beings  reinforced  by  all  the  royal  Ibrces  in 
Peru,  about  5,00i)  in  number,  renewed  the  conle>t  with  die  patriots  ; 
hut  after  a  tem])orary  success,  tfiey  v. ere  fm.dly  defeated  in  Ihe  de- 
cisive battle  of  Maypo,  April  5th, "l.tllB.  Thi>  event  is  celebrated 
l»y  the  Chilese  in  their  son;i:s,  festivals,  and  histories,  with  the  most 
«iiithusia>tic  exp^'Ssions  of  g-ratitude  and  admiration. 

7.  The  government  established  in  Chili  is  republican.  IMucation 
i<  making:  considerable  proi^ress,  and  ever}'  ray  of  liji^ht  confirms  the 
jicople  more  absolutely  in  tlie  love  of  liberty.  Their  iiuiepemience 
i.s  acknowledged  by  other  nations.  They  live;  in  amitv  with  the 
Araucanians,  who  have  a  minist(*r  at  the  capital.  Were  tFwy  exempt 
truin  the  tyranny  of  die  Catholic  religion,  we  miu,ht  rej^ard  them  as 
«ie=»tined  to  become  a  great  and  lia})i)y  nation  ;  but  while  this  exists, 
tfiey  will  make  slow  prc»G:ress  in  th.'t  real  knowledge  which  can  result 

•  »fj|y  from  the  free  use  of  the  faculties,  with  which  Heaven  ha?  ei>- 
1  ioH'ed  the  children  of  men. 

ft.  Too  much  tan  hardly  be  said  in  prai-^e  of  the  disinter^stedness, 
f  »raclence,  braveiy,  and  steady  perseverance  of  Don  Jose  San  Martin^ 
III  uiaintaimnfi:  the  cause  of  South  American  indenendenrr.     Fond  of 

•  He  retirement  of  private  life,  he  h?s  umlormly  laid  aside  thehie^hdipii- 
'  MS  with  which  the  G:rateful  patriots  of  Chili,  Buenos  Ay  res.  and 
i  '#'nj,  have  repeatedly  invested  him,  >\henever  the  poo<l  of  their  cau»c 
.\  0111(1  permit  it;  and,  althouafh  in  time.«  of  such  public  cxcitemeiiL, 
r  le  host  men  are  subject  to  suspicion,  envy,  and  slander,  we  have 
.:«  »(m1  rcL.ison  for  rankii;^  Uds  di^luicuished  veteran  among  IhoH,  who 
: .  i^.ird  not  their  own,  but  the  public  good. 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


476  HISTORY  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA. 

9.  Nor  is  that  disting^uished  hero  and  statesman,  Bolivar,  entitled 
to  less  renown.  To  him  the  Republic  of  Colombia  principally  owes 
ita  independence,  and  he  has  been  one  of  its  most  emcient  agents  in 
oreanizing  the  new  government.  He  is  now  President  of  tne  Re- 
public ;  ^nd,  his  career  not  being  closed,  we  cannot  decide  on  the 
rank  to  which  his  whole  life  will  entide  him  ;  but  he  has  hitherto  trod 
in  tibe  footsteps  of  the  Leader  of  the  first  American  Resolution,  and 
if  he  persist  in  this  course  to  the  end,  his  name  will  be  ranked  by  pos- 
terity with  that  of  Washington.    1 826. 


.  Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  TABLE  OF  CHRONOLOGY. 

To  give  a  distinct  view  of  the  lucceMion  of  princos  in  the  chief  empires 
or  kingdoms,  without  employing  difierent  colamns,  (which  distracts  the 
attention,  and  occupies  too  much  space,)  the  series  of  the  sovereigns  of 
different  nations  is  distinguished  in  this  table  by  different  typographical 
characters.  By  this  method  the  succession  of  the  sovereigns  in  toe  different 
kingdoms  is  immediately  distinguishable,  and  also  the  duration  of  their 
reigns.  In  the  intervals  of  time  between  vrery  two  successive  reiEns  ana 
recorded  the  remarkable  events  which  occurred  in  those  periods,  in  all  parts 
of  the  world ;  and  thus  the  connexion  of  general  history  is  preserved  un- 
broken. 

The  series  of  the  kings  and  emperors  of  Rome  is  printed  in  a  larger  Ro- 
man typo  than  the  rest  of  the  table :  as, 

14  Tiberius,  Emperor  of  Rome. 

The  series  of  the  popes  ia  distingoiahable  by  this  character  K  prefixed  lo 
each  name;  as, 

1513  IT  Pope  Leo  X. 
The  names  of  the  emperors  of  Germany  are  printed  in  Italic  capitals;  us 

887  MJfOLD^  Emperor  of  Germsny. 
The  kings  of  England  are  designated  by  the  black  Saxon  type ;  as, 

1066  89Cnfaill  (the  Conqueror)  kh^  of  England. 

The  kings  of  Seotland  are  denoted  by  a  larger  capital  beginning  th« 
word;  as, 

laOO  Robert  m.,  king  of  Seotland. 
The  kings  of  Princa  are  distinguished  by  the  Italic  type ;  as, 
1«8  Umia  Xii^  kmg  ofrNmu. 


y  Google 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 


B  C. 

4004  The  Crrution  of  the  World,  according  to  tJie  Hebrew  teztofthf 
Scriptures. 
Accoroing  to  the  version  of  the  Scptuagint  5372. 
Acording  to  the  Samaritan  version  4700. 

234S  The  Universal  Delui,'e. 

2247  The  Building  of  Babel;  the  Dispersion  of  Mankind)  and  the  Confu- 
sion of  Languages. 

2217  Nimrod  .supposed  to  have  built  Babylon,  and  foiiodcd  the  B&bvloaiih 
Monarchy ;  and  As:»ur  to  Iiave  built  Nineveh,  and  founded  Um 
Monarchy  of  Assyria. 

218S  Menes  (in  Scripture  Misraim)  founds  the  Monarchy  of  Egypt. 

20S4  The  Sheplicrd  Kings  conquer  Egypt. 

2040  Ma?ris  King  of  Tliobcs  and  Mempnis  In  Egvpt. 

191X)  The  Birth  of  Abrain. 

181)7  Sodom  and  Goniorrali  destroyed  by  fire  from  HeavcR. 

1396  Isaac  born. 

1856  Inachus  founds  the  Kingdom  of  Argos  in  Greece. 

1836  Jacob  and  Esau  born. 

1825  The  Shepherd  Kings  abandon  Egypt. 

182:?  Death  of  Abraham. 

I7i>6  The  Deluge  of  Ogyges  in  Attica. 

1722  Scsostris  or  Raraesos  King  of  Egypt. 

1635  Joseph  dies  in  Egypt. 

1582  The  Chronology  or  the  Arundelian  Marbles  begins  withtliia  year. 

1571  Moses  born  in  tgypt. 

1556  Cecrops  founds  the  kingdom  of  Athens. 

1546  Scamander  founds  the  Kingdom  of  Tnjy. 

1532  Judgment  of  the  Areopagus  between  Mars  aad  Neptaaey  two  prmcm 
of  Tbessaly. 

1521)  The  Deluge  of  Deucalion  in  Thessal)j. 

1522  The  Council  of  the  Amphictyons  instituted. 

1520  Corinth  buUt. 

ISU6  ErectheuB  or  Ervcthonius  institutes  the  Panathennan  Games. 

1493  Cadmus  builds  Thebes,  and  introduces  Letters  into  Greece. 

1491  Moses  brings  the  Israelites  out  of  Egypt. 

1453  The  first  Olymnic  Games  celebrated  m  Greece. 

1452  The  Pentateuch,  or  five  Books  of  Moses,  written. 

1451  The  Israelites  led  into  the  land  of  Canaan  by  JosbuA 

1438  PandioQ  King  of  Athens. 

1406  Minos  reigns  in  Crete,  and  gives  laws  to  the  Cretane. 

1376  Sethos  reigns  in  Egypt. 

1882  Belns  reigns  in  Babylon. 

1267  Ninus  reigns  in  Assyria. 

1266  Oedipus  marries  his  Mother  Jocasta,  and  reigns  ia  Thebes. 

1263  The  Argonautic  Expedition.    Aocording  to  the  Newteniaii  ChronoW 

1267  Theseus  unites  the  Cities  of  Attica. 


iS?  T/"'  ^*  <»Pi*«^  o^  Phcsnicia,  buUt. 
1225  Siege  of  Thebes     War  between  fit 


£teocl«0  and  Polynioos. 


yGoogk 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE.  475 

B.C. 

1235  Euiytthenef  and  Procles  Khun  of  Lacedemon. 

1*^15  Second  War  of  Thebes,  or  War  of  the  Epigonoi. 

Semiramis  supposeii  to  have  reigned  at  Babylon. 

1207  Gideon  Judge  of  Israel. 

I'^US  Teuccr  built  Salamis. 

1193  The  Trojan  War  begins. 

ilM  Troy  taken  and  burnt  by  the  Greeks.    According  to  the  Arundeliaa 

Marbles  l^J. 
1182  ^neas  lands  in  Italy. 

IhVi  Samson  born.  / 

1 104  Return  of  the  Htsraclidis  into  Peloponnesus. 
1«<^>  Samuel  delivers  Israel. 
h>7'J  S.iul  Kin«»  of  Isrnel. 
IU70  MiMlon  first  Arclion  of  Athens. 

1»mv»  Codrtis  Kinj^  of  Athens  devotes  himself  for  his  country. 
}j.V>  David  King  of  Ismol. 
\')*}i  Dedication  of  Holomon's  Temple. 

1»^0  Hehtjboarn  Kinjr  of  Isrtiel. 

b";*  Athaliah,  wife  vi'  Jclioram,  usurps  the  throne  of  Judah. 

•?•*<>  IIomiT's  Poems  brought  from  Asia  into  Greece. 

r-4  Lyf.ufL'us  reforms  the^ Constitution  of  Lacedamon. 

r»  i>  The  city  of  Carthafl:e  built  by  Dido. 

-Ux)  Nineveh  taken  by  Arbaccs  and  Belesis,  which  finishee  that  kingdom. 

77»i  The  first  Olympiao  be«rins  in  this  year. 

7'  'J  Syracuse  built  by  Archias  of  Corinth. 

7*i7  5?ardanai>nlua  Kin^  of  Assyria. 

"'t*!)  The  Epliori.  popular  Magistrates,  instituted  at  Lacedsemon. 

7r>7  IlalyaltoH  Kiugof  Lydia. 

7C4  Decennial  Archons  elected  at  Athens. 

7:-2  'i'ho  foundation  of  Rome  by  Romulus. 

7 n't  Uape  of  tiie  Snbine  Women. 

747  The  Era  of  Nabonassar  made  use  of  by  Ptolemy. 

7'.i'?  Candnules  King  of  Lydia. 

T2-I  Hezekioli  tentifKing  of  Judah. 

721  2$almanazar  takes  Samaria,  and  carries  the  Ten  Tribes  into  captivity, 

whicit  puts  an  end  to  the  Israelitish  Kingdom. 
Tin  Numa  Pompilius  second  KuBg  of  Rome. 
71 1  Sennacherib,  King  of  Assyria,  invades  Judea. 
710  Dejoces  King  of  Media. 
Ti)*5  Habakkuk  prophesied. 
TU3  Corcyra  founded  by  the  Corinthians. 
696  Manasseh  sixteenth  King  of  Judah. 
f>^  Judith  kills  Holofernes  the  Assyrian  General. 
tl>l  Annual  Archons  elected  at  Athens. 
6fi\  Esarhaddon  unites  the  Kingdoms  of  Babylon  and  Assyria. 
C72  TuUus  Hostilius  third  King  of  Rome. 
C70  Psammeticus  King  of  Egypt. 
667  The  Combat  between  the  Horatii  and  Cnriatii. 
C5d  Bvzantium  founded  by  Pausanias  King  of  Sparta. 
— ..  Phraortcs  King  of  Media. 
640  Ancus  Martius  fourth  King  of  Rome. 
(587  The  Forty  Years  of  Ezekiel  began. 
dd  Periander  Tyrant  of  Corinth. 

Nabopolassar,  father  of  Nebuchadnezxar,  begiM  to  nign  at  Babyfoa. 

iSM  Drmco  Archon  and  Legislator  of  Athens. 

«il6  Tarquinius  Priscus  fifth  King  of  Rome. 

C06  Nebochadnezzar  takes  Jerosalem,  and  earriea  the  Jewi  into  eaptivltj. 

<0I  Battle  between  th*  Medee  and  Lydiana,  who  are  aepaiated  by  ajmt 

eelipee  ot  the  son,  predicted  by  Thalee.    (Newton.  Cbion.  66a) 


yGoogk 


480  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 

B.C. 

601  End  of  the  Assyrian  Empire.    Nineveh  taken  by  NebodmdiwiM. 

600  Jeremiah  prophesied. 

699  Birth  of  Cyrus  the  Great. 

594  Solon  Archon  and  Legislator  of  Athens. 

578  Servius  Tullius  sixth  King  of  Rome. 

572  Nebuchadnezzar  subdues  Egypt. 

571  Phalaris  Tvrant  of  Agrigentum. 

562  Comedies  tirst  exhibited  at  Athens  by  Thespis. 

CrcBsus  reigns  in  Lydia. 

551  Confucius,"tho  Chinese  Philosopher,  born. 

550  Pisistratus  Tyrant  of  Athens. 

548  The  Ancient  Temple  of  Delphos  burnt  by  the  Pisistratids. 

535  Babylon  taken  by  Cyrus.    End  of  the  Babylonian  Empire. 

536  Cyrus  ascends  the  tlirone  of  Persia.     He  puts  an  end  to  the  Jew  t»h 

captivity,  which  had  lasted  seventy  years. 
534  Tarquinius  Supcrhus  seventh  King  of  Rome. 

Daniel  prophesied. 

529  Death  of  Cyrus  the  Great.     Cambyses  King  of  Persia. 

Death  of  Pisistratus  Tyrant  of  Athens. 

522  Darius,  son  of  Hystaspcs,  King  of  Persia. 

520  The  Jews  begin  to  buiM  the  second  Temple,  which  is  finished  io  four 

years. 
510  The  Pisistratidae  expelled  from  Athens,  and  the  Democracy  reatoreJ 

Statues  erected  at  Athens  to  Harmodius  and  Aristo<;iton. 

509  The  Tarquins  expelled  from  Rome  and  the  Regal  Government  aU-f- 

ished. 
508  The  first  Alliance  between  the  Romans  and  Carthaginians. 
504  Sardis  taken  and  burnt  by  the  Athenians. 
498  The  first  Dictator  created  at  Rome  (Lartius.) 
497  Institution  of  the  Saturnalia  at  Rome 
493  The  port  of  Pineus  built  by  \he  Athenians. 
490  The  Battle  of  Marathon,  ir>  A'hich  Miltiades  defeats  the  Persian*. 
488  The  first  Tribunes  of  the  People  created  at  Roma.    Accordiaf  b 

Blair  493. 
— •  Miltiades  dies  in  prison. 

486  Xerxes  succeeds  his  father  Darius  in  the  kingdom  of  Persia. 
485  Coriolanus  banished  from  Rome. 
483  Quiestors  instituted  at  Rome. 

Aristides  banished  from  Athens  by  the  Ostracisai. 

480  The  Spartans,  under  Leonidas,  slain  kl  ThennopyUe. 

Naval  Victory  gained  by  the  Greeks  over  the  Persians  at  Salamis. 

479  Attica  laid  waste  and  Athens  burnt  by  Mardonius. 
Victories  over  the  Persians  at  Plat^a  and  Mycale. 

-  Xerxes  leaves  Greece. 

477  300  Fabii  killed  b}r  the  Veientes. 
476  Themistocles  rebuilds  Athens. 

Valerius  triumphs  over  the  Veientes  and  Sabines. 

The  Roman  Citizens  numbered  at  103,000. 

A  great  Eruption  of  iEtna. 

Hiero  King  of  Syracuse. 

471  Volero,  the  Roman  Tribune,  obtains  a  law  for  the  election  of  mur^ 

trates  in  the  comitia  held  o^  tribes. 
470  Cimon,  son  of  Miltiades,  defeats  the  Peiaian  army  and  fleet  in  •*»•  i 

day,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Euiymedon 
4<$9  'Capua  founded  by  the  Tuscans. 
464  Artaxerxes  (Lonfimanus)  Kin^  of  Penia. 

-  Cimon  banished  by  the  Ostracism. 
463  Egypt  revolts 'frmn  the  Pershuia. 

'468  The  Tcnrentian  Law  proposed  at  Borne. 
W  ObtelUBAtoi  Dictator  at  Rome. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


CHKONOLOGICAL  TABUS. 

B.C. 

4^6  Th«  Ludi  Sneularet  fint  iiutitnted  at  Rome. 

455  Commencemfliit  of  the  Seventy  Prophetical  Weeka  of  Daniel 

453  The  number  of  the  Tribunes  of  the  people  at  Rome  increaaed  ften 

Five  to  Ten. 
453  The  two  Books  of  Chroniclea  aopposed  to  have  been  vrritten  at  this 

lime  by  Ezra. 
451  Creation  of  the  Decemviri  at  Rome,  and  Compilation  of  the  Lawa  of 

the  Twelve  Tables. 
449  Peace  between  the  Greeks  and  Pendens  .concladed  by  Cimon,  glorioas 

for  Greece. 

—  Death  of  Virginia,  and  Abolition  of  the  Decemvirate. 

445  The  Law  of  Canuleius  for  the  Intermarriage  of  the  Patricians  and 

Plebeians  at  Rome. 
-—  Military  Tribunes  created. 
437  The  Censorship  first  instituted  at  Rome. 
43G  Pericles  in  hign  power  at  Athens. 
A'J^  MetonV  Cycle  or  the  Moon  of  nineteen  years. 
Ill  The  Peloponnosian  War  begins,  which  lasted  twenty-eeven  yean. 
430  The  History  of  the  Old  Testament  ends  about  this  time. 

—  Great  Plague  at  Athens,  eloquently  described  by  Thucydides. 

—  Malachi  the  last  of  the  PropheU. 
42d  Death  of  Pericles. 

423  Darius  Nethus  King  of  Persia. 

418  Disturbances  at  Rome  on  account  of  the  Agrarian  Law. 

414  The  Athenians  defeated  before  Syracuse. 

413  Alcibiades,  accused  at  Athens,  flies  to  the  Lacedsmoniana. 

412  A  Council  of  400  ffovems  Athens. 

405  Lysander  defeats  the  Athenians  at  ^os  Potamos. 

404  Artazerxes  II.  (Mnemon)  King  of  Peiaia. 

—  End  of  the  Peloponneaian  War. 

403  Lysander  takes  Athens.    Government  of  the  Thirty  Tyranta. 
4U1  The  yooncer  Cyrus  defeated  by  bis  brother  Artazerxes,  and  killed. 

—  Retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand  Greeks. 

Persecution  and  Death  of  Socrates. 

—  Thimsybulos  drives  out  the  Thirty  Tyranta,  and  delivers  Athens. 
399  A  Lectisteraium  first  celebrated  at  Rome. 

.197  The  Lake  of  Alba  drained  by  the  Romana. 

396  Svraenae  unauccessAiIly  besieged  by  the  Carthaginians. 

391  Marcus  Furius  Camillaa  Dictator  at  Rome.    Veil  taken. 

387  DishonoDrable  Peaee  of  Antaloidaa  between  the  Spartans  and  Per- 


385  Rome  taken  by  the  Gauls  wider  Brennua. 

^^aa  Pbsbidas,  the  Spartan,  aeizes  the  Citadel  of  Thebea. 

3cO  Pelopidas  and  Epaminondaa  deliver  Thebes  fVom  the  Laeedmnoniana. 

371  Battle  of  Lenctra,  in  which  the  Laeedamonians  are  defoated  by  the 

Thebans  under  Epaminondaa. 
364  Pelopidas  defeaU  the  Ttrant  of  Phersa,  bot  is  killed  in  battle. 
363  Battle  of  Matinea,  in  which  Epaminondaa  is  kiUed. 
MB  Curtins  leape  into  a  Gulf  in  the  Foram  at  Rome. 
Itil  Darius  Ochus  (or  Artasarxas  III.)  King  of  Perm.    Aecordin;  to 

Blair.  368. 
358  War  of  the  Alliee  against  Athens. 

—  Philip  of  Macedon  takes  Amphipolis,  Pydna,  and  Potidea. 
157  Dion  overcomes  the  party  of  Dionysiua  at  Syraense. 

(56  Alexander  the  Great  bom  at  Pella  in  Macedonia. 

—  The  Temple  of  Diana,  at  Ephesus,  burnt  by  Eroatratoai 
-—  The  Pbocian  or  Sacred  War  begins  in  Greece. 

—  PhiUp  conquers  the  Thracians,  Pteonians  and  lUyrtana. 
150  Dariua  Oehos  subdues  Egvpt 

43  PUfipnfMaeedoa  takes  Olyntiioa. 

St  *'  r-        T 

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482        *  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 

B.  C. 

345  End  of  tbe  Sacred  War. 
347  Oionysiua  restcred  at  S3rracu8e|  after  an  exile  of  ten  i 

346  Philip  admitted  a  Member  of  the  Amphictyonic  CouocU. 
343  S^rracuse  taken  by  Timoleon,  and  Dionyaiua  the  Tyrant  final^  I 

ished. 

The  War  between  the  Romans  and  Samnites,  which  led  to  the  coo- 
quest  of  all  Italy. 

340  The  Carthaginians  defeated  near  Agrigentum. 

P.  Decius  devotes  himself  for  his  country. 

338  Battle  of  CJicroniea  gained  by  Philip  over  the  Athenian!  and  Tfattbani 

3.37  Philip  cho8eii  Generalissimo  of  the  Greeks. 

33()  Philip  murdered  by  Pausanias. 

Alexander  the  Great  King  of  MaccKion. 

Alexander  the  Great  destroys  Thebes. 

335  Darius  III.  (Codomannus)  King  of  Persia. 

Alexander  chosen  Generalissimo  by  the  States  of  Gretjce. 

l^\A  Alexander  defeats  the  Persians  on  the  banks  of  the  Gramcus. 
333  The  Persians  defeated  by  Alexander  at  Issus. 

'Xl^  Ale.vander  conquers  Egypt,  and  takes  Tyre. 

'XM  Dnrius  defeated  by  Alexander  at  Arbela. 

X\0  Darias  Codomannus  kilk  i.     End  of  the  Persian  Empire. 

-  Alexander  takes  posses  sir  n  of  Susa,  and  sets  fire  to  the  Palace  r^ 
Persnpolis. 
328  Alexander  passes  into  Ini's,  defeats  Poms,  founds   seversl   citie*. 
penetrates  to  the  Gangcf 

The  Voyage  of  Nearchus  ''K'n  the  Indus  to  the  Euphrates. 

325  Pupirius  Cursor,  Dictatoi'  at  Heme,  triumphs  over  the  Samnites. 
324  Alexander  the  Great  die^  at  Babylon,  at  the  age  of  thirty-throe. 

321  The   Samnites  make   the  Roman  Anny   pass  under  the  yoke  z{ 

Caudium. 
320  Ptolemy  carries  100,000  Jews  captives  into  Egypt. 
3)7  Agathocles  Tyrant  of  Syracuse. 
312  Era  of  the  Selucids. 
311  Cassander,  Lysimachns,  and  Ptolemy     'nclude  a  peace  wiib  Ant<^ 

onus. 
304  Demetrius  besieges  Rhodes. 

;W3  Demetrius  restores  the  Greek  Cities  "..  their  liberty. 
301  Battle  of  Ipsus  in  Phrygia,  in  whicl  Antigonus  is  defeated  and  alaia. 

Fabiu<!  Muzimus  and  Valerius  Cor«-<  s  Dictators. 

300  Seleucus  founds  Antioch,  Edessa.  end  Laodicea. 
9DS  Athens  takert  by  Demetrius  Polio rcetes. 

QiH  Seleucus  resigns  his  Wife  >Stratonice  to  his  son  Antiochua. 

236  Law  of  Hortcnsius,  by  whirh  the  decrees  of  the  people  were  allowed 

the  same  force  as  those  of  the  senate. 
285  The  Astronomical  Era  of  Dionysias  of  Alexandria. 
284  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  King  of  Egypt. 

263  The  Library  of  Alexandria  founded. 
281  Commencement  of  the  Acha&an  League. 
280  Pyrrhus  invades  Italy. 

— •  Antiochus  Soter  King  of  Syria. 

277  The  Translation  of  the  Septuagint  made  by  order  of  Ptderaj  Pb*U 

delphus.    Playfair,  285 
Antigonus  Gonatus  reigned  in  Macedon  thirty-six  years. 
275  Pyrrnus  unsuccessful  against  the  Carthaginians  in  Sicily. 
274  PyrrhuSy  totally  defeated  by  the  Romans  near  Beneventunii  evscant* 

Italy. 
272  The  Samnites  finally  subdued  by  the  Romans. 
266  Silver  Money  is  coined  at  Home  for  the  first  time. 
266  The  Citizens  of  Rome  numberpd  at  202,224. 

264  Th«  first  Punic  War  begins.    The  Clironicio  of  Parus  eompoMd 


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CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE.  483 

i.e. 

iibO  Krovincia]  Qusstors  instituted  at  Rome. 

—  First  Naval  Victonr  obtained  by  the  Romans  uider  the  Consul  DniBua 
-Joo  Reffulus  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by  the  Carthaginians  ander 

2,^3  Manasseh  chosen  Hi^rh  Priest  of  the  Jews. 

2.j1   Great  Victory  of  Metellus  over  Asdrubal. 

':t!}  ?**?  Romans  besiege  LilyboBum ;  are  defeated  by  Hamilcar. 

241  End  of  the  first  Punic  War. 

—  Attains  King  of  Pergamus  succeeds  Eumenes. 
-MO  Comedies  are  first  acted  at  Rome. 

its  V'^  T^^pJm."^^  ^"L"'  !''"*  ^'*®  ^^  «^™«  »">«•  ^^  w'gn  of  Numa. 
22H  Hamilcar  killed  m  Spain.  ^^ 

ttl'>  Great  Victory  of  the  Romans  over  the  Gauls. 

21*>  Hannibal  take.s  Sa^untum. 

iH  The  second  Punic  War  begins. 

217  Hannibal  defeats  the  Romans  under  Flaroinius. 

—  rabius  Maiimus  Dictator. 

216  fia^JjJs^jOf  CanniB,  in  which  the  Romans  are  touUy  defeated  by  Han- 

212  Philip  H.  of  Maccdon  defeaU  the  iEtoUans. 

*T7r  J?'»^^®"*"  **^^'  Syracuse,  after  a  siege  of  two  years. 

ill  Capua  surrenders  to  the  Romans. 

—  Antiochns  tiie  Great  conquers  Judiea. 

210  Asdrubal  vanquished  in  Spain  by  the  Scipios. 

—  Pnbhuii  Scipio,  sent  into  Spain,  takes  New-Carthage. 
2»h  Philopcemen  Prator  of  the  Achcans. 

-113  The  Carthaginians  recall  Hannibal  to  Africa. 

—  Sophonisba  poisoned  by  lifassinissa. 

rri  Si'R.     J?^  '°  triumph  to  Rome  by  P.  Scipio. 
;?  V!!\t^''''^^^^y  ^'"^  ^'""»  «*  Cynocephale. 
on  ^^^  D      "^  ""^  ^*~*;  '^"**  ^'"^  ""^  *'»•  secoBd.Punic  War. 

r^^  ViTe  srcit^"^;^^^^^^^^^^     ^-^«--  ^^^-^-^ 

173  War  between  the  Romans  and  Perseus  King  of  Maeedon 

72  Antiochus  defeats  the  generals  of  Ptolemy  in  Egypt. 
1*0  Antiochus  Epiphanes  takes  and  plunders  JemsSem. 

Zi  i<^>^nc«  »  Comedies  performed  at  Rome. 

^^T  ^^"^^^  ^f  ^•"i"*  iEmilius,  and  brought  prisoner  to  Rom 
„  ,  f  "^'y  ^^^  kingdom  of  Macedon.  ^     *^  ^^ 

S  S?«»»  **"c<^»*»«n«  drives  the  Syrians  out  of  Judea 
.    i.     *<»"*■«  Citizens  numbered  at  337,038. 
a  The  third  Punic  War  begins. 
47  MeteUus  dofeala  die  Achaans. 
id  Corinth  taken  by  the  Consul  Mummius. 
^  Sl'T**  ''^•'J  and  destroyed  by  the  Romass. 
'?.  ?k!  5^T""'  shamefully  defeated  by  the  Nnmantinea. 
.v»  The  Historv  of  the  Apocrypha  ends. 

—  Antiochus  besieges  Jerusalem. 
33  Tiberius  Gracchus  put  to  death. 

>^  Manus  defeats  Jtigurtha. 

5  i?«^*  ■i*^«<*  ^«  death  at  Rome. 

to  Civil  War  between  Marius  and  Sy in    °j"'  —-tit  rniiiwiia  tf Rum, 

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m'  CHKONOLOOICAL  TABLE. 

8f»  Mithridatei  King  of  Ponttu  defeated  by  SylU. 

89  Sylla  deftata  Norbanna.    Tbe  Capitol  burnt. 

82  Sylla  perpetual  Dictator.    His  horrible  Proaeriptioii 

80  Julius  Casaar  makes  his  first  Campaign. 

79  Cicero's  first  Oration  fi>r  Roscius. 

78  Sylla  resigns  all  power,  and  dlea. 

77  The  War  of  Sertorius. 

7S  Lucullua  repeatedly  defeats  Mithridates,  and  redueee  Pootas  la  a 

Roman  province. 
70  Crassus  and  Pompey  chosen  Consuls  at  Rome. 
63  Victories  of  Pompey     He  takes  Jerusalem,  and  restores  Hyicansi  Is 

the  government  of  Judea. 
G2  Catiline's  Conspiracy  quelled  at  Rome  by  Cicero. 
61  Pompey  enters  Rome  m  triumph. 
&9  The  first  Triumvirate ;  Pompey,  CrassoSi  and  Caaar. 

—  Cesar  proposes  a  new  Agrarian  Law. 

68  Clodius  the  Tribune  procures  the  Banishment  of  Cicero. 
57  Cssar  defeats  AriovisUis  in  Gaul. 

—  Cicero  broug^ht  back  from  Exile  with  high  honour. 
55  Cieaai  lands  m  Britain,  and  makes  a  abort  campaign. 

54  Cassar  invades  Britain  a  second  time,  and  conquers  part  of  k. 

53  Crassus  killed  in  Mesopotamia. 

52  Mile  defended  by  Cicero  for  the  alaughter  of  Clodius. 

49  Caesar  passes  the  Rubicon,  aad  marches  to  Rome. 
,    —  Commencement  of  the  Era  of  Antioch,  October,  49  A.  C. 
;    48  Battle  of  Pharsalia,  in  which  Pompey  is  defeated. 

—  Pompey  slain  in  l^fTfpL 

—  The  Alexandrian  Librarr  of  400,000  volumes  burnt 
46  Cato  besieged  in  Utica,  kills  himself. 

45  The  Kalendar  leibrmed  by  Julius  Cesar,  by  introdncing  the  Soh< 

Year  instead  of  the  Lunar.    The  fint  Julian  Year  began  Jaanaiy  1, 

45  A.  C. 
44  Julius  Cesar  killed  in  the  Benate-Hodse. 
;    «—  Octavius,  grand-nephew  and  heir  of  Julius  Onsar,  comes  to  Roaa, 

and  is  opposed  at  first  by  Antony. 
43  Second  Tnnmvirate ;  Oclaviua,  Mark  Antony,  and  Lepidoa. 
42  Battle  of  Philippi,  in  which  Brutus  and  Caasiua  are  defeated. 
40  Herod  marries  Mariamne,  dan^tor  of  Hyroanna,  and  obtaioB  ftmn  te 

RomauB  the  Government  or  Judaa. 
34  Antony  divides  Armenia  among  the  childran  of  Cleopatra. 
33  Mauritania  reduced  into  a  Roman  Province. 
32  War  declared  by  the  Senate  against  Antony  and  Cleoptttn. 
31  Battle  of  Actium  and  end  of  the  Ronan  CoBmonweattk. 
_  Octavius  Emperor  of  Rome. 
30  Death  of  Maik  Antony  and  Cleopatra.    Alexaodria  taken  hf  Oda- 

viua. 
Octavius  receives  the  title  of  Augustus. 
€3  Death  of  Marcellus.    Aerippa  in  Spain. 
00  Porus  King  of  India  sends  an  Embassy  to  Augustus. 


17  Agustua  revives  the  Secular  Games. 
15  The 


be  Rhnti  and  Vindelenci  defeated  by  Drusus. 
10  The  Temple  of  Janus  shut  by  Augustus  for  a  abort  tiae. 

8  Augustus  corrects  an  Error  of  the  Roman  Kalendar. 
-  Death  of  Mecenas. 

S  Augustus  ordains  a  Cenaos  of  all  the  people  in  the  Roman  Kaanire. 
4  JESUB  CHRIST  k  bom  Ibor  yean  before  the  eommeneemm  of  c^ 
tulgar.etB- 

9  The  Roman  LagioniaiiderVaiiit,daitroyttdSBG«Kmi9W. 


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CBRONOLOGICAI.  TABL&  <  4^ 

\, 

Tiberius  Emperor  of  Rome. 

Germanicus  dies  at  Antioch. 

Tiberias  banishes  the  Jews  from  Eome. 

John  the  Baptist  preaches  in  Judasa  the  Coming  of  tht  Ifisriah 

Tiberius  retires  to  the  island  of  Capres. 

Pilate  made  Governor  of  Judaa. 

Scjanus  disgraced,  and  put  to  death  bj  Tibariaa. 

R  Ht.  Peter  first  Pope. 

lESUS  CUJ|18T  is  crucified. 

The  Conversion  of  St.  Paul. 

[Jaligula  Emperor  of  Rome. 

^\.  Matthew  writes  his  Gospel. 

The  name  of  Christiana  first  given  to  the  Diaciplaa  of  CbriaC  at  J^ 

tioch. 
[Jlaudius  Emperor  of  Rome, 
lerod  persecntes  the  Christians,  and  imprisona  Peter. 
jergius  Paulus,  proconsul,  converted  by  St.  Paul. 
-Expedition  of  Claudius  into  Britain. 
H.  If  ark  writes  his  Gospel, 
'ospasian  in  Britain. 

Pho  iMdi  SaeuUres  (secular  games)  perlbrmed  at  Rome. 
Itssalina  put  to  death  bj  Claudius,  who  marries  Agrippiaa  tha 

mother  of  Nero, 
it.  Paul  preaches  in  the  Areopagus  at  Athens, 
'aractacus,  the  British  King,  is  carried  prisoner  lo  Roma. 
S'ero  Emperor  of  Rome, 
tritannicos  poisoned  by  Nero, 
tero  puts  to  death  his  mother  Agrippina. 
uetonius  Paulinus  defeats  the  Britons. 
'iio  Britons,  under  Queen  Boadicea,  defeat  the  Romans. 
'he  first  Persecution  of  the  Christians  raised  by  Nero. 
A>me  set  on  firo  by  Nero. 
iareas  Soranus  and  Thraaea  Patua  put  to  death  by  Naro. 

Pope  Linus. 
(asfarra  of  the  Jews  by  Floras^  at  Cttsaraa,  Ptolemaii^  and  A^ 

andria. 

I.  Peter  and  St  P^ul  put  to  death. 
>!(ephos,  the  Jewish  historian,  govarsorof  GaliUa 

Pope  St.  Clement 
ialba  Emperor  of  Rome. 
Hho  Emperor  of  Rome, 
itellius  Emperor  of  Rome, 
rspasian  Emperor  of  Rome. 
tnisalem  taken  and  destroyed  by  Titna. 

Pope  St.  Cletus. 

ereat  Pestilence  at  Rome,  10,000  dying  in  ona  day. 

ilus  Emperor  of  Rome. 

f^rculancum  and  Pompeii  destroyed  by  an  Eniption  of  VasovkM. 

)i]que8ts  of  Agricola  in  Britain. 

oniitian  Emperor  of  Rome. 

Pope  Anacletus. 

>olloaitts  of  Tyanea  defends  himaalf  balbra  Domitiaa  agamit  aa 

accDsation  of  Treason. 

eadful  Peraectttion  of  the  Christiana  at  RmM|  aad  a  th*  yaav^ 

inces. 

John  writes  hla  Afocalypaa^  and  hia  Goa^ 


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486  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLB 

AD. 

96  IT  Pope  Evaratnc 

98  Trajan  Emperor  of  Rome. 

--  Trajan  forbids  the  Christian  AMeroblies. 
100 

103  The  Daciana  subdued  hj  Trajan. 
107  Trajan's  Victories  in  Asia. 
106  St.  Ignatius  devoured  by  wild  Beasts  at  Rome. 

—  IT  Pope  Alexander  I.  ^ 

115  The  Jews  in  Cyreno  murder  200,000  Greeks  and  Romanik 

117  IT  Pope  Sixtus  I. 

118  Adrian  Emperor  of  Rome. 

—  Persecution  of  the  Christians  renewed  by  Adrian,  but  afterwud 

suspended. 
120  Adrian's  Wall  built  across  Britain. 
127  IT  Pope  Telesphorus. 

131  Adrian  visits  Egypt  and  Syria.  ^  .     , 

132  Adrian  publishes  his  perpetual  Edict  or  Code  of  the  Laws. 
135  The  Romans  destroyed  580,000  Jews  in  Judea. 

137  Adrian  rebuilds  Jerusalem  by  tlie  name  of  M^  CapitolinA. 

138  II  Pope  Hyginus. 

Antonius  Pius  Emperor  of  Rome. 

142  IT  Pope  Pius  I. 

150  IT  Pope  Anicetus. 

154  Justm  Martyr  publishes  his  Apology  Ibr  the  Christiana. 

161  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus  and  Lucius  VerusEmpenwof 

Rome. 

162  ^  Pope  Sotcr. 

167  Polycarp  and  Pionices  suffered  Martyrdom  in  Asia. 

169  War  with  the  Marcomanni. 

171  Death  of  Verus.    Marcus  Aurelius  sole  Emperor. 

—  V.  Pope  Eleutherius. 

177  Persecution  of  the  Christians  at  Lyons. 
180  CommoduS  Emperor  of  Rome. 

185  IF  Pope  Victor  I.  .     ^  .      . 

189  The  Saracens  defeat  the  Romans.    This  people  first  menUooad  » 
history. 

193  Pertinax  Emperor  of  Rome.      Didius  Julianus  purchases  tkt 

Empire. 

Pescennius  Niger  declared  Emperor  in  Ae  East. 

Septimius  Severus  Emperor  of  Rome. 

194  Niger  defeated  by  Severus,  and  put  to  death. 

195  Byzantium  besieged,  surrenders  to  Severas. 

196  Albinos  proclaimed  Emperor  in  Britidn. 

197  Albinus,  defeated  by  Severus,  kills  himself. 

—  %  Pope  Zephyrinus. 

200  .    ^ 

202  The  fifUi  Persecution  against  the  Cbrutians,  principally  m  Egypt- 
208  Severus.  with  his  sons  Caracalla  and  Geta^  in  Britain. 
'Wd  The  Caledonians  repulsed,  and  a  Wall  budt  between  the  riven  Foitt 
and  Clvde. 

211  Caracalla  and  Geta  Emperors  of  Rome. 

212  Caracalla  murders  Gete. 
217  Caracalla  put  to  death. 

..^  Macrinus  Emperor  of  Rome. 

—  f  Pope  Caliztoa  L 

9t8  Helioeabalus  Emperor  of  Ron^a. 

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CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLB.  467 

Uexander  SeveniS  Emperor  of  Rome. 
I  Tribnte  paid  by  the  Roman*  to  the  Goth« 
[  PoDeUrbenl. 

The  Pereians  totally  defeated  by  Alexander  Sevenie 
[  Pope  Pontiaiuia. 
I  Pope  Antems. 

^laximinus  aasaaainatee  Alexander  SeTenia,  and  ia  proclaimed  Em- 
peror of  Rome. 
The  sixth  Penecution  of  the  Christians. 
f  Pope  Fabianaa. 

'f  aximinus  defeats  the  Daciana  and  Sarmatians. 
daximus  and  Balbinus  Emperors  of  Rome, 
iordian  Emperor  of  Rome, 
iordian  defeau  the  Persians  under  Sapor, 
^hilip  the  Arabian  Emperor  of  Rome. 

Pho  Secular  Games  celebrated  at  Rome.    Pompey's  Theatre  bunt. 
>t.  Cyprian  elected  Bishop  of  Carthage. 
Pectus  Emperor  of  Rome. 

The  seventh  PerMcution  of  the  Christians  under  Decins. 
f  Pope  St.  Cornelius. 
/ibius  Volusianus  Emperor  of  Rome. 
Callus  Emperor  of  Rome. 
I  Pope  Lucius  I. 
The  Gothsy  Burgundians,  dbc.  make  an  Irruption  into  IfoMia  and 

Pannonia. 

/alerianus  Emperor  of  Rome. 
I  Pope  Stephen  1. 
^he  eighth  Persecution  of  the  Christians 

Pooe  SixtUfl  II. 
""he  Persians  ravage  Syria. 

Pope  Dionysius. 
>allienus  Emperor  of  Rome. 
'lie  Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus  burnt. 
apor,  the  Persian,  takes  Antioch,  Tarsus,  and  Casarea. 
:^he  Henili  invade  and  ravage  Greece. 

laudius  IL  Emperor  of  Rome. 
'he  Gotha  and  Heruli,  to  the  number  of  3120,000,  defeated  ky 

Claudius. 

Pope  Felix  I. 
Vurclian  Emperor  of  Rome. 
'))<*  Aleroanni  and  Marcomanni  ravage  the  Empire. 
'lie  ninth  Persecution  of  the  Christians, 
'.onobia  Queen  of  Palmyra  defeated  by  Aurelian  at  Edeasa. 

Pope  Eutychianus. 
Tacitus  Emperor  of  Rome. 
Morianus  Emperor  of  Rome 
*robus  Emperor  of  Rome. 

>arus  Emperor  of  Rome  defeat*  the  Qoadi  and  flaimatiana 
.'annus,  Numerianus,  Emperors  of  Rome. 

Pope  Cains. 

ingal  King  of  Morren  died. 
)iocletian  Emperor  of  Rome. 
*he  Empire  attacked  by  the  Northeni  Nations. 
* 1^^  iHQips  the  govemment  of  Britain,  and  reigna  aoreo  jmn. 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


^BB  imRONOLOOiCIAL  TABUS. 

A*IX 

290  The  Gi^gorian  and  Henaoffeniaa  Codet  pubtiihed. 

292  Partition  of  the  Empire  bjr  Diocletisii  hetween  twe  Empennp  Md  two 

Cesan. 
295  IT  Pope  MarceUinus. 
Alexandria  in  Egypt  taken  bj  Diocletian. 

300 
302  The  tenth  Persecution  of  the  Christiana. 

304  IT  Pope  Marcellua. 

— -  Resignation  of  Diocletian  and  Mazimiaa 

Galerius  and  Constantius  Emperon  of  Bmm. 

305  Maximinus  Emperor  of  Rome. 

306  Constantine  the  Great  Empeior  of  Rome.    He  etope  cIm  Per 

secution  of  the  Christians. 
310  IT  Pope  Eusebius.  ^ 

IT  Pope  Melchiades.  * 

314  IT  Pope  SyiTester. 

325  Constantine  abolishes  the  Combats  of  Gladiators. 

—  He  assembles  the  first  General  Council  at  Nice,  where  the  Doctrtaei 

of  Arius  are  condemned. 

326  St.  Athanasius,  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  introduces  Monarchiam  ia  the 

Roman  Empire. 
329  Constantine  removes  the  Seat  of  Empire  to  ConatantinopU. 

336  H  Pope  Marcus. 

337  IT  Pope  Julius  I. 

—  Death  of  Constantine.    The  Empire  divided  amon^  hia  three  8obbl 

—  Constantine  IL,  Constans,  and  Constantiu3,  Emptum  ef 

Rome. 
352  tr  Pope  Liberins. 

356  IT  Pope  Felix  I. 

357  The  Germans  defeated  by  Julian  at  Strasburg, 
35d  f  Pope  Felix  II. 

361  Julian  Emperor  of  Rome.  He  abjures  Christianity,  is  elected  Pee- 
tifex  Maximus,  and  attempto  fruitlessly  to  rebuild  the  Temple  i^ 
Jerusalem. 

363  Jovian  Emperor  of  Rome. 

3G4  Valentinian  Emperor  of  the  West. 

., —  Valens  Emperer  of  the  East. 

366  V  Poj>e  Damasus. 

167  Gratian  Emperor  of  the  West. 

875  Valentinian  IL  Emperor  of  the  West 

376  Valens  allows  the  Goths  to  settle  in  Thrace. 

f37^  The  Goths  advance  to  the  Gates  of  Constantinople.    Death  of  Tnlans. 

879Theodosius  the  Great  Emperor  of  the  East. 

381  Second  General  Council  held  at  Constantinople. 

383  The  Huns  overrun  Mesopotamia;  are  defeated  by  the  Goths. 

384  Symmachns  pleads  the  cause  of  Paganism  against  St  Ambrose  in  *t 

Senate. 

385  V  Pope  Syricios. 

392  Theodosius  Emperor  of  the  West  and  East. 

386  Arcadius  Emperor  of  die  East,  and  Honorius  of  the  WmL 
-»—  The  Huns  invade  the  Eastern  Provinces. 

397  St.  Chrysostom  chosen  Patriarch  of  Constantiaople, 
389  T  Pope  Anastasius. 
-*r  Gaipaa  the  Qoth  <4Mpii  KoiK>nn  firo9  Av^^i^ 


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CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE.  48f 


Alaric  the  Goth  rmragot  Italy. 

!f  Pope  Innocent  I. 

Stilicoo,  Genera]  of  Honoriot,  defeats  Alaric  near  Pollentia. 

r  erfcus  I.  King  of  Scotland,  fupposed  to  haTe  begQQ  his  leigm. 

The  Vandals,  Alans,  &o.  invade  France  and  Spain. 

Theodosius  II.  Emperor  of  the  East. 

Rome  sacked  and  burnt  by  Alaric.    Death  of  Alarie 

The  Vandals  settled  In  Spain. 

The  Secular  Games  celebrated  at  Rome. 

The  Pelaffian  Heresy  condemned  by  the  Bishops  of  Alhca. 

H  Pope  Zoximus. 

^  Pope  Bonifaoe  I. 

Pharamand  Jirtt  Kmg  (f  the  Framkg  supposed  to  have  be|Wi  his 

reign. 
?  Pope  C^lestinus. 

ValcDtinian  III.  Emperor  of  the  West. 
The  Romaas  withdraw  finally  from  Britain. 
/Etius,  the  Roman  General,  defeats  the  Franks  and  Goths. 
The  third  General  Council  held  at  Ephesus. 
t  Pope  Sixtus  III. 
The  Theodosian  Code  published. 
Generic  the  Vandal  iuTadea  aodplundera  Italy. 
Kudocia  the  Empress,  wife  of  Theodosius,  retires  to  Jerusalem. 
Carthage  taken  by  the  Vandals.    Kingdom  of  the  Vandals  in  Alhca 
^*  Pojw  Leo  the  Great. 

Theodosius  forced  to  make  a  disgraceful  Peace  with  Attila  the  Him. 
Atiila  causes  his  brother  Bleda  to  be  murdered. 
The  Britons  in  rain  solicit  the  Romans  to  assist  them  sgainst  the  Pisfs 

and  Scots. 
Attila  the  Hun  overruns  IlJyrium,  Thrare,  Dacia,  Mcssia,  and  Scythia 
The  Romans  engage  to  pay  a  heavy  Tribute  of  Gold  to  Attila. 
MerovauM  King  ojth§  Fnadis, 
Marcian  Emperor  of  the  East. 
Attila  ravages  Germany  and  Francs. 
Theodorio  King  of  the  Visigoths  killed  in  battle.    The  Huns  defeottd 

by  iEtius. 
The  Saxons  arrive  in  Britain  under  Ileneint  and  Hoisa. 
The  fourth  General  Council  held  at  Chalcedon. 
Foundation  of  the  city  of  Venice. 
Petromius  Maximus  Emperor  of  the  West 
Avilus  Emperor  of  the  West. 
Rome  taken  and  plundered  by  Genserio  the  VandaL 
CkUderU  King  9/ the  Franks. 
Leo  the  Great  Emperor  of  the  East. 
Majorianus  Emperor  of  the  West. 
Severus  Emperor  of  the  West,  raised  by  Ricimer. 

V  Pope  Hilarins. 

Anthemius  Emperor  of  the  West. 

Eric  Kmg  of  the  Visigoths  drives  the  Romans  out  of  Bpaia. 

V  Pope  SnnpHcius. 

iClla  the  Saxon  takes  possession  of  the  Kingdom  of  SosMa 
iElla  defimto  all  the  British  Princes. 

Great  EreptloB  of  Mount  Vesovius,  seen  fiom  Csnslimbopto, 
OlybiuB  Emptor  of  the  West 


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490  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 

A.D. 

473  Glycerius,  Emperor  of  tbo  West,  degraded  and  atripped  by 

474  Julius  Nepos  Emperor  of  the  West 

Zero  Emperor  of  the  East 

—  AugUStulus  Romulus  Emperor  of  the  Weat,  rmiaed  by  hia  latlur 

Orestesy  General  of  Nepos. 
470  Orestes  put  to  death  by  Odoacer  Kinff  of  the  Hanili. 

—  Rome  taken  by  Odoacer  now  kine  of  Italy. 

——  Extinction  of  the  Western  Eupirs  of  the  RomaiMy  507  yean 

from  the  battle  of  Actium,  and  1224  from  the  building  of  Roma. 
481  Clovis  King  ^tke  Franlu. 

—  Zeno  makes  Theodoric,  the  Ostrogoth,  his  General,  and  creat«a  him 

Consul. 
483  IT  Pope  Felix  III. 
485  Battle  of  Soissons  gained  by  Clovis. 
488  Theodoric,  the  Ostrogoth,  entirely  defeats  Odoacer,  and  ia  acknow)- 

edged  Kins  of  Italy  by  the  Emperor  Zeno. 

490  The  Burgundians,  under  Gondebald,  ravafe  Italy. 

—  Ireland,  called  the  Isle  of  Sainta,  famous  for  its  Sehoob. 

491  Anastasius  Emperor  of  the  East. 
493  Odoacer  put  to  death  by  Theodoric. 

496  H  Pope  Anastasius  II. 

497  Clovis  and  the  Franks  converted  to  Christianity. 

498  IT  Pope  Symmachus. 

499  Alliance  between  Clovis  and  Theodoric  the  Great 
600 

— -  Gondebald,  the  Burgundian,  becomea  tributary  to  Clovis. 

501  The  Burgundian  Laws  published  by  Gondebald. 

502  Cabades  King  of  Persia  ravages  part  of  the  Eastern  Empire. 
504  The  Eastern  Empire  makes  peace  with  Cabades. 

507  Clovis  defeats  Alaric  the  Visigoth,  and  receives  a  congratulatory  em- 

bassy, with  a  diadem,  from  Anastasius. 

508  Theodoric  the  Great  defeats  Clovis  in  the  battle  of  Aries,  aii4  diM 

makes  peace  with  him. 

510  Clovi';  makes  Paris  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Franks. 

511  Death  of  Clovis.    Division  of  his  kingdom  among  his  four  aoosy 
^-^  Childehert,  Thitrry^  Clotaire^  and  -Clodomir,  Kings  of  Me  FroMks. 

512  The  Heruli  aJlowcd  by  Anastasius  to  settle  in  Thrace. 

514  IT  Pope  Honniedas. 

515  Arthur  king  of  the  Britons  supposed  to  have  begun  hia  reign. 

51G  The  Computation  of  Time  by  the  Christian  i£ra  introdu^d  by  Dia- 
nysius  tne  Monk. 

517  The  Gets  ravage  Illyrium,  Macedonia,  and  Epirus. 

518  Justin  1.  Emperor  of  the  East  raised  from  obscurity. 

519  Justin  restores  the  Ortiiodoz  Bishops,  and  condemns  the  Eutyohia&s. 

—  Cabades  King  of  Persia  proposes  tnat  Justin  should  adopt  hta  soa 

Cosroes,  and  makes  war  on  a  refusal. 
523  HI  Pope  John  I. 
525  The  Arian  Bishops  deposed  by  Justin,  and  this  act  highly  resented  b; 

Theodoric. 
~*-  Antioch  and  many  other  cities  almost  destroyed  bj  an  earthquake,  aad 

rebuilt  by  Justm,  who  adopts  his  nephew  Justinian. 
52G  Theodoric  piits  to  death  Boetliiua  and  Bymmachtts. 

—  X  Pope  Fefix  IV. 

5597  Justinian  !•  Emperor  of  the  East. 

GSt^  Belisarius,  General  of  J[asttnian,  defeats  the  Pernaoi. 

—  The  Books  of  the  Civil  Law  published  by  Juadnun. 
630  f  Pope  Boniface  fl. 

•     .  '  Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE.  49I 

I. 

Jofdnian  eonmtuUtes  Cotroas  on  succeeding  te  tlie  throne  of  Penim 

and  concludes  a  perpetual  peace  with  him. 
Great  Insurrection  at  Constantinople  quelled  with  prodigious  slaogbter 

by  Beliiarius. 
Aihalaric  King  of  the  Ostrogotos  dies^  and  is  succeeded  by  hie  mother 

Amalasonta. 
IT  Pope  John  II. 
Theoiobert  King  ufM^tx, 

BelisarioB  deftato  Getimer  and  the  Vandals  in  Afiica. 
IT  Pope  Agapetus. 
r^  Pope  SylToster. 

Beluarins  subdues  the  Ostrogoths  in  Italy,  and  takee  Rome. 
IT  PopeVigilius. 

Belisarius  refuses  to  accept  the  crown  of  Italy. 
Totila,  the  Goth,  recoTors  Italy  from  the  Romans. 
Totila  takes  and  plunders  Rome. 
Theobald  King  ofMetx. 
Rome  retaken  by  Belisarius. 

Commencement  of  the  kingdom  of  Poland  under  Lechus. 
Rome  recovered  by  Totila. 
The  manufacture  of  Silk  introduced  into  Europe. 
Totila  defeated  by  Narses  the  Eunuch,  and  put  to  death. 
^  Pope  Pelagius  I. 

The  Huns,  breaking  into  Thrace,  are  defeated  by  Belisarius. 
Belisarius  degraded,  and  ungratefully  treated  by  Justinian. 
Clotaire  9oU  King  of  Franco. 
^  Pope  John  m. 

Uelisarios  restored  to  hisHonoura  and  Command. 
Caribertf  Goniran  Sigektrt,  and  ChUporie,  Kimgo  ^Frmmu. 
.lustin  II.  Emperor  of  Rome. 
Narses,  recalled  from  Italy,  invites  the  Lombards  to  take  possession 

of  the  country. 
It&Iy  conquered  by  the  Lombards. 
Birth  of  Mahomet  the  fidse  Prophet. 
IT  Pope  Benedict  I. 
Tiberius  II.  Emperor  of  the  East 
*'  Pope  Pelagius  IL 

The  Latin  Tongue  ceases  to  be  spoken  in  Italy  abont  this  tune. 
Maurice  Emperor  of  the  East. 
Clotairo  li.  King  of  Soiooont, 

Afittoch  again  (testroyed,  with  30,000  inhabitants,  by  an  Earthquake. 
"^  Pope  Gregory  the  Great 

Thierry  IL  and  TUodoberi  IF.  Kings  of  Parts  and  AuMtrasia. 
Augustme  the  Monk  conreits  Oie  Saxons  to  Christianity. 


Phocas  Emperor  of  the  East  acknowledges  the  Supremacy  of  the 

Popes. 
1  Pope  Sabinianus. 
^  Pope  Bonifiice  IV. 

The  Pantheon  at  Rome  Dedicated  to  God,  the  Virgin,  and  the  Samte. 
T  Pope  Boni&ce  IV. 

The  Jews  of  Aotiocn  massacre  the  Christians. 
HeracUus  Emperor  of  tiie  Enst. 

The  French  Msiree  du  Palais  first  introdt:c.  J  by  Cl  uiic  a*  RiRcnU 
aotaire  IL  »oU  King  of  France. 
Qii«>en  BhinechJlda,  aecosed  of  numbcrtf  99  crlm^.  it  pjt  iv  death  by 


y  Google 


40S  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABL& 

AD. 

615  r  Pbp«  DewKaedit 

616  Jertifialem  taken  by  the  Penxau  tinder  CoiroM  11. 
618  T  PopeBonifkoe  V. 

622  Era  of  the  Ue^ra,  or  Flight  of  Mahomet  from  Macoa  to  M^iSag,         I 

635  IT  Pooe  HononuB  I.  ! 

—  The  Persiana  under  Cosroes  11.,  with  the  Hons,  Abarii  and  Sob?e< 

nians,  besiege  Constantinople. 
6S23  Dagoheri  and  Charibert  Kinffs  of  Frim€9. 
93Si  Peath  of  Mahomet.    Abub&er  euoeeeda  him  aa  Caliph  of  tha  Baia^     ' 

cens.  ' 

693  Abubeker  dies,  and  is  succeeded  by  Omar  in  the  Calipbata. 

636  Jerusalem  taken  by  Omar  and  the  Saraceaa,  who  keep  pnmiMioa  of  rt 

463  years. 
638  Si^btrt  IF.  and  ChvU  //.  Kings  qf  Fmnee. 

640  V  Pope  Severinna.  ' 

—  If  Pope  John  IV. 

—  The  Library  of  Alexandria,  founded  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphos,  • 

burnt  by  the  Saracena. 

641  Constantine,  £mperor  of  the  East  for  a  few  months,  poisoned  hj 

his  step-mother. 

—  Heraclionas  and  Tiberius  III.  Emperon  of  the  East. 

642  Constans,  son  of  Constantine,  Emperor  of  the  East 

—  t  Pope  Theodoras; 
645  Otman  eucceeds  Omar  in  the  Caliphate. 

648  Cyprus  taken  by  the  Saracens  unaer  Mawia. 

649  Ji  Pope  Martin  I. 

653  The  Saracens  take  Rhodes,  and  dertroy  the  Colossus. 

654  Childeric  U.  KingofAustrana, 

V  Pope  Eugenius  I. 

C55  Ah  Caliph  of  Arabia.    Mawia  Caliph  of  Egypt. 

657  ^  Pope  Vitalianus. 

65d  The  Saracens  obtain  Peace  of  the  Emperor  Constana,  and  agrea  M 

pay  a  yearly  tribute. 

668  Constantius  V.  (Pogonatus)  Emperor  of  the  East 

669  Sicily  ravaged  by  the  Saracens. 
672  IT  Pope  Adcodatus. 
'—  The  Saracens  iiieffectually  besiege  Constantinople.    Their  fleet  dt- 

etroyed  by  the  Greek  Fire  used  by  Callinicos. 
C75  The  Saracens  attempt  to  land  in  Spain,  but  are  repulaed  by  Wanta 

King  of  the  Visgoths. 
676  T  Pope  Donns. 

679  Thierry  IV.  King  of  all  France, 
•—  t  Pope  Agatlio. 

680  The  sixth  General  or  GScumenical  Council  of  Constantinople.. 
682  V  Pope  Leo  II. 
684  H  Pope  Beredict  IL 
GSi  IT  Pope  John  V. 

—  JusUnian  II.  Emperor  of  the  East. 

—  The  Britons,  totally  subdued  by  the  Saxons,  retreat  into  Walsi  ui 

Cornwall. 
686  t  Pope  Canon. 

686  Ceadwalla  King  of  Wessex  subdues  Sussex  and  Kent 
667  %  Pope  Sergius. 
600  Pepin  Heristel,  Moire  du  Palais^  defbats  Thierry,  aadaeqviraidM 

chief  powor  in  France. 
90$  CUms  UI.  King  tf  France. 

694  Jostinian  11.  dethroned^  mutilated,  and  baniahed  by  Leottaoi^ 
m6  aUdebert  UI.  King  of  Frames. 

•     Digitized  by  CjOOQIC 


CHEONOLOGICAL  TABLE.  49g 

Leontius  Emperor  of  the  East.    Dethroned  and  mutilated  by 
Apsimar  oi  Tiberius  Emperor  of  the  East. 
The  Saraceoa  defeated  by  John  the  Patrician.   , 

The  Saracene  again  defeated  with  great  elaoghter  by  Heraclina,  brolket 

of  Tiberius. 
f  Pope  John  VL 
Justinian  escapee  from  prison,  defeats  l^beriua,  and  is  restored  te  the 

tlirone. 
Justinian  II.  defeated  by  the  Buigariants. 
IT  Pope  Sisinnius. 
^  Pope  Constantine. 

Philippicus  Bardanes  Emperor  of  the  East 
DagiAwt  in.  Kimg  of  Francs, 
Anastasius  IL  Emperor  of  the  East, 
ripain  conquered  by  the  Saracens  under  Muea,  the  general  of  die 

Caliph  WaUd. 
%  Pope  Gregory  11. 
Thcodosius  Emperor  of  the  East. 

Charles  Martel,  Maire  du  Palais,  governs  all  France  Ibr  96  years. 
Childcric  il.  King  of  France. 
Leo  (the  Isorian)  Emperor  of  the  East. 
Omar  11.  besieges  Constantinople  without  success. 
Thierry  IV.  King  qf  France. 
Leo  forbids  the  Worship  of  Images,  which  occasiens  a  great  rebellion 

of  bis  subjects.    The  Pope  defends  the  practice. 
Leo  orders  rope  Gregory  to  be  seized  and  sent  to  Constantinople ; 

but  the  order  is  fnistratod,  and  Leo  confiscates  the  Imperial  Do> 

mains  of  Sicily  and  Calabria. 
The  Saracens  ravace  Gallia  Narbonnensis. 
^  Pope  Gregory  ifl. 

(?haries  fiffartel  defeats  the  Saracens  between  Tours  and  Poictiers. 
!.eo  persecutes  the  Monks. 

Deatn  of  Pelagius,  who  preserved  the  Christian  Monarchy  in  Asturia. 
The  Duchy  of  Spoleto  seized  by  the  Normans.    Recovered  by  the 

Pope. 
f  Pope  Zacharv. 
CkiUUric  ill.  King  «f  France 
Constantine  (Copronymus)  Emperor  of  the  East.    An  enemy  to 

images  and  saint  worship. 
He  defeats  and  puts  to  death  Artabazdus,  who  had  seized  Constan- 
tinople. 
He  destroys  the  fleet  of  the  Saracens. 
The  Race  of  the  Abasside  become  Caliphs  of  the  Saraoens. 
Pepin  {U  Bref)  King  of  France,  founder  of  ike  second  or  CaKtfvt** 

gi^tn  Bate 
?  Pope  Stephen  III. 
Astolphos  King  of  the  Lombards  erects  the  Dukedom  of  RaveOM. 

and  claims  mm  the  Pope  the  Dukedom  of  Rome. 
Pope  Stephen  requests  the  assistance  of  Pepin  against  the  Lombnrdl^ 
Pepin  invades  Italy,  and  strips  Astolphus  or  his  new  poescaaiona,  0Q»* 

ferring  them  on  the  Pope  as  a  temporal  sovereignty. 
Almanzor  Caliph  of  the  Saracens,  egreat  encourager  of  laaninc. 
Desiderius,  or  Dider,  proclaimed  £ng  of  the  Lombarda,  wiik  tb» 

Pope's  consent. 
AbdaJrafaman  (.  takea  the  title  of  King  of  CMdova^  and  li  the  Ibuodw 

of  iho  splendid  dMdwoa  of  liia  Moon  \m.  SpaiA. 

Tt  Digitized  by  V^OOg I- 


494  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 

A.D 

757  H  Pope  Paul  I.  renMirs  the  alliance  with  Desideriiu. 
759  V  Pope  Stephen  III.  quarrels  with  Desideriua. 
763  Aliminzor  builds  Bagdat,  and  makes  it  the  seat  of  the  Empire  of  tfat 
Caliphs. 

767  The  Turks  rarage  Asia  Minor. 

768  Charles  (the  Great)  and  Carlonum,  Kings  of  France, 
IT  Pope  Stephen  IV. 

770  Constantine  dissoWes  the  Monasteribs  in  the  East 
772  Charlemagne  sole  Monarch  of  France. 

He  makes  war  against  the  Saxons. 

IT  Pope  Adrian  JL 

774  Charlemagne  defeats  Desiderins,  and  puts  an  end  to  the  kingdom  of 

the  Lombards,  which  had  subsisted  206  years. 

775  Leo  IV.  Emperor  of  the  East. 

778  Battle  of  Roncezvalles  between  the  Christians  and  Moors  ui  Span^ 

where  Rolando  is  killed. 

779  Charlemagne  conquers  Navarre  and  Sardinia. 

781  Constantine  (Porphyrogenitus)  Emperor  of  the  East. 

Irene,  Empress,  is  Regent  in  her  8on*s  minority,  and  keeps  hm  k 

entire  suojection. 
She  re-establishes  the  worship  of  images. 

785  Charlemagne  subdues  the  Saxons. 

Haroun  Alraschid  Caliph  of  tlie  Saracens. 

He  invades  and  ravages  a  part  of  the  Empire. 

786  Constantine  assumes  the  government  of  the  Empire,  and  imptisooi 
his  mother. 

787  The  Danes  first  land  in  England. 

—  The  seventh  General  Council,  or  second  of  Nice. 

788  Irene  puts  to  death  her  son  Constantine,  and  is  proclaimed  sole  Em- 

press. 

793  Irene  proposes  to  marry  Charlemasne,  which  being  disapproved  by 

her  subjects,  she  is  dethroned,  and  confined  to  a  monastery. 

Nicephorus  Emperor  of  the  East. 

794  Charlemagne  defeats  and  extirpates  the  Huns. 
ir  Pope  Leo  III. 

797  The  Saracens  ravage  Cappadocia,  Cyprus,  Rhodes,  &c. 

Nicephorus  associates  his  son  Saturacius  in  the  Empire. 

800 

—  Nsw  Empire  of  the  West.    Charlemagne  crowned  Empeior  at 
.   Rome. 

807  Haroun  Alraschid  courts  tlie  alliance  of  Charlemagne. 
811  Michael  (Curopalates)  Emperor  of  the  East. 
613  Leo  (the  Armenian)  Emperor  of  the  East. 
— —  Almamon,  Caliph  of  the  Saracens,  a  great  encourager  of  learning. 
814  Lewis  (le  Dehonnaire)  Emperor  of  France, 

816  The  Eastern  Empire  ravaged  by  Earthquakes^  Famine^  Oooisgn- 
tions,  dec. 

816  IT  Pope  Stephen  V. 

817  IF  Pope  Pascal  I. 

,    Lewis  (le  Deb.)  divides  the  Empire  among  bis  sons. 
821  Michael  (Balbus  or  the  Stammerer)  Emperor  of  the  East. 
884  IT  Pope  Eugene  II. 

837  fifiOftt  unites  the  kingdoms  of  the  Saxon  Heptacoby. 
of  the  kingdom  of  England. 

—  T  Pope  Valentina 
888  Gregory  IV. 
839  Theophilu8  Empeior  of  the  Ewl. 


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CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE.  49ft 

E£||(UDOlf  KiB^  of  En^and. 

L^he  Scots  under  Bjenneth  entirely  subdue  the  Picts. 

.OTHARIUS  Emperor  of  Germany. 

Charles  (tke  BoldS  Km^  of  Fratue. 

^otharius  defeated  by  his  two  brothers  in  the  battle  of  Fontenai,  and 

deposed. 
.E^rJS  (of  Bavaria)  Emperor  of  Germany. 
Aickael  III.  Emperor  of  the  East. 
The  Normans  plunder  the  city  of  Rouen. 
:  Pope  Sergius  III. 

The  Normans  plunder  Hamburgh,  and  penetrate  into  Germany. 
!  Pope  Leo  IV. 

The  Venetian  Fleet  destroyed  br  the  Saiacena. 
i  Pooe  Joan  supposed  to  have  filled  the  Papal  chair  for  two  yeait. 
3asiiius  associated  Emperor  of  the  East 
.EWIS  IL  Emperor  of  Germany. 
Etlieliiani  and  SttielUm  Kings  of  England. 
[  Pope  Nicholas  I. 
Eti^elrcn  King  of  England. 
The  Danes  ravage  England, 
iasilius  sole  Emperor  of  the  East 
i  Pope  Adrian  H. 

Vjtiusi  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  excommunicates  Pope  Adrian. 
XlftCll  (the  Great)  King  of  England. 
\  Pope  John  VIII. 

':H,iRLES  (the  Bald)  Emperor  of  Germany. 
'^EIVIS  (the  Stammerer)  Emperor  of  Germany  and  King  <^f  Frmmu 
'^vois  Hi.  mul  Cariamanf  Kings  of  France, 
riio  kingdom  of  Aries  begins. 

m.iRLES  (the  Gross)  Emperor  of  Germany  and  King  ^f  Frumta. 
lavagers  of  the  Normans  in  France. 
I  Pope  Marinus. 
I  Pope  Adrian  III. 

^eo  (the  Philosopher)  Emperor  of  the  East. 
The  University  of  Oxford  founded  by  Alfred. 
ifLYOLDf  Emperor  of  Germany. 
The  Normans  besiege  Paris,  which  is  gallantly  defended  by  Biahop 

GoMlin  and  Count  Eudes. 
?iu/e«  or  Odo  King  of  France, 
Vlfred  the  Great  composes  his  Code  of  Laws,  and  divides  Bngfaad 

into  Counties,  Hundreds,  and  Tithings. 
I  Pope  Formosus. 
[  Pope  Stephen  VII. 
\  Pope  John  IX. 
:huTles  ///.  (tlu  Simple)  King  of  Frmue, 

\  Pope  Benedict  IV. 

KWIS  IV,  Emperor  of  Germaay. 

Estttiarlr  (the  Eider)  sneeeeds  Alfred  aa  Kioc  of  Englaad. 
i  Pope  Leo  V. 
[  Pope  Senins  Ul. 

ihS'RAD  r  EmDeror  of  Gennaay. 
Jonstantine  IX.  Emperor  of  the  East. 
rite  Normans  are  esiaWwhed  io  Normandy  under  AoOo. 
\  Pope  Anaataaiua. 
I  Pope  Landon. 

[;onstaoUae  and  Romanas  EapM«»«r  ikaEait 

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486  CHaONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 

A.D. 

915  r  Pope  John  X. 

—  The  University  of  Cambridge  founded  by  Edwiid  Uit  Sder- 
020  HfiY/ZK  (the  Fowler)  Emperor  of  Germany. 

923  Rodolpk  King  of  France, 

925  ^tlitlUtan  King  of  England. 

928  H  Pope  Leo  VI. 

929  H  Pope  Stephen  VOL 
931  IT  Pope  John  XI. 

936  OTHO  (the  Sreat)  Emperor  of  Germany. 
V  Pope  Leo  VIL 

—  Lewis  IV,  (^OtUrenur)  ISng  of  Framee. 

939  IT  Pope  Stephen  IX. 

940  Hovvel-Dha,  King  of  Wales,  an  eminent  Lawyat. 

941  WitantdS  I.  King  of  England. 
943  IT  Pope  Marinua  XIU. 

946  IT  Pope  Agapet. 

948  SDtelV  King  of  England. 

954  Lotharius  King  of  France. 

965  WftoS  King  of  England. 

956  IF  Pope  John  XII. 

959  Romanus  IL  Emperor  of  the  Eait. 

—  StTflar  King  of  England. 

963  IT  Pope  Leo  VIII. 

—  Nicephorus  Phocus  Emperor  of  the  East 

964  Otho  the  Great  conquers  Italy. 

965  H  Pope  John  XIII. 

967  Antioch  recovered  from  the  Saraceni  by  Nicephorua. 
969  John  Zemisses  Emperor  of  the  East. 

972  t  Pope  Benedict  VI. 

973  OTHO  //.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

974  ir  Pope  Bonifiice  VII. 

975  H  Pope  Benedict  VII. 

—  Basilius  and  Constantine  X.  Emperon  of  the  Eaai. 

976  IStrtDattl  n.  King  of  England. 
978  2Etibelret(  n.  King  of  England. 

983  OTHO  in.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

984  IT  Pope  John  XIV. 

966  IT  Pope  John  XV. 

—  Leufis  V.  {U  Faineant)  King  of  France, 

— -  Hii^'A  Capetf  King  of  France,  founder  qf  the  Third  Bacatfthm 

991  The  Arabic  numeral  Ciphers  first  introduced  into  Euh^ml 
996  Robert  {the  Wise)  King  pf  France. 

—  V  Pope  Gregory  V. 
999  T  Pope  Sylvester  11. 

1000 

1002  HENRY  11.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

^— -  Great  Massacre  of  the  Danes  by  £thelred  King  of  Englsad 

1003  T  Pope  John  XVI. 
f  Pope  John  XVII: 

1004  f  Pope  John  XVIH. 

1005  Chorches  first  bwK  in  the  Gothic  style. 
1009  f  Pope  Sergins  IV. 

1012  f  Pope  Benedict  VIIL 

1013  The  Danes,  mider  Sueno,  get  potseirion  of  Biigtaiid» 
1015  The  Maoiohean  Doetrines  prevalABt  in  Fnmca  «aA  Vtiig, 

\  Y   /   -— »  ^Digitized  Sy^^OOgie 


CVRONOtOGICAL  TABU.  499 

iz  BattiM  fenght  witli  the  Iknet  nnder  Canota  in  ] 
tUUUtt  the  Dane  (the  Great)  King  of  England, 
^be  Nomane  inrade  Itahr. 

Pope  John  XIX.  or  XX. 
'OyRAD  IL  (the  Salic)  Emperor  of  Germany. 
iQsical  Characten  invented  dj  Guido  Arelino. 
lomanus  Argyrus  Emnerorof  the  East 
Itnry  I.  King  of  Franet 

Pope  Benedict  IX. 
rlichael  IV.  Emperor  of  the  EaeL 

l^arOlU  11.  (Harefoot)  King  of  England. 

lEJfRY  ///.  Emperor  of  German j. 

^ailtttr  n.  or  SpatDiCailttte  King  of  England. 

iRcbeth  ttfum  the  Throne  of  Scotland  bj  the  murder  of  Duneas. 

Slltaiatll  III*  (the  ConftMor)  King  of  England,  reitoraa  tho  8aa^ 

on  line, 
^lichael  (Calaphalea)  Emperor  of  the  East. 
^onstantine  (Monomachus)  Emperor  of  the  Eaat. 
?he  Turlct,  under  Tangrolipiz,  eubdue  Penia. 

Pope  Gregory  VI. 

Pope  Qkment  II. 

Pope  ■Enaius  II. 

Pope  C%  IX.  the  firat  Pope  who  maintained  a  regular  army. 
Theodora  Emperor  of  the  Eaet. 
'ope  Leo  IX.  taken  priaoner  by  the  Noimana. 

Pope  Victor  II. 
^hc  Turks  take  Bagdat,  and  orertum  the  Empire  of  the  Cafipha. 
lENRYIV.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

Vlalcolm  m.  (Canmore)  King  of  Scotland, 
saac  (Comnenne)  Emperor  of  the  East 

Pope  Stephen  X. 

Pope  Ntenolae  II. 
^he  Saracena  driven  out  of  Sicily  by  Robert  Gniaeard  tha  llotaua. 
.'onstantine  XII.  (Docai)  Emperor  of  the  Eaat 
'hilip  I.  King  of  Frane€, 

Pope  Alexander  II. 
"tie  Tufka  take  Jerusalem  from  the  Saraeeaa. 
^arorH  II.  King  of  England  reipied  nine  months, 
^'tlliaill  (the  Conqueror)  King  of  England. 
lomanus  Diogenes  Emperor  of  the  Eaet. 
!(igar  Atheling  eeeka  relbge  in  Scotland. 
largaret,  sifter  of  Edgar  Atheling,  married  to  Makolm  King  of  Bao^ 

land. 

'he  Feudal  Law  introduced  into  England, 
dichael  Ducas  Emperor  of  the  EasL 

Pope  Gregory  Vn. 
!*he  Emperor  Henry  IV.  exeommunieatad  and  depoaad  by  the  fftfm, 
^icephonis  (Botoo)  Emperor  of  the  Eaat 
>oomsday-book  begun  by  William  the  Conqn 
Viexius  I.  (Comnenus)  Emperor  of  the  East. 
f cnry  IV.  Emperor  besiegM  Roma. 
ie  is  re^crowned  Emperor  of  GennaBj. 
I  Pope  Victor  in 
[  Pope  Urban  IL 
Ttl 


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498  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 

A.D 

1087  SSftCUiam  II.  (RuAis)  King  of  EDgland. 

1093  St.  Margaret  Qucon  of  Scotland  died. 

^~~^  Donald  Bane  King  of  Scotland. 

1095  Duncan  TI.  King  of  Scotland. 

—  The  first  Crueade  to  the  Holy  Land.    Peter  the  Hennit. 

1098  The  Crusaders  take  Antioch. 

— —  Edgar  King  of  Scotland. 

1099  Jerusalem  taken  by  Godfrey  of  Boulogne.    The  Knights  of  St.  Jolio 

instituted. 

—  V  Pope  Pascal  II. 
IIW 

fi^tntS  ^*  (Beauderc)  King  of  England. 

1102  Guiscard  of  Normandy  takes  the  title  of  King  of  Naples. 
1104  Baldwin  Kinv  of  Jerusalem  takes  Ptolemais. 

1106  HE^'RY  V.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

1107  Alexander  I.  King  of  Scotland. 

1108  Uwis  VI.  (U  Gros)  King  of  France. 
1118  M  Pope  Gelasius  II. 

The  order  of  Knights  Templars  instituted. 

..  John  (Comnenus)  Emperor  of  the  EUuit  <* 

3119  IT  Pope  Calixtus  II.  ^ 

1124  David  I.  Kin^  of  Scotland. 
. ^  Pope  Honorius  II. 

1125  LOTHARWS  11.  Emperor  of  Germany. 
1130  If  Pop©  Innocent  II. 

Iia5  <£tCpften  King  of  England. 

1137  Lewis  VII.  (le  Jeune)  King  of  France.    Married  to  Eleanor  of  Gui* 

enne. 
The  Pandects  of  the  Roman  Law  discoTered  at  Amalphi. 

1138  CONRAD  III.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

-~-  The  Scots,  under  David  I.,  defeated  by  the  English  in  the  battle  of  tU 
Standard. 

1139  Alphonso  I.  King  of  Portugal  rescues  his  kingdom  from  the  Banceos- 

1140  The  Canon  Law  first  introduced  into  England. 

1141  Stephen  King  of  England  taken  prisoner  in  the  battle  of  Lincoln  bf 

tne  troops  of  Matilda. 

1143  He  recovers  his  kingdom. 
— —  ^  Pope  Cttlestinus  ll. 

Manuel  (Comneuus)  Emperor  of  the  East. 

1144  IT  Pope  Lucius  II. 

1145  H  Pope  Eugene  III. 

1147  The  second  Crusade  excited  by  St.  Bernard. 

1150  The  study  of  the  Civil  Law  revived  at  Bologna. 

1151  The  Canon  Law  is  collected  by  Gratian.  a  Monk  of  Bologna. 

1152  FREDERICK  I.  (Barbarossa)  Emperor  of  Germany. 

1153  Malcolm  IV.  King  of  Scotland. 
-—  ^  Pope  Anastasius  TV. 

<«-'«  Treaty  of  Winchester.    Compromise  between  King  Stephen  anl 
Prince  Henry. 

1154  jD^etltS  n.  (Plantagenet)  King  of  England. 

—  TI  Pope  Adrian  IV. 

—  The  parties  of  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines  disturb  Italy. 
1157  The  Bank  of  Venice  instituted. 

1153  Interview  between  Henry  U.  and  Malcolm  IV.  at  Carlisle. 
1J59  IT  Pope  Alexander  IIL  ■ 

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CHRONOLOGICAL  TABUB.  499 

The  Ubi^enies  maintain  heretical  doctrines. 

iiAtitution  of  the  order  of  the  Teutonic  Knights  in  Getmukf 

P.  Uecket  condemned  bj  the  Council  of  Clarendon. 

W  illiaiD  (the  Lion)  King  of  Scotland. 

r.  Bucket  murdered  at  Canterbury. 

"t»iif]uosi  of  Ireland  by  Henry  II 

'!n!tp  Jiu^usUus  King  of  France. 

Mcxius  11.  (Comncnus)  Emperor  of  the  East. 

Piijio  Lucius  III. 
Uidronicus  (Comnenus)  Emperor  of  the  East. 

Tope  Urban  III. 
-<iac  Angelus  Emperor  of  the  East. 

lN)j)e  Gregory  Vlll. 
I'll*'  city  of  JcruKulem  taken  by  Saladin. 

I'upo  Clement  III. 
Liici^atttl  I-  (C<cur  de  Lion)  King  of  England. 
rii»>  third  Crusade  under  Richard  1.  and  Philip  Augoftits. 
lEXR  Y  VI.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

I^)pe  Caetcstinus  III. 
(ichurd  I.  defeats  Sniadin  in  the  battle  of  Aacalon. 
iiiy  of  Lusignan  King  of  Jerusalem. 
Vlrxius  Angelus  (the  Tyrant)  Emperor  of  the  East. 
^  HI  LIP  Emperor  of  Germany. 

Pope  Innocent  HI. 
[lOllIt  King  of  England. 

f'fie  fourth  Crusade  seta  out  from  Venice. 

'ntisiantinople  taken  by  the  French  and  Venetians. 

Vicxius  and  Murbzuphlus  Emperors  of  the  East. 

3.1  Id  win  1.  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  and  TheodorC  !• 

criris)  Emperor  of  Nira»a, 
Pho  Inquisition  established  hy  Pope  Innocent  IIL 
icniy  Emperor  of  Contnantinople. 
)TfW  IV.  Emperor  of  Germany. 
.onrion  incorporated,  obtains  a  charter  for  electing  a  Mayor  aad 

Mu:;istrate3. 
!rus:ide  against  the  Albigenses,  under  Simon  de  MoBtlbrL 
'HEDERICK II.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

Alexander  II.  King  of  Scotland. 

»l:ii;na  Charta  signed  by  King  John. 

^^:ftntS  ^^^'  Kingof  England. 

\  lor  and  John  Ducas  Emperors  of  the  East. 

Cohort  Emperor  of  the  East. 

);irnietta  taken  by  the  Crusaders 

>iow  VIII.  King  of  Franc: 

\  Pope  Ilonorius  III. 

>r.  Lewis  IX.  Kingof  France. 

Pope  Gregory  ft. 
fcnziskan  and  the  Tartars  overrun  the  Empire  of  the  Sanecns. 
Baldwin  11  •  French  Emperor  of  Constantinople. 
riif*  Inquisition  committed  to  the  Dominican  Monks. 
In 451  a  brought  under  subjection  by  the  Tartars. 
'  Pope  Cielestinus  IV. 
I  Pope  lonoeent  IV. 
The  nf\h  Cnisado  under  St.  Lewis. 


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fiOO  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABUL 

A.D. 

1249  Alexander  in.  King  of  Scotland. 
1251  COJfRMD  IV,  Emperor  of  Germany. 
1264  TT  Pope  Alexander  IV. 

Interregnum  in  the  Empire  of  Germanjr  from  the  deitnofixmrM  IV 

in  1^,  to  the  election  of  Rodolph  m  12T3. 
J255  Theodore  II.  (Lascaria)  Emperor  of  Nicsa. 
1258  Baffdat  taken  by  the  Tartars.    End  of  the  Empire  of  th«  SaraMoa. 
fSS9  Jonn  (Lascaris)  Emperor  of  Miciea. 

1260  Michael  (Paleologua)  Emperor  of  Nicsa. 
..— .  The  Flagellants  preach  Baptism  by  Brood. 

1261  ir  Pope  Urban  IV.  .       .    ^        v    »        .. 
The  Ureek  Emperors  recover  Conatantmople  firom  the  French. 

1263  The  Norwegians  inTade  Scotland,  and  are  defeated  by  Alexander  IH 

in  the  battle  of  Largs. 

1264  H  Pope  Clement  IV.  .      «  _,.  •    »    ,    ^ 

The  Deputies  of  Boroughs  first  summoned  to  Parliament  m  Eoghnl 

Henry  III.  of  England  Uken  prisoner  in  the  battle  of  Lewes* 

1265  Charles  Count  of  Anjou  Kin*  of  Sicily. 

1270  PhiUp  ///.  (the  Bold)  King  of  France. 

1271  %  Pope  Gregory  X. 

1272  ISIfUlWtY  I*  (Longshanks)  King  of  England. 

1273  RODOLPH  (of  Hapsbarg)  Emperor  of  Germany,  firet  rf  tka  AnM 

an  Family. 

1276  IT  Pope  Innocent  V. 
—  ?  Pope  Adrian  V. 
IT  Pope  John  XXI. 

1277  ^  Pope  Nicholas  III. 

1281  IT  Pope  Martin  IV. 

1282  The  Sicilian  Vespers,  when  8,000  French  were  i 

1283  Andronicus  L  (PaUeologus)  Emperor  of  the  ZuL 
The  conquest  of  Wales  by  Edward  L 

1285  H  Pope  Honoritts  IV. 
PkUip  IV,  (Uu  Fair)  Kmg  of  Frmc; 

1286  Margaret  (of  Norway)  Qileen  of  Scotland. 
1288  tr  Pope  Nicholas  IV. 
19M)  Intenegnum  in  Scotland  for  two  years.    CompetitioB  I 

and  Baliol  for  the  crown,  decided. by  Edward  I. 

1291  Ptolemais  Uken  by  the  Turks.    End  of  the  Crusadei. 

1292  John  Baliol  King  of  Scotland. 
-—  ADOLPHVS  (of  Nassau)  Emperor  of  Germany. 
— —  If  Pope  Celestinus  V. 

1293  From  this  year  there  is  a  regular  succession  of  English  ] 

1294  IT  Pope  Boniface  VIII. 

1295  Michael  Andronicus  Emperor  of  the  East. 

1206  Interregnum  in  Scotland  for  eight  yean.  Sir  William  Wallaee  boUj 
supports  the  liberty  of  his  country,  defeats  the  English  at  Steiliofc 
and^drives  them  out  of  the  kingdom. 

1296  Wallace  chosen  Regent  of  Scotland,  defeated  at  Falkirk. 
ALBERT  L  (of  Austria)  Emperor  of  Germany. 

— »  The  present  Turkish  Empire  begins  under  Ottoman  in  BStbyota. 
1300 

1301  Quarrel  between  PhiUp  the  Fair  and  Pope  Boniface  Vm. 

1302  Comyn  and  Eraser  defeat  the  English  thrice  in  one  day. 
- —  The  Mariner's  Compass  said  to  be  disco^red  at  Naples. 

1304  WaUaoe  betrayed,  delivered  up,  and  put  to  death  by  Edwwi  L 

13M  Robert  L  (Bmee)  King  of  SeoUand. 

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OIRONOLOGICAL  TABIA  561 

7he  Eftablithmeiit  of  the  Swim  R«publiot. 
BlltalAtll  n.  King  of  Eogland. 
lE/fRY  VII.  Emperor  of  Genneny. 

Pope  Clement  V. 
^he  seat  of  the  Popes  tnintftrred  to  ATignon  fer  Mventj  jMiv. 
Lhodes  taken  by  the  Knighu  of  St.  John  of  Jeniaalem. 
'ierce  Gavestoni  favoarite  of  Edward  11.^  put  to  death. 
?he  Knights  Templars  suppressed  by  Phihp  the  Fair. 
:he  Scou  under  Kobert  Bnioe  defeat  the  English  under  Ed^rard  IL 

at  Bannoclcburn. 

.EWiS  V.  (of  Bavaria)  Emperor  of  Gennany. 
^wis  X.  (autin)  King  of  Frane€, 
flhn  King  cf  France, 

Pope  J^hn  XXII. 
^hUiv  V,  (the  Lang)  King  of  Fnuue. 
Vnclronicus  II.  (Palaeologus)  Emperor  of  the  East 
:harles  IV.  {Uu  Fair)  King  of  France. 
EmOarll  III.  King  of  Englaqd. 
'hilip  VL  {of  Valois)  King  ^France. 

David  II.  King  of  Scotland.    Randolph  Earl  of  Murray  RigsK. 

^h€>  Teutonic  Kniehts  settle  in  Prussia. 

:d\vBrd  Baliol,  assisted  by  Edward  lU.^  is  crowned  at  ScoM  Ki^f  ef 

Scots,  but  is  soon  driven  out  of  the  kingdom. 
:a>imir  III.  (the  Great)  King  of  Polaad. 

Pope  Benedict  XII. 
Gunpowder  invented  by  Swartz,  a  Monk  of  Cologaeu 
>il  Painting  invented  by  John  Van  Eyke. 
'ohn  V.  (Palsologus)  Emperor  of  the  East 
«<hn  CantacnzenoB,  his  governor,  usoipe  the  throne. 

Pope  Clement  VI. 
bttle  of  Cressy  won  by  Edwsrd  m.  and  the  Blaek  PrinM  wit  fti 

French, 
bttle  of  Dnrham,  in  which  David  11.  of  SooUnid  is  takitt  | 
:HARLES  IV.  Emperor  of  Germany. 
Tola  Rienzt  assumes  the  Govenment  of  Rome, 
'he  Order  of  the  Garter  instituted  by  Edward  III. 
Nter  (the CrueH  King  of  Castile. 
ohn  II.  tSng  rf  Fnuue. 

Pops  Innooent  VI. 
The  Turks  first  enter  Europe 
Pbe  Battle  of  PoietierS|  in  which  John  11.  King  of  I 

prisoner,  and  afterwards  brought  to  Lomdoo. 

Pope  Urban  V. 
The  Law-pleadings  in  England  changed  fion  fnmk  la  1 
:karUM  V.  King  ofFratue. 
I  Pope  Gregory  XI. 

Robert  n.  Kins  of  Scotland. 

The  Seat  of  the  Popes  removed  back  ftom  Avigaott  ta  1 

Kidbatlin.  King  of  England. 

Vickliffe's  Doctrines  propagated  in  England. 

The  Schisaa  of  the  donbie  Fopea  at  Roma  and  ATifMS  b^gfaiaal 

continnes  thirty-ei|dit  years. 
I  Pope  Urban  Vl.  of  Rome 
I  Pope  Clement  VII.  of  Avignon. 
VEjfCESUtUa  Empeior  of  Gannaay,  dapoaad  im  UOQ. 
TUrUe  VI.  Kinf  qf  Frmmu. 
ramerlaaa  invades  and  sabdnaa  Ckofaasar. 
iVat  l>iar*a  and  Jnok  8lmt*a  laamaclam  tai  Kagtal 

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S02  CHEONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 

A  D. 

1381  Peace  between  Venice  and  Genoa. 

Bills  of  Exchange  first  used  in  England. 

1383  Cannon  first  used  bv  the  English  in  the  defence  of  Calua. 

1384  PhiJip  tlie  Bold,  Duko  of  Burgundy,  succeeds  to  the  Earldom  of 

Flanders. 
1386  Tamerlane  subdues  Georgia. 

1388  Battle  of  Otterbum  between  Percy  (Hotspur)  and  Douglas. 
1339  V  Pope  Boniface  IX. 

1390  Robert  III.  king  of  Scotland 

1391  Manuel  11.  (Palajologus)  Emperor  of  the  East.  . 

1392  The  Cape  of  Good  Hope  diHcovered  by  tlie  Portuguese. 

1394  The  Jews  banished  from  France  by  CJiarles  VI. 

H  Pope  Benedict  XIH. 

1395  Sigismund  King  of  Hungary  defenled  by  Bajazet  I. 
1398  Tamerlane  subdues  part  of  Hindoostun,  and  takes  Delhi. 
J309  Ji^tnVS  IV.  King  of  England. 

1400 

1402  Bajazet  is  taken  prisoner  by  Tamerlane  in  the  battle  of  Angoria. 

Battle  of  Halidoun  Hill,  in  which  the  Scots  are  defeated. 

1403  Battle  of  Shrewsbury,  in  which  Hotspur  is  killed. 

1404  1l  Pope  Innocent  VII. 

1405  Death  of  Tamerlane. 

1406  «J  ames  I.  King  of  Scotland. 

IT  Pope  Gregory  XII. 

1409  Council  of  Pisa,  where  Pope  Gregory  is  deposed. 
—^  TT  Pope  Alexander  V. 

1410  JOSHE  (Marquis  of  Brondcnburgh)  Emperor  of  Germany. 
ir  Pope  John  XXHI. 

1411  SfGISMUjyn  Emperor  of  Germany. 

The  University  of  St.  Andrews  in  Scotland  founded. 

1413  liftntS  V.  King  of  England. 

1414  Council  of  Constance,  in  which  two  Popes  were  deposed,  and  Pope- 

dom remained  vacant  near  three  ^ears. 

1415  Henry  V.  defeats  the  French  at  Agmcourt, 

—  John  Huss  condemned  by  the  Council  of  Constance  for  Heresy  ao^ 

burnt 

1416  Jerome  of  Prague  condemned  by  the  same  Council,  and  burnt. 

1417  t  Pope  Martin  V. 

—  Paper  first  made  from  linen  rags. 

1420  The  Island  of  Madeira  discovered  by  the  Por^uese. 

1421  John  VI.  (PalcBologus)  Emperor  of  the  East. 

1422  Amurath  besieges  Constantinople. 


l^tUVS  VI.  King  of  England. 
Charles  Vrr.  King  of  France. 
;  of  S< 


James  I.  King  of  Scots  liberated  from  captivity  by  the  English. 

1425  The  Coart  of  Session  in  Scotland  instituted  by  James  I. 

1428  Joan  .of  Arc,  the  Maid  of  Orleans,  compels  the  English  to  rain  tbs 

siege  of  that  town. 
1431  IT  Pope  Eugene  IV. 
Rise  of  the  Medici  family  af  Florence. 

1436  Paris  rscovered  by  the  French  from  the  English. 

1437  James  IL  Khig  of  Scotland. 

1438  ALBERT  IL  Eoiperor  of  Gerroanj. 

1439  Rennion  of  |jbe  Greek  and  Latin  Churches. 
•>—  The  Pragmatic  Sanction  established  in  France. 

1440  FREDERICK  HI.  Emperor  of  Germany.     # 
— —  liiTeiitioii  ef  the  art  of  Printing  by  John  GuttenlMrg  at  ( 

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CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE.  SOC 

lAduhm  King  of  Hiiogary  killed  in  bttttle  with  the  Tmfca. 

Dons  tan  tine  (Paleologus)  Emperor  of  the  East. 

jfreat  InoDdation  of  the  sea  in  Holland. 

'>  Pope  Nicholas  V. 

Use  of  the  Sforza  Family  at  Milan. 

Junstantinople  taken  by  the  Turks.     Extinctioit  op  thi  Eastbiui 

Empikk  of  THK  ROMAIIS. 

^nd  of  the  English  government  in  France. 

>  Pope  Calixtus  III. 

3attle  of  St.  Albaus,  where  Henry  VI.  is  taken  prisoner  by  the  Duke 

of  York. 
I  Pope  Pius  II.  (iEneas  Sylvius.^ 
The  art  of  Engraving  on  copper  mvented. 

I  aroes  III.  King  of  Scotland. 

tattle  of  Wakefield,  in  which  the  Duke  of  York  is  killed. 

EIrkOatTi  IV.  King  of  England. 

.ewis  XL  Kmg  of  France. 

It'iiry  VI.  restored  to  the  throne  of  England. 

tattle  of  Bamet,  where  Warwick  is  killed.    Battle  of  Tewksbury, 

whore  the  Lancastrians  are  totally  deA^ated. 
Idward  IV.  restored.     Prince  Edward  of  Lancaster  basely  murdered 

by  Clarence  and  Gloucestei*.     Death  of  Henry  VI. 
f  I'opo  SixtUB  IV. 

I'iic  Cape  de  Verd  Islands  discovered  by  the  Portuguese. 
Edward  IV.  invades  France.    Peace  of  Pecquigni  purchased  by  the 

French. 
'«;rdinand  and  Isabella  unite  the  kingdoms  of  Arnigon  and  Castile. 
^iis^iia  freed  from  subjection  to  the  Tartars  by  John  Basilwitz. 
harlcs  PHI.  King  oj  France. 

Elltontll  V.  King  of  England.    Duke  of  Gloucerter  Protector. 
:dwnrd  V.  and  his  brother  murdered. 
li{Cl)tlt1l  111.  Kinc  of  England. 
I   Pope  Innocent  Vlil. 

battle  of  Bosworth,  in  which  RicJiard  III.  is  killed. 
l^nirS  VII.  Kinff  of  Encland,  fint  of  the  house  of  Tudor.    Uniot 

of  the  Iiottses  of  York  and  Lancaster. 

I  ames  IV.  King  of  Scotland. 

vranada  taken  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.'  End  of  the  kingdom  of 

the  Moors  in  Spain. 
I   Pope  Alexander  VI.  (Borgia.) 

lispaniola  and  Cuba  discovered  by  Chrirtopher  Columbus. 
)iylXiMJUj9ff  I.  Emperor  of  Germany. 
-Expedition  of  Charles  VIH.  into  Naples, 
il^ebra  fint  known  in  Europe. 
Unerica  discovered  by  Columbus. 
The  Portuguese,  undek*  Vasco  de  Gama,  double  the  Cape  of  Good 

Hope  and  sail  to  the  East  Indies. 
>WM  Xil.  king  of  France. 
sivanorala  burnt  by  Pope  Alexander  VI.  ibr  preaching  agiiiMt  iIm 

vices  of  the  clergy. 
<^wis  XII.  takes  possession  of  the  Milanese, 
{ebastian  Cabot  lands  in  North  America. 

Irazil  discovered  by  the  Portugese. 

Maximilian  divides  GermaDT  iBto  mx  (Srdesy  aod  addi  ibor 

1512. 
I  PopeJPiuiin. 


y  Google 


504 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TAflLC 


AD. 

1503  r  PopeJaGwn. 

« Battle  of  Cerisoles,  in  which  the  French  Ion  Naptoi 

t504  Philip  I.  Kioff  of  Spain.~1606  Jane  his  Queen. 
507  Madagascar  discovered  by  the  Portugese. 
1506  League  of  Carabray  against  the  Venetians. 
1509  Henri;  VIII.  Kihf  i,r  EngUnd. 
——  Battle  ofAgnadello,  MaFW. 
1511  Cuba  conmiered  by  the  Spaniards. 
1513  Battle  of  Flodden,  fatal  to  the  Scoto 

— -—  «l  ames  V.  King  of  Scotland. 

»— —  IT  Pope  Leo  X. 

1515  Francis  /.  King  cf  France, 

#516  Charles  I.  (Emperor  Charles  V.)  King  of  SpAin. 

»         Barbarossa  seizes  the  Kingdom  of  Algiers. 

1517  The  Reformation  in  Germany  begun  by  Lnther. 

^-—  The  Turks  put  an  end  to  the  reigu  of  the  Mamslukea  in  Egyft 

1518  Leo  X.  conaemns  Luther's  Doctrines. 

1519  CHARLES  V.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

Fernando  Cortez  engages  in  the  conqnest  of  Mexico. 

1520  Sweden  and  Denmark  united. 

•— —  Massacre  at  Stockholm  by  Christiem  II.  and  Archbishop  TroOo. 

1521  IT  Pope  Adrian  VI. 

— »-  Gustavus  Vasa  King  of  Sweden. 

—  Cortez  completes  the  conquest  of  Mexico. 

1532  The  first  Voyage  round  the  World  performed  by  a  ship  of  Maftflaaf 

squadron. 
1583  Somnan  the  Magnificent  takes  Belgrade. 

ir  Pope  Clement  VII. 

1534  Sweden  and  Denmark  embrace  the  Protestant  faith. 

1585  Battle  of  Pavia,  in  which  Francis  I.  is  taken  prisoner  bj  Charlaa  V 

1586  Treaty  of  Madrid  between  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.,  whan  tin  bOir 

is  set  at  liberty. 
1537  Bom*  taken  ana  plundered  by  Charles  V. 
— —  PIzarro  and  Dalmagro  inyade  the  Empire  of  Peru 
1688  Revolution  of  Genoa  by  Andrea  Doria. 
-— *-  Gustavus  Eriscon  crowned  King  of  Sweden* 
1589  Diet  of  Spires  against  the  Huguenots,  then  first  tanm 
-^—  Peace  of  Cambray,  Ausust  5. 

1530  The  League  of  Smaleald  between  the  Proteatanta. 

1531  Michael  Servetus  burnt  for  heresy  at  Geneva. 

1533  The  Treaty  of  Nuremberg,  August  2. 
«>^  The  Court  of  Session  in  Scotland  new  modeled  by  Janiea  T. 

1534  The  Reformation  in  England. 

f  Pope  Paul  III. 

— —  Barbarossa  seizes  the  Kingdom  of  Tunis. 

— ^  Jack  of  Leyden  heads  the  Anabaptists  at  Munster. 

1536  The  Society  of  the  Jesuits  instituted  by  Ignatius  Loyola. 

— ^-^  Expedition  of  Charles  V.  against  Tunis. 

1638  Treatv  of  Nice  between  Charles  V.  and  Francis  L 

1540  Disaoftttion  of  the  Monasteries  in  England  by  Henry  Vm. 

1643  Manr  Queen  of  Scotland. 

1644  The  French  defeat  the  troopi  of  Charles  V.  in  the  battis  ^f  ( 

The  treaty  of  Crepi. 
IS46  The  Council  of  Trent  begins,  which  continued  elghuen  ye 

1646  Cardinal  Beaton,  of  St.  Andrew's,  assaaainated. 

1647  Fi|Bsoo'B  Conspiracy  at  Genoa. 
-*     The  Battle  of  Mulberg,  in  which  tba  iProteitants  «ra  dtlbatt^  i 

Elacwr  of  Sastony  taken  prisoner. 
~    SMmtllirLKincofBiiglaad. 

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cmONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 

Hennf  U^JGng  qf  Frmue. 

The  Intorini  granted  by  Charles  V.  to  the  Proteitantt. 

T  Pope  JuUiia  III. 

The  'rreatjr  of  Paasau  between  Charlei  V.  and  the  Eleotor  of  f 

for  the  fsublishment  of  Lutheraniem 
SttfltS  Queen  of  England. 
Lady  Jane  Grev^  beheaoed. 
IT  Pope  Marccllus  II. 
T  Pope  Paul  IV. 

Vf  any  Bishops  burnt  in  England  by  Mary. 
FERDmjSJ^D  I.  Emperor  of  Germany. 
Philip  II.  King  of  Spain. 
Philip  II.  defeats  the  French  at  St.  Qaintin. 
EUfAllilll  Queen  of  England. 
I  Pope  Pius  IV. 
Francis  11.  King  tf  Frrnnu, 
Treaty  of  Catteau-Cambresis. 
Ohariu  IX.  lOng  of  Franc: 
Conspiracy  of  Anboise  formed  by  tlie  party  of  Conde  against 

Guise.    Beginning  of  the  Civil  Wars  in  France. 
The  Reformation  completed  in  Scotland  bv  John  Knox. 
Marv  Queen  of  Scots  arrives  in  Scotland  trom  France. 
Battle  of  Dreuz.    Victory  of  the  Guises  over  Conde. 
UAXIMIUAN  //.  Emperor  of  Germany. 
f  Pope  Pins  VI. 

levoh  of  the  Netherlands  Irom  Philip  II. 
The  Duke  of  Alva  sent  by  Philip  to  the  Netherhmds. 

James  VI.  King  of  Scotland. 

Mar^  Queen  of  Scots  flees  to  England  ibr  protection. 

^hilip  II.  puts  to  death  his  son  Don  Carlos. 

The  Earl  of  Murray,  Regent  of  Scotland,  assassinated  by  Han 

The  battles  of  Jamac  and  Moncontour  in  France,  in  which  th 

estants  are  defeated, 
^aval  Victory  at  Lepanto,  where  the  Turks  are  defeated  by  Do 

of  Austria, 
r  Pope  Gregory  Xni. 

The  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  August  24. 
f/enry  ///.  Eimg  rf  Frmtte, 
9ocinus  propagates  his  opinions. 
>on  Sebastian  Kins  of  Portugal  inrades  Afiiea. 
WDOLFHVS  IL  Emperor  of  Gemiany, 
The  League  in  France  formed  against  ine  Protestants. 
Commencement  of  the  Republic  of  Holland,  by  the  union  of  IJ 
'hilipll.  takes  poisosrion  of  Portugal. 
The  World  circumnavigated  by  Sir  Francis  Drake. 
The  New  Style  introduced  Into  Italy  by  Pope  Gregory  XIII.,  1 

of  October  being  counted  the  I5tn. 
Villiaffl  I.  Prince  of  Oranse  murdered  at  Delft 
Virginia  disoovered  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh. 
f  PopeSixtusV. 

if  aiy  Queen  of  Soots  beheaded  at  Fotheringay. 
>estiii€tion  of  the  Spanish  Armada  by  the  English, 
lenry  IH.  of  Prance  murdered  hj  Jaquez  Clement, 
fenry  iV.  (the  Ortmt)  Kmg  of  Franc9. 
Che  battle  of  Ivry,  which  ruins  the  league  in  France, 
f  P6pe  Urban  Vll. 
f  Pope  Gregory  XIV. 
The  umiveniity  of  Dublin  ereeted. 
\  Fop«  Innocent  IX. 

^"  r       I 

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108  CHRONOLOGICAL  TADLE. 

1992  Presbyterian  Church  Government  eBtablished  in  Scotliod. 

ir  Pope  Clement  VIIL 

i594  The  Bank  of  England  incorporated. 

1598  Edict  of  Nantes,  tolerating  the  Protestants  in  FrMce. 

Peace  of  Vcrins  concluded  between  France  and  Spain* 

Philip  III.  Kin^  of  Spain. 

— ^  Tyrone's  rebellion  in  Ireland. 

1600 

Cowrie's  Conspiracy  in  Scotland. 

•~~.  The  Earl  of  Essex  beheaded. 

The  English  East  India  Company  eftablished. 

1602  Decimal  Arithmetic  invented  at  Bruges. 

1603  JiatntS  1-  King  of  Great  Britain.    Union  of  the  crowned  I 

and  Scotland. 
:(505  The  Gunpowder  Plot  discovered 

II  Pope  Paul  V. 

1608  Galileo  discovers  the  Satellites  of  Jupiter. 

-  Arminius  propagates  his  opinions. 

1610  Henry  IV.  of  France  murdered  by  Ravaillao. 

Lewis  in.  King  of  France. 

The  Moors  expelled  from  Spain  by  Philip  ill. 

— '  Hudson's  Bay  discovered. 

1611  Baronets  first  created  in  England  by  James  1. 

1612  MATTHIAS  Emperor  of  Germany. 
1614  Logarithms  invented  by  Napier. 

1616  Settlement  of  Virginia  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigll. 
1618  The  Synod  of  Port  in  Holland. 

.1619  Discovery  of  the  Circulation  of  the  Blood  by  Dr.  Hervey. 
.— —  FERDIjXAA'Jj  //.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

-  Vanini  burnt  at  Thoulouse  for  Atheism.  ^^ 
1680  The  Battle  of  Prague,  by  which  the  Elector  Palatine  loaee  hie  ■■•► 

torate, 

The  English  make  a  settlement  at  Madras. 

Navarre  united  to  Franco. 

1631  Philip  IV.  King  of  Spain.  .  ^  ^     u    »^^^ 
Batavia,  in  the  Islanci  of  Java,  bmll  and  settled  by  the  Dutch. 

H  Pope  Gregory  XV. 

1623  If  Pope  Urban  VIU. 

1625  &fiavUn  I.  King  of  Great  Britain  -    .w.  «- 
The  laland  of  Barbadoes  the  first  English  settlement  la  the  We« 

Indies. 

1626  League  of  the  Protestant  Princes  against  the  Emperor. 

1632  Gustavus  AHnlphus  killed  in  the  battle  of  Lutzen 

Christina  Queen  of  Sweden. 

1635  The  French  Academy  instituted. 

1637  FEKOmAKD  III.  Emperor  of  Germany 

1638  BagdaJ  taken  by  the  Turks.  ....,.«      ,     ^ 
The  Solemn  League  and  Covenant  established  m  Scotland. 

1640  John  Duke  of  Braganza  recovers  the  kingdom  of  Portugal. 

1641  The  Irish  Rebellion,  and  Massacre  of  the  Protestants,  October  ». 

^ —  The  Bnrl  of  Strafford  beheaded.  .     «.     .     ,      ^  ^j^^^m 

1642  Beginning  of  the  Civil  War  in  England.    The  battle  nf  E4g«kaV 

October  23. 

1643  UwU  XIV.  King  of  France 

-  Ann  of  Attstrialtegent  of  France. 
Archbishop  Laud  condemned  by  the  Commonsi  end  1 

1644  V  Pope  innocent  X. 
— ^  Revolution  in  Ch'na  by  the  Taitaie. 
IMT)  Chailes  L  defeated  in  tlie  battle  of  Naaeby. 


yGoogk 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  507 

rhe  Peace  of  Westphalia.    The  Chil  War  of  the  Froode  et  Piiii. 

Charles  1,  of  England  beheaded. 

^ommouweakh  of  England  begins. 

The  Marquis  of  Montrose  put  to  death. 

Snttle  ofUunhRr.     Covcnanlers  defeated  by  Cromwell. 

he  battle  of  Worcester  won  by  Cromwell. 
lite  tirst  War  between  the  Englisii  and  Dutch. 

^nd  of  tJio  ConunoDwoalth  of  England.    Oliver  Cromwell  Lord  Pi'O- 
lector. 

'tic  English,  under  Admiral  Ppnn,  take  pos«owon  of  Jamaica. 
■  hristina  Queen  of  Sweden  re^i^^ns  the  Crown  to  Charlee  X. 

Pope  Alexander  VII. 
.EOFOLD  I.  Emperor  of  Germany. 
Uchard  Cromwell  Lord  Protector  of  England. 
'lie  Peace  of  the  Pyrenees  between  France  and  Spain, 
rfjclirl(0  II*  King  of  Great  Britain.     Restoration  of  Mooarcby. 
'i\v  Peace  of  Oliva  between  Swrdiii,  Denmark,  and  Poiand. 
Plie  Royal  Society  instituted  in  En^iaiui. 
' darter  of  Carolina,  and  a  colony  settled  Roon  after. 

iie  French  Acudcmv  of  Inscriptions  inutiluted. 
i'/ic  Hccond  Dutch  War  begins. 

harles  II.  King  of  Spain. 
jri'ut  Plague  in  I^ndon. 
treat  Fire  in  London. 

Plwj  Academy  of  Science  instituted  in  France.  ' 

-  ibatei  Levi,  in  Turkey,  pretends  to  be  the  Messiah. 
I'lu'  Peace  of  Breda,  which  confirms  to  the  Engliah  FennijIyaDi^ 

Now-York,  and  New-Jersey. 
Pope  Clement  IX. 
Pile  Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle. 
riie  Island  of  Candia  taken  by  the  Turki. 
I   Pope  Clement  X. 

twis  XIV.  conquers  ffreat  part  of  RolUnd. 
I  iio  De  Witts  put  to  deatli  m  HoUaodL 
ifim  Sobieski  King  of  Poland, 
i   I^ope  Innocent  aI. 
The  Peace  of  Nimeguen,  July  31. 
The  Habeas  Corpus  act  passed  in  England. 
The  Long  Parliament  of  Charles  IL  dtasolved. 
*tter  the  Great  Czar  of  Muscovy. 
'IxecutioQ  of  Lord  Russel,  July  21. 
!:xecution  of  Algernon  Svdnev,  Deotnber  7. 
Pho  Siege  of  Vienna  by  the  T^rks  raised  by  John  SobieakL 
faints  II>  King  of  Great  Britain. 
t  evocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  by  htmu  XIV. 
)uke  of  Monmouth  beheaded. 

riie  Newtonian  Philosophy  first  pnblishod  In  England. 
The  Leagoe  of  Augsburg  against  Frone«. 
devolution  in  Briuin.     King  James  abdieatet  the  throne,  Daccttp 

ber23. 

TlMlUnxn  and  JHatfi  King  and  Queen  of  Great  Britain. 

P.piscopacy  abolished  in  Scotland  by  King  WiUiam. 

I  Pope  Alexander  VIH. 

Settle  of  the  Boyne,  July  1. 

7  Pope  Innocent  XII. 

f)attie  of  La  Hosue,  May  19. 

The  Masncre  of  Gloncoe  in  Scotland.  Janaarr  31.  0. 8. 

Bat  \.  s,T  Tteedkirk.    King  WilUam  defeated  by  Lvzemtelg,  J3!jS4 

Hai  "OTO?  r  ade  the  ninth  Bectorate  of  the  Epiptra. 


Dig^ized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


M  CHBONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 

A.D. 

a696  HnttMT  taken  hj  King  William,  Jane  8S. 
1687  peace  of  Riswiclc  concluded,  September  11. 
•—  Charles  XII.  King  of  Sweden. 
1699  Peace  of  Carlovitz  concluded,  January  26.    ' 
,1700 

Philip  V.  King  of  Spain. 

— '  IT  Pope  Clement  XI. 

1701  Death  of  Jamea  II.  at  St.  Germain's. 

1702  9LmU  Queen  of  Gteat.  Britain.    Wai  acalnst  France  and  Spdn 
The  English  and  Dutch  destroy  the  French  Fleet  at  Vigo. 

—— >  The  French  send  colonies  to  the  Mississippi. 

1703  Gibraltar  taken  by  Admiral  Rooke,  July  24. 

1704  Battle  of  Blenheim.     The  French  defeated  by  tfariboroqgh  aad 

Prince  Eugene,  August  2. 
^-—  Peter  the  Great  founds  St.  Petersburgh. 
1706  The  English  take  Barcelona. 
JOSEPH  L  Emperor  of  Germany. 

1706  Battle  of  Ramilies.    The  French  defeated  by  the  Duke  of  Marlbo- 

rough, May  12. 
— —  The  Treaty  of  Union  between  England  and  Scotland,  signed  JaW  9. 

1707  The  battle  of  Almanza.    The  Freiich  and  Spaniards^  under  the  Duke 

of  Berwick,  defeat  the  allies,  April  14. 
1706  Battle  of  Oudenarde.     The  French  defeated  by  Marlboroogk  and 

Eugene,'  Jane  30. 
—  Minorca  taken  by  General  Stanhope,  September  18. 
1709  Battle  of  Pultowa.    Charies  XII.  defeated  by  Oear  Peter,  June  80. 
^^-^  Battle  of  Malplaqoet.    The  French  defeated  l»y  Mariborongh  and 

Eugene,  September  11. 
1711  CHARLES  Vl.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

1713  The  Peace  of  Utrecht  signed  March  30. 

1714  <Sff  Otfit  L  Elector  of  Hanover,  King  of  Great  Britain. 

1715  hewii  XV,  King  of  Franc: 

-.^  The  Rebellion  of  Scotland.    Battle  of  Shariff-moir  November  ISL 

1716  Prince  Eugene  defeats  the  Turks  at  Petcrwarsdm. 

1718  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  killed  at  the  siaBe  fi>  F^aoericksfaalL 
,  1721  IT  Pope  Innocent  XIII. 

1724  IT  Pope  Benedict  XIU. 

1725  Death  of  Peter  the  Great,  Czar  of  Moaoovy.    Catharine  J 

1726  Great  Earthouake  »t  Palermo,  Aogost  21. 

1727  <2Sff Otgt  II-  King  of  Great  Britain. 

1727  Treaty  of  Copenliagen  between  Great  Britain  and  1 
'-^—  The  Spaniar<b  besiege  Gibraltar,  May  20. 

1728  Treaty  between  Great  Briuin  and  Holland,  May  27. 
— —  The  Congress  of  Soiiaoas,  June  14. 

1729  Treaty  of  Seville  between  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Spain,  Kofa 

bar  9. 
1790  V  Poj>e  Clement  XIl. 
«-*-  Christian  VI.  King  of  Denmark. 
»-—  The  Persians  under  Kouli-Khan  defeat  the  Turks. 
1731  Treaty  between  Great  Britain,  the  Emperor,  and  King  of  Spam, 

July  22. 

1733  The  Jesuits  expelled  ftom  Paraguay,  January. 
— —  Frederick  UL  King  of  Poland. 

1734  Commercial  Treitty  between  Great  Britaba  and  Rnada,  IKiiamlwi  f 
1785  The  French  defeat  the  Imperialists  in  Italy. 

1736  Peace  between  Spain  and  Austria. 

r^  Kottli.Khan(li|aaiP49obah)  DioolaimedKlDgorPtoHia.ta  Ofbt  • 
mt  War  declaied  between  the  &nparor  and  tteTolDi^M^ 
1736  The  Eussians  umdt  the  Cnmaiu 

Digitized  by  CjOOQIC 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE.  il9 

!). 

)  Nadi>6ehfth  eoncnien  the  greater  part  of  the  Mogul  Empve. 

•  Treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  Denmari[. 

•  Peace  between  the  Emperor  and  the  Turka,  Anguat  SI. 

•  Peace  between  Raaaia  and  the  Turka,  November. 
I  Frederick  III.  (the  Great)  King  of  Pruaaia. 

IT  Pope  Beoediet  XIV. 

•  War  oetween  Poland  and  Hungarv. 

War  declared  between  Raaaia  and  Sweden. 

The  Pnusiana  maatere  of  Sileaia,  October  90. 
!  Peace  between  Auatria  and  Pruaaia,  June  11. 

Defensive  Alliance  between  Great  Britain  and  Pruaaia,  November  1& 

CHARLES  Vil,  (of  Bavaria)  Emperor  of  German)r. 

Defensive  Alliance  between  Groat  Britain  and  Raasia,  Februarr. 

War  in  Germany  between  the  Britbh,  Hungarians,  Frencn,  and 
Austriana. 

The  French  defeated  by  the  alliea  at  Dettingen,  Jane  6. 

War  declared  in  Great  Britain  againat  France,  March  31. 

The  King  of  Prussia  takea  Prague. 

Commodore  Anson  completes  his  Voyage  round  the  World. 

FRA/fCIS  /.  (of  Lorraine)  Emperor  of  Germany. 

Quadruple  Alliance  between  Sritain,  Austria,  Holland,  and  Poland, 
January  3. 

The  allied  army  defeated  by  the  French  at  Fontenoy,  April  30. 

Louiaburg  and  Cape  Breton  taken  by  the  Britiah  troopa,  June  6. 

The  Rebellion  breaks  out  in  Scotland,  July. 

Treaty  of  Dresden  between  Prussia,  Poland,  Auatrim,  and  Suony, 
December  25. 

Ferdinand  VI.  King  of  Spain. 

Frederick  V.  Kint  of  Denmark. 

Count  Saze  takea  Braaaels  and  Antwerp. 

Victory  of  Cnlloden,  which  puts  an  end  to  the  Rebellion  in  Seotltnd. 
April  16. 

Lords  Balmerino  and  Kilmarnock  beheaded,  August  18. 

(Tount  Saxe  defeats  the  alliea  at  Raucoux,  October  11. 

Dreadful  Earthquake  at  Lima  in  Peru,  October  17. 

Kouli-Khan  murdered.    Revolution  in  Persia. 

Peace  of  Aiz-la-Chapelle  between  Great  Britain,  France,  Spain,  A«»> 

tria,  Sardinia,  and  Holland,  October  7. 
Joseph  Kinj  of  Portugal. 
Academy  of  Sciencea  founded  at  Stoekholm. 
Adolphua  of  Holstein  Kinc  of  Sweden. 
Peace  between  Spain  and  Portugal. 
Now  Style  introduced  in  Britain,  September,  3  reckoned  14. 
The  Bntiah  Museum  eatablished  in  Montague  house. 
Great  Eruption  of  iEtna. 

(ireat  Earthquake  at  Constantinople  and  Cairo,  September  2. 
Li5bon  destroyed  by  an  Earthquake,  November  1. 
War  declared  between  Great  Britain  and  France,  May  18. 
The  King  of  Prussia  conquers  Silesia. 
IT  Pope  Clement  XIU. 

The  French  defeated  by  the  allied  army  at  Mioden,  Augnit  1. 
Charles  III.  King  of  Spain. 
The  Jesuits  expelled  irom  Portugal,  September  3. 
r>ener«l  Wolfe  takea  Quebec  in  Canada,  September  17. 
Montreal  and  Canada  ttken  by  the  Britiah,  fieptenber  8. 
ffifeOroe  in.  King  of  Great  Britain,  October  S& 
Peter  lu.  Emperor  <»  Russia. 
The  Jeniita  baniahed  from  France,  August 
Peace  between  Great  Britain  and  Franee  at  Fontaiaebleau,  J^wftm 

Uttt  Digitized  by  ^^OOgie 


510  CHRONOLOGICAI     TABLE. 

A.D. 

1763  Peace  between  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Spain,  at  Parb»  F*bj  t    n  r  0 

-  Catiiarino  II.  Enip'-ess  of  Russia. 

1764  Stanislaus  II.  King  of  Poland. 

Byron's  Discoveries  in  the  South  Seas. 

1765  JOSEPH  U.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

1766  The  Jesuits  expelled  from  Bohemia  and  Denmark. 

Christian  VII.  King  of  Denmaric. 

1767  Tlie  Jesuits  expelled  from  Spain,  Genoa,  and  VerJce. 

•  Discoveries  of  Wallis  and  Carteret  in  the  South  Seas. 

1766  Royal  Academy  of  Arts  established  at  London. 

The  Jesuits  expelled  from  Naples,  Malta,  and  Purma. 

Bougainville's  Discoveries  in  the  Sooth  Sea& 

1769  ir  Pope  Clement  XIV. 

Cook's  first  Discoveries  in  the  South  Seas. 

Corsica  taken  by  the  French,  June  13. 

1770  Earthquake  at  St.  Domingo. 

1771  Guslavus  III.  King  of  Sweden. 

1772  Revolution  in  Sweden,  August  19. 

— —  Poland  dismembered  liy  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria. 

1773  Cook's  second  Voyage  and  Discoveries. 

The  Society  of  Jesuits  su])pres.sed  by  the  Pope's  bull.  Augua  25. 

1774  Lewis  XVI.  King  of  France. 

1775  Battle  of  Bunker's  Hill  in  North  America,  June  17. 

1776  IT  Pope  Piua  VI. 

■  The  Americans  dcchire  their  Independence,  July  4. 

1777  Mary  Queen  of  Portugal. 

Surrender  of  the  British  Army  under  Burgoyne  at  Saratoga,  io  ll»« 

slate  of  New- York,  October  17. 

1778  League  between  the  French  and  Americans,  October  30. 

1779  Peace  between  the  Imperialists  and  Prussians,  May  13. 

Great  Eruption  of  Vesuvius,  August  8. 

•  Siege  of  Gibraltar  by  the  Spaniards,  July. 

-: Captain  Cook  killed  in  the  island  of  Owyhee. 

1780  Great  Riots  iu  London  on  account  of  the  Popish  Bill,  June  2. 

War  declared  between  Great  Britain  and  Holland,  December  2D 

1781  Surrender  of  the  British  Army  under  Cornwallis  to  the  Americans  and 

French  at  Yorktown  in  Virginia,  October  18. 

1782  Sir  G.  Rodney  defeats  the  French  fleet  off  Dominica,  April  12. 

1783  Peace  between  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Spain,  and  the  Independ- 

ence of  America  declared,  January  20. 

1784  Peace  between  Great  Britain  and  Holland,  May  24. 

1785  Treaty  of  Alliance  between  Austria,  France,  and  Holland,  Nor^m- 

ber9. 

1786  Frederick  IV.  King  of  Prussia. 

1788  Defensive  Alliance  between  England  and  Holland,  April  25. 

1789  Selim  III.  Grand  Seignior,  April. 

-    -I'  »•  George  Washington  first  President  of  the  United  States,  April. 
^ —  The  Bastille  at  Paris  taken  and  destroyed,  and  the  Governor  masn- 
cred,  July  14. 

1790  Monastic  Establishments  suppressed  in  France,  February  13. 

War  commenced  in  India  with  Tippoo  Sultan,  May  1. 

LEOPOLD  If.  Emperor  of  Gennany. 

1792  FRAXCIS  IL  Emperor  of  Germany. 

Gustavus  III.  King  of  Sweden  assassinated  by  Ankerstrom,  March  2f^ 

^-^  Gustavus  IV.  King  of  Sweden.    Duke  of  Sudermania  Regent  in  hit 

minority. 
The  Thuilleries   attacked.    The  King  and  Queen  of  France  tak« 

refuge  in  the  National  Assembly.    The  Swiss  guards  massacred  bj 

the  populace,  August  10. 
-«^  The  Eoyal  Family  of  France  imprisoned  in  the  Temple,  AugttM  14 

t  DigitizeckbyV^OOQlC 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE.  '  5ii 

A  dreadful  manacre  of  the  Htate-prisonera  at  Paris.  September  S.  3. 
The  Natiooal  Convention  is  constituted,  the  King  deposed,  and  Franoa 

declared  a  Republic,  September  21. 
Savo^  incor|>orated  with  the  French  Republic,  November  27. 
Lewis  XVI.  is  brought  to  trial,  and  answers  each  article  cf  accusation, 

December  14. 
Lewis  XVr  condemned  to  death  by  a  majority  of  five  voicea,  Janua- 
ry 17,  and  beheaded,  January  21. 
Rusaia  declares  war  against  France,  Januaiy  31. 
The  French  Convention  declares  war  against  England  and  Holland 

February  1. 
Queen  of  France  condemned  to  death  and  beheaded,  October  15. 
Robespierre,  with  his  chief  partisans,  guillotined,  July  28. 
The  Btadlholder  takes  refuge  in  England.    Holland  overrun  by  tl  . 

French,  January. 
Lyons  bombarded,  laid  in  ruins,  and  all  its  loyal  inhabitants  massaf    J, 

May. 
I^ewis  XVII.  died  in  prison  at  Paris,  June  8. 
The  Cape  of  Good  Hope  taken  by  the  British,  September  16. 
Belj^ium  incorporated  with  the  French  Republic,  September  3C* 
Stanislaus  II.  resigns  the  Crown  of  Poland.    The  kingdom  i/'ivided 

between  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  November  25. 
The  French  overrun  and  plunder  Italy. 

Death  of  Catharine  II.    Paul  Emperor  of  Russia,  November  17. 
John  Adams  President  of  the  United  States,  March  4. 
The  Dutdi  Fleet  beaten  and  captured  by  Admiral  Duncan,  Octo- 
ber 11. 
The  Papal  Government  suppressed  by  the  French.    The  Pope  quits 

Rome,  February  26. 
Ireland  in  open  rebellion,  May,  June.  dx. 
Admiral  Nelson  destroys  the  French  Fleet  in  the  battle  of  the  Nile, 

August  1. 
The  Swiss  finally  defeated,  and  their  Independence  abolished,  Sep- 
tember 19. 
Seringapatam  taken  by  General  Harris,  and  Tippoo  Sultan  kilUd, 

May  4 
Death  of  Pope  Pius  VI.,  September. 

A  Revolution  at  Paris.    Bonaparte  declared  First  Consul,  Decem- 
ber 25. 
0 
Union  of  Britain  and  Ireland. 
Bonaparte  defeata  the  Austrians  in  tlie  battle  of  Marengo  in  Italy 

June  14. 
Armistice  between  the  French  and  Austrians  in  Germany,  July  15. 
The  new  Pope,  Pius  VII.,  restored  to  his  goyemmem  by  the  Emperor 

July  25. 
Malta  taken  by  the  British,  September  5. 
First  meeting  of  the  Imperial  Parliament  of  Britain  and    Irebne 

January. 
Thomas  Jefferson  President  of  the  United  Sutes,  March  4. 
Death  of  Paul.    Alexander  I.  Emperor  of  Roasia,  March  83. 
Battle  of  Copenhagen,  in  which  the  Danes  are  defeated  by  Lord  NeU 
son,  April  3. 
I  The  Catholic  Religion  re-established  in  France,  March. 
-  Treaty  of  peace  between  Britain  and  France. 
>  The  King  of  Sardinia  r(»signs  his  crown  to  his  brother,  July. 

•  Bonaparte  declared  Chief  Consul  for  life,  July. 

•  War  between  France,  and  Germany,  and  Russia,  in  which  the  Frt-urk 

are  successful. 
\  War<Mween  Britain  and  France.  ^  I 

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51S  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 

A.D. 

1804  Emperor  of  <vermany  amumes  the  title  of  Emperor  of  Amtm  A«* 
gastli. 

—  Bonaparte  erovmed  Emperor  of  France,  December  2. 
1605  Bonaparte  King  of  Italy,  March. 

-^-^  Lord  Pfelson  defeats  the  combined  fleets  of  France  and  Spain  off  Cum 
Trafalgar,  takes  or  destroys  19  ships  of  the  line,  and  is  killed  in  toa 
battle,  October  21. 

-— ^  War  between  England  and  Spain. 

1806  Louis  Bonaparte  crowned  King  of  Holland,  June. 

The  British  Parliament  vote  the  Abolition  of  the  Slave  Trade,  Jane  10 

—  Francis  II.  resigns  the  office  of  Emperor  of  Germany,  Angiwt  2. 
— — -  War  between  France  and  Prussia. 

— -  Battle  of  Jena  and  total  defeat  of  the  Prussians,  October  14. 

1807  War  between  France  and  Russia,  in  which  the  French  are  soeccasfnL 
•*-— i  Copenhagen  taken  by  the  British,  and  the  Danish  fleet  carried  to  Eng- 
land. 

— «—  Treaty  of  Peace  between  France,  and  Russia^  and  Prussia. 

1808  Abolition  of  the  Slave  Trade  in  the  United  States  of  America,  isnoa* 

ryl. 

—  War  between  Russia  and  Sweden. 

-^-^  Bonaparte  seizes  Portugal,  and  the  Royal  Family  flee  to  BrasiL 
-— ^  Bonaparte  seizes  the  Rioyal  Family  of  Spain.    War  betwe      ^ 
ana  Spain. 

1809  Battle  of  Gorunna,  January  16. 
— -*  Fall  of  Saragossa,  February  81. 
-— —  James  Madison  President  of  the  United  States,  March  4. 

—  GustavuB  rV.  King  of  Sweden  deposed,  and  Charles  SHI. 

March  13. 

— -  War  between  France  and  Austria,  April  6. 
<>—  French  enter  Vienna,  May  12. 

— ^  War  between  Russia  and  Austria,  May  22. 
<— ~  The  Papal  States  united  to  France,  June  1. 

Battle  of  Talavera,  July  24. 

— ^»  Peace  of  Vienna  between  Austria  and  France,  October  14. 

1810  Bonaparte  divorces  the  Empress  Josephine,  January  16. 

«—  He  marries  the  Arch-Duchess  Maria  Louisa  of  Austria,  April  1« 

—  Louis  Bonaparte  abdicates  the  throne  of  Holland,  July  1, 
— ^  Holland  annexed  to  the  French. 

Population  of  the  United  States,  7,239,903. 

1811  Pnnce  of  Wales  apnointed  Regent,  February  8. 

^—  Two  hundred  builoings  and  large  quantities  of  goods  barat  in  Nsik 

buryport^  Mass. 
<i«—  Massacre  m  Cairo,  when  about  1,000  Mamelukes  lost  tkeir  lives, 

March  1. 
-x-—  A  Son  bom  to  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  styled  King  of  Roma,  MvrckSOL 
•-—  Batavia  oaolured  by  the  English,  August  8. 
.— —  An  unusually  large  comet  appeared,  September  1. 
—— ^  Richmond  Theatre  burnt,  Dscember  26. 

1812  Great  £arth<|nake  at  Carraccas,  March  26. 

-—  Perceval,  Pnmo  Minister  of  England,  assassinated.  May  11. 

.«  .  War  against  Great  Britain  declared  by  the  United  States,  Jima  18. 

^»    General  Hall  and  his  army  taken  prisoners  in  Canada,  Asgosl  It, 

— ^    Battle  of  Smolensko,  August  17. 

*— •>   Battle  of  Moskwa,  September  7. 

— ~  The  French  army  enter  Moscow,  14th  September. 

— —  British  Frigate  Uuerriere  captured,  August  ^. 

do.        £),     Macedonia  captured,  October  85. 

do.        do.     Java  captured.  December  29. 
18n  Lewis  XVIII.  publishes  an  Address  to  the  people  of  Frme^  Fs^ 

niary  1. 


yGodgk 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE.  513 

Treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  Sweden,  March  3. 

Sweden  declares  War  against  France,  March  3. 

The  Kuseian  troops  enter  Hamburgh,  March  18. 

Prussia  joins  Rassia  against  France,  March. 

Spaniih  In<|uisition  aMished  bj  the  Cortet,  April. 

Battle  of  Vittoria,  in  Spain,  Jone  2. 

Austria  declares  War  against  France^  August  11 

General  Moreaa  killed,  August  28. 

Commodore  Perry  captures  the  British  squadron,  on  lake  Erie,  8a^ 

tember  10. 
Battle  of  Loipsic,  October  19. 
The  Prince  of  Orange  assumes  the  title  of  Sovereign  Prinee  of  Ibe 

Netherlands,  December  2. 
The  Russians  and  their  Allies  enter  France^Deeemb«r  83. 
The  Pope  released  by  Bonaparte,  Januaij  23. 
Lord  Wellington  took  possession  of  BonMauz,  Febniaij  13. 
Pans  capitulates  to  the  Allies,  March  30. 
The  Allies  enter  Paris,  April  1. 
Napoleon  Bonaparte  dethroned,  April  4,  and  banished  to  the  Island  of 

Elba,  for  which  he  sails,  April  fSi. 
Louis  XVItl.,  htmg  taU^d  to  the  tkrono  qf  Fnmce,  made  his  antiy 

into  Paris,  May  3. 
Genera]  Peace  in  Europe,  May  30. 
The  Allied  SoTereigns  yisit  London,  June  8. 
Inquisition  restored  in  Spain,  July  Id. 
Norway  annexed  to  Sweden,  August  14. 
("ity  of  Washington  taken  by  the  British,  August  24. 
British  Souadron  on  Lake  Champlain  captured  by  Commodore  M'Ben^ 

ough,  September  11. 
Gcn«*ral  Congress  of  Vienna,  November  7. 
Pensacola  taken  by  General  Jackson,  November  7. 
Treaty  of  Peace  between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  signed 

at  uhent,  December  24. 
The  British  repulsed  at  New-Orleans,  December  98, 
riin  British  completely  defeated   and  General  Packenham  slain  at 

New-Orleans,  January  8. 
LTnited  States  Frigate  President  taken  by  a  British  sqoadfon,  Janua- 

ry  15. 
P<  ace  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  ratilM  Febroft- 

ry24. 
[Bonaparte  sailed  from  Elba,  February  26— lands  in  France,  March  Ir— 

entcre  Paris,  March  26. 
3f>naparte  left  Paris  to  meet  the  Allies,  May  2. 
Satt.'e  of  Waterloo,  June  17  and  18. 
ionnparte  surrenders  himself  to  the  British,  July  16. 
Ii>achim  Marat,  King  of  Naples,  shot  for  High  Treason,  October  1.1 
3i>iiaparte  landed  at  St.  Helena,  October  13. 
dar^iial  Ney  shot  for  High  Treason,  December  7. 
l4;stijts  expelled  from  Petersborgh  and  Moscow.  Jannnry  2. 
ft.  Johns,  Newlbundland,  destroyed  by  fire,  Feomaiy  18. 
'rinresa  Charlotte  of  Wales  married  to  Prince  Leopold,  May  2. 
^ord  Cuchrnne  tried  lor  breaking  out  of  Prison,  August  17 
ie  is  ralottssd  trr  a  penny  subscription,  December  7. 
iidiana  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State,  December, 
'nited  States  Bank  opened  for  business  at  Philadelphia,  January  1. 
imerican  Colonisation  Society  for  tree  Blacks  organised,  January  1 
aines  Monroe  President  of  the  United  States^  Much  4. 
*crnambueo  deelared  itself  Independent,  April  5. 
Portuguese  aotbotity  estsbbsbed  at  PenuuDDocOy  May  1& 
>o jr  of  Alglim  Mwinated,  September. 

Digitized  by 


Google 


514  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 

A.D.  , 

1817  Death  of  Princess  Caroline,  November  6. 

Mississippi  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State,  December  11 

1818  Queen  or  England  dies. 

'   '  '  Charles  XIII.  of  Sweden  dies,  and  is  succeeded  by  PriDoe  Benuidotta. 
— ^  France  evacuated  by  the  Allies,  October. 

Illinois  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State,  December  4 

Commercial  Treaties  concluded  between  the  United  States  oo  ime 

part  and  Great  Britain  and  Sweden  on  the  other. 
— *»  Auoghany  College  established. 

X819  A  Treaty  for  the  cession  of  Florida  to  the  United  States  sngaed  ai 
Washington,  February  23. 

—  First  Steam  Ship  sails  for  Europe,  May. 

— —  Commodore  Perry  dies  in  the  West  Indies,  August  523. 
Alabama  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State.  December. 

1820  George  III.,  King  of  England,  dies  January  29. 

tiSftOtSC  IV.  succeeds  to  the  throne  of  Great  Britain  and  IreUad. 

The  Duke  of  Berry  assassinated,  February  14. 

Maine  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State. 

Queen  Caroline  of  England  prosecuted  for  Adultery. 

—  Another  Revolution,  which  gives  a  Free  Constitution  to  the  Spaniak 

nation. 
Population  of  the  United  States,  9,625;734. 

1821  Missouri  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State. 

-*-<—  An  attempt  to  destroy  the  Royal  Family  of  France,  Jaonaxj  $7. 
— —  British  Government  issue  a  Manifesto  respecting  Uie  Holy  Alliaaos* 

h cbroary . 
-i—  Napoleon  Bonaparte  dies  at  St.  Helena,  May  5, 1821,  aged  SfiL 
^—  Queen  Caroline  of  England  dies,  August  7, 1821. 
>     ■  Eiias  Buiidinot,  President  of  the  American  Bible  Society,  die*. 

1822  William  Pinckney  dies,  February  26. 

Iturbide  declared  himself  Emperor  of  Mexico. 

■  *  Columbian  College  established. 

—  Massacre  of  Greeks  at  Scio. 

Revoltition  in  Portugal  with  a  Cortes  and  Free  Constitatioa. 

-^—  Don  Pedro,  Hon  of  the  King  of  Portugal,  declared  Emperor  oTBiBaik 

1823  Iturbide  dethroned  and  banished  to  Italy. 

— —  France  declares  War  against  Spain,  una  invades  h  with  a  larg*  8rs]f. 

Counter  Revolution  in  Portugal. 

— —  Treaty  of  Peace  between  Spain  and  Buenos  Ayret^  My  4, 


y  Google 


COMPARATIVE  VIEW 


ANCIENT 


AKDOr 


MODERN  GEOGRAPHY. 


ho  (bl  lowing  Tiibles  the  Cotintnei  unknown  to  Aneienti)  or  of  which 
le  Names  aro  uncertaini  are  leA  blank. 

i  same  numbera  in  the  two  adjacent  columns  on  each  page  indicate  the 
ncient  and  modem  names  of  the  same  countries  or  places. 


MODERN  EUROPE. 

CENLAND,  or  the  Arctic  Conti* 

tnt. 

1\SB£RGEN  (Island.) 

'.LAI^Dy  (Island,)  belonging  to 

orway. 

NORWAY. 
Vardliuin,  or    Norwegian    Lap- 
land. 


ANCIENT  EUROPE. 


SCANDINAVIA,  8CAND1A,   vd 
BALTIA. 


>rontheiro. 

2.  Nerigon. 

*<;rgen. 

3.  Sitones. 

k^gerhuis,  or  Christiana. 

SWEDEN. 

.apland  and  West  Bothnia. 

1.  Scritofinni. 

iweden  Proper* 

2.  Siiioncs. 

Gothland. 

3.  Guts  et  Ililleviones. 

*  inland. 

4.  Finiiingia. 

.lands     of    Gothland-Oeland, 

5.  lusule  Sinus  CedanL 

Aland,  Ru^en. 

DENMARK. 

m 

/mUaaJ, 

Chers<mesus  CimMf 

Liborg. 

1.  Cimbri. 

Vfhuig. 

/^^ 

Digitized  by  VjOC 

fii0  COMPARATIVE  VIEW  OF 

MODERN  SUROPE.  ANCIENT  EUROPE. 


3.  A&rhuMn* 

5.  Sfeswick. 

Mand9  m  tkt  BM€. 
1.  Zealand. 
S.  Fanen. 

3.  Falstor. 

4.  Longeland. 

5.  Ijaland. 

6.  Feneren. 

7.  Alaea. 

8.  Moen. 

9.  Bomholm. 

RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE. 
I.  LiTonia  and  Estonia. 
9.  Injma,  or  the  Government  of 

Peteraburg. 

3.  Carelia,  or  the  GoTeroment  of 

Wiburg. 

4.  NoYogrod. 

6.  Archangeli  Samotedia. 

6.  Moscow. 

7.  Nishnei  Novogrod. 
.  6.  Smolenaki. 

'9.  Kiew. 

10.  Bielgorod. 

11.  Woroneak. 

12.  AsoflT. 

FRANCE 
1.  Picardy. 
ft.  laie  or  France. 
3.  Champagnel 

4..  Normandy 

6.  Bretanj. 

6.  Orieannoia. 


7.  Lionnoia. 

8.  Provence. 

9  llianguedoc* 

10.  Quienne. 

11.  Oaacoigne. 
UK.  Dauphme. 

13.  Burgundy  and  Franohe-eomtc. 

14.  Lorraine  and  Alsace. 

UNTFEO  PROVINCES,  OR  KING- 
DOM  OF  H<»LLAND 

1.  Holland. 

2.  Pdealand.  . 

3.  Zealand. 

4.  Grontngen, 
5  OveiyaieL 


3.  Harudes. 

4.  Phundosii,  Signlonea. 

5.  SabaliBgii. 

htsutrn  Sinus  CodamL 
1,2  Teutonea. 


SARflfATIA  EUROPiEA. 
1.  Hirri  et  JE^  vel  Ostknes. 


4.  Bndint. 
6.  BaailicL 

8.  Cariones. 

10d&4.  Bodini. 

11.  Rozolani. 

12.  lazyges. 

GALLIA. 

1.  Ambiani. 

2.  BeUovaci,  Pariaii,  Sttensonea. 

3.  Remi,  Catalauni,  Trieasees,  l3 

Lingones. 

4.  Unelli  vel  Veneti,  Sail,  Lex-^ 

evil,  Veliecaaaes. 

5.  Osismii,  Vonetl|  Namnetes, 

Andes,  Redoaes. 

6.  Aureliani,  Camutes,  Seno- 

nes,   Turones,    Pietones, 
Biturwes. 

7.  ^dui,  Segusiani 
6.  Saljes,  Cavares. 

9.  Vo1g«,  Arecomiciy  Helvii,  To- 

losates. 

10.  Petroeorii,    Biturigea,    Ondsrci, 

Rateni. 

11.  Aauitani. 

12.  AilobrogeSy  Centrooea. 

13.  Llngonea,  JEdm,  Sequani. 

14.  Leuci,    Mediomatrid,    Tribociv 

Nemetes. 

SAXONE^ 


1, 2.  FriaiL 

4.  CatioivelChaoei 
'  5.  Fianoi. 


yGoogk 


ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  GEOGRAPHY.  617 

MODERN  EUBOPB.  ANGIEI9T  EUROPE. 


i.  Gnelderluid  ud  Zutpimi. 
\  Utnebt 

NETHERLANDS, 
cLoirouro  to  faavcb  ajtd  bollahd. 
.  Brabant 
t.  Antwerp. 
I.  Mechlen  or  Halinai. 
I.  LimlHirgli. 
K  Luzamouigh. 
».  Namnr. 


I.  Cambrewa. 
K  Artoia* 
I.  Flaadaia. 

GERBfANY. 
.  Upper  Bazonj* 
L  Lowar  Saaony. 

I  Wastpbalia. 

i.  Upper  Rhlte. 
K  Lower  Rfaine. 
l  Franconia. 
'.  Anatria. 
;.  Bavaria. 
>.  Suabia. 

BOHEMIA. 
.  Bohemia  Proper. 
I  S'tleua. 
*.  Moravia. 

POLAND. 
.  Greater  Poland. 
I  Less  Poland. 
t   PruMiaRojaL 
I.  Pttmia  Ducal. 
K  Samogitia. 
;.  Coarland. 
',  Lithnania. 
t.  Warwvia. 
K  Polachia 
I.  Pblesia 
.  Red! 
*.  Podolia. 
I  Volhtnia. 

SPAIN. 
.  Gallicta. 
i.  .\«ttina. 
I.  Biscay. 

.  Navarre. 
;.  Arracon. 
;.  Catalonia. 

-.  Valentia. 
\.  Murcta. 
K  Granada. 
»  Andalvm.    _ 
Xi 


6.  Bnicteri,  Catti,  Sieenlwi. 

7.  BatavL 


BELGiE,  A«. 
1.  Menapiiy  Tungrii. 
S.  ToxandrL 

4, 5.  Alemanai 

o.  TreverL 
7. 


\i 


9.  Atrebatea,  Veromaadm. 
10.  Belgti,  Morini. 

NATIONES  GERMANICJB. 
L  Seuvi,  Linga,  Slc, 
%  Saxoaee,  Lengobaxdi,  Gam- 
brivii. 

3.  Cherutci,  Chamavi,  Gauchi, 

Germania  Inftrior. 

4.  Germania  Superior. 

5.  Merely  Tincteri. 

6.  Mercomanni,  Hermonduri. 

7.  Noricum. 
6.  Rhatia. 

9.  Yindeliciaw 


1.  Boiohonnum. 
9.  Corconti. 
3.  Qnadi. 

GERMANO-SARBIATiB. 
1.  Peucint 
9.  Lugii. 
3,  4.  Burgundionct^    £ogii»    Gn- 

tkonee. 
5.  Ombrogee. 
e.  Scyri. 
7,8.  Germano-Sarmatia. 


11, 19, 13.  Bastarna. 


H1SPAN1A,  vet  IBERIA. 
],  9,  3.   Gall»cia--<:antabn,  Ae> 
tures,  Vorduli. 


4,  5,  6.  Terra coneRMt--«VafCone^ 
Valetani. 


7|    8.    Carthttjginensta       ■  iEtlitani, 

Contefaaiii 
0,  10.    BaHice— BaMiant,    BaMuli, 
,  Turdctaai^  iScc 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


618  COMPARATIVE  VIEW  OF 

MODERN  EUROPE.  ANCIENT  EUROPE. 


11.  Old  Castile. 

11.  GaUfficitt  pars— Aocaeiy  Aravtd. 

Ijj.  Mew  Castile. 

12.  Tarraconensis   pais — Carpetani, 

Oretani 

la  Leon. 

13.  Gallaeciad  para— Vettones. 

14.  Estremadura. 

14.  Lusitani»  pars— Bsturia. 

SPANISH  ISLANDS. 

INSUi;^  HISPANIC^ 

Ivica.    • 

Baleares. 

Majorca. 

Minorca. 

PORtUGAL. 

LUSITANIA. 

Entra  Minlio  e  Doinro. 

Calliaci,  LusiUni,  Coltici. 

Tralos  Montea. 

Beira. 

Eatiemadura. 

Entro  Tajo.     • 

Alentajo. 

Algarva. 

SWITZERLAND. 

HELVETLA. 

I.  Bern. 

1, 2,  3, 4.  Ambroaet. 

2.  Fribtirg. 

a  Baoi]  or  Bale 

4.  Liicem. 

• 

6.  Solotum. 

-  d.  Schaifhausen. 

6,7,8,9,10.TigttriiiL 

7.  Zurick. 

a  Appcnzel. 
9.  Zug. 
10.  Schweitz. 

n.  Glaria. 
12   Uri. 

\3  Underwald. 

14   Geneva. 

14.  Nantuatea. 

15.  Grriisona,  &/o. 

15.  Vera^ri,    Vallis    Penoioa,  U- 
ponlii. 

ITATJA. 

ITALY 

\,  Savoy. 

1.  Lepontii,  Segusini,  Tan- 

nni. 

2.  Piedmont. 

2.  Orobi.      \ 

*? 

3.  Montferral. 

Mmmbres./^'fi'^* 

c 

4.  Milan 

S-S 

S.  Genoa. 

5.                  } 

1ft 

6l  Parma. 

6.  Anamani. 

7.  Modena. 

7.  Boii. 

a  Mantua. 

8.  Cenomani. 

9.  Venice. 

9.  Vcnetia. 

€1 

10.  Trent. 

10.  Trideiitini.                          J 

11.  Tlie  Popedom. 

11.  Lln^ones,  Sononee,  Plenum,  Vn- 

bnai  Sabini,  Pars  LatiL 

12.  Tuscany. 

12.  TuBcia  vel  Etruria. 

13.  Lucca. 

13.  Para  Toscis. 

14.  San  Marino. 

14.  Pars  Umbriie 

I6i  Kingdom  of  Naples. 

15.  Samnium,  Para    Latii^   ApulJa» 

Campania,  Lucania,  Bnittiosk 

ITALIAN  ISLANDS 

INSUL.«  ITALICiB. 

1.  Sicily. 

1.  SiciJia,*  Sicania,  vel  Xnjucm- 

2.  SardW 

2.  Sardo,  vel  Sardinia. 

a.  Corsica. 
4.  Malta. 

3.  Cymua,  vel  Cdrsics. 

4,  MeUta. 

Digitized  by  ^^OOgie 

_      V 

ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  CIEOGRAPUY. 
MODERN  EUROPE.  ANCIENT  EUR 


>.  Lipari  IilaDdf. 
u  Capri,  lachia,  &C 
ilJNGARY. 

l'ransylvania. 

;clavonia. 

:roatia, 

TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

.  Dalroatia. 

.  Bosnia. 

.  Serria. 

.  Wallachia. 

.  Moldavia  and  Bewarabia. 

*.  Bnlgaria. 

.  Albania. 

>.  Macedonia. 

'.  Romania. 

.  Livadia. 

.  Morea. 

'.  Badauac  Tartary  or  BeMarabia. 

.  Little  Tartary. 

.  Crimea. 

GREEK  ISLANDS. 
.  Corfu. 
I.  Cepbalonia. 
1.  Zante. 

.  fthace,  Thiace,  See, 
UREEK   ISLANDS    IN    THE 

ARCHIPELAGO. 
.  Ccndia. 
.  NacroponC. 
.  Statimene. 
.  Scyro,  Ac. 


6.  Liparin  Imule. 
6.  Caprecy  Ischia,  dbc. 

DACIA. 

PANNONIA. 

ILLYRICUM. 

1   Dalmatia. 

2.  Mesia  Superior 

3.  Dacia  Ripenata. 

4.  Gets. 

5.  Pars  Daciae. 

G.  Mesia  Inibrior. 

7.  Epiros. 

8.  Macedonia. 

9.  Thracia. 
10.  Theasalia. 

^     11.  Peloponnesus. 
O     12.  Scytliia  et  para  L 

13.  Parva  Scythta. 

14.  Taurica  Cherson< 
INSULiE  MARIS  I 

1.  Corcyra. 

2.  Cephalenia. 

3.  Zacynthus. 

4.  Ithaca,  dec. 

INSULiE  MARIS  A 

1.  Crcta. 

2.  Eubsa 

3.  Leranos. 

4.  Scyros,  dec. 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 


SCOTLAND. 

Edinburgh. 
.  Haddington. 
.  Berwick. 
.  •  Roiburgh. 
.  Selkirk. 
.  Uumfriee. 

Kireudbrigkt. 

IVebles, 
.  Wigton. 
.  I4inerk. 
.  .Air. 
.  Dumbaiton. 

Hnte. 
.  Renfrew. 
.  Stirling. 

Linlithgow. 
.  Fife. 

.  Claclnnannaik 
.  Kinross. 
•.  Perth. 

Aifirla. 


SCOTIA. 


>;  JDainnii.    Jvecturic 
3.  Ottodini.      ) 

fi     iselgov. 


>  Novantee. 


Damnii.   >  Pictt. 


Caledonii.    >  Picti. 


Bpidiii  Gadeni,  Ceron 


yGoogk 


590  COMPARATIVE  VIEW  OF 

MODERN  EUEOPE.  ANeiENT  EUROPE. 


22.  KincadBne. 

23.  Forfar. 
5M.  Aberdeen. 

25.  Banff. 

26.  Eljpn. 

27.  Nairn. 

28.  InvenieM. 

29.  Rosi. 

30.  Cromarty. 

31.  SoQtherlandL 

32.  CaitiineM. 

33.  Orknej. 

34.  Shetland. 

ENGLANa 

1.  Cornwall. 

2.  Devonshire. 

3.  DoiMtohire. 

4.  Hampshire. 

5.  Somersetshire. 
6:  WUtshire. 

7.  Berkshire. 

8.  Oxfordshire. 

9.  Glouoestershire. 
tO.  Monmouthshire. 

11.  Herefordshire. 

12.  Worcestershire. 

13.  Staffordshire. 

14.  Shropshire. 

15.  Essex. 

16.  Hartfordshire. 

17.  Kent 

18.  Surry. 

19.  Sussex. 

20.  Noriblk> 

21.  Suffolk. 

22.  Cambridceehne. 

23.  Huntingdonshire. 

24.  Bedfordshire. 

25.  Buckinghamshire, 

26.  Lincolnshire. 

27  Nottinghamshire^ 

28.  Derbyshire. 

29.  Rutlandshire. 
90.  Leicestershire. 
Sl.^^Warwickahire. 
32.  Northamptonshire 

2d.  NorthnmbeilaDd. 

34.  Durham. 

35.  Yorkshire. 

36.  Lancashire. 
S7.  WestmorelAnd. 

38.  Cumberland 

39.  Cheshire. 
-0  Middleeei. 


AttaooCi. 


Scoci. 


ANGLIA. 
i*  i  DamnoniL 
3.  iSarotriges. 


U 


Belgft. 


7.  Attrebatii. 
^'   >DobnnL 

loi 

11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 

15.  Trinobante^ 

16.  Catieuchlani. 

17.  Cantti. 


Silurea. 


►  ComaTiL 


18. 
19 


I;   |Regni. 


U'   I  Simeni,  vel  IceoL 

22.  ) 

23.  >  CaUeuchlaai. 


24.  S 

25.  An 


Ittrebatit. 

26.  ^ 

27.  / 

28.  VCoritani. 


29.  V 

30.  J 


31.  Coraavi. 

32.  Catieuchlani. 


33. 
34. 


Otadeiii. 


Brigaptea. 


36. 
37. 
36. 

39.  Comatii* 

40.  Altnfaat«e  ttt  CtAmMmk 


Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


ANcncirr  ako  modbiui  GEocaAPUf . 

MODERN  EUROPE.  ANCIENT  EUROPE 


WALES. 


AngleMj 

Flintahire. 

Mont^merj. 

Denbighshire. 

Carnarvonshire. 

Merioneth. 

Cardiganahire. 

Carmarthenihire. 

Pcmbrokeahire. 

Radnorshire. 

Brecknockshire. 

Glamorganshire. 

IRELAND. 

1.  Lonth. 

a.  Meath  East. 

3.  Meath  West. 

4.  Lonclofd. 

5.  Dnbfin. 

6.  Kildare. 

7.  King's  Coiinty. 

8.  Qoeen's  CouBty. 

9.  Wieklow. 

10.  Carkmr. 

11.  Wexford. 

12.  Kilkennx. 

'  13.  Donnegil  or  TTNouel. 

14.  Londondarry. 

15.  Antrim. 

16.  Tyrone. 

17.  Fermanagh. 

18.  Armagh. 

19.  Down. 

20.  Monaghan. 
2U  CaTan. 

'22.  CofkCoanty. 

23.  Water&id. 

24.  Tipperfry. 

25.  Limerick. 

26.  Kerry. 
,27.  Clare. 

29.  Gahray. 

2!l.  KoacommoB. 

30.  Mayo. 

31.  Sligoe. 
,32.  Leitrim. 

BRITANmC  ISLANDS. 

Shetland  and  Orkney. 
Westen  Isles  of  SeoUasd. 

Man. 
Aneleeey. 


1.  Mona  Insolft. 
3. 

*  Ordof  ices. 


»Demet». 


>  Silivas. 


HIBERNJA,veliREllB 
1.  VoIantU. 
^'   SCaiiBi. 


VoIuBtii. 


&  Vodia,  l^ornL 
VeUhori. 


Gangnni 


.men. 


Nagnata. 


INSULiE  BRTTANNICA. 

1.  Thole. 

2.  Ebodes  Insula. 

3.  Monada  Tel  Moaa. 

4.  Mona. 

5.  Vectia. 

Digitized  by  CjOOQIC 


COMPARATIVE  VIEW  OV 
MODERN  ASU.  ANCIENT  ASIA. 


TURKEY  IN  ASIA- 

ASIA  MINOR. 

I.  Natalia. 

1.  Mysia,  Lydia,   Carta,  Pfarrgi 
Bithynia»    QalaUa,   Paphiap 

nia. 

8.  Amama  or  Siwas. 

2.  Ponttts. 

3.  Aladulia. 

3.  Armenia. 

4.  Caramabia. 

5.  Irak. 

4.  Cappadocia,  Cillcia,  &c. 
6.  Babylonia,  Chaldaa. 

6.  Diarbeck. 

6.  Meso^tamia. 

7.  Curdisun. 

7.  Assyria. 

8.  Turcomania. 

9.  Georgia. 

10.  Syria  and  Palestine. 

8     ) 

g       Armenia  Major. 

10.  Syria,  Palmyrene,  PhoBoieiai  Ji 
ARABIA. 

ARABIA. 

Arabia  Petraea. 

Arabia  Petnea. 

Arabia  Deserta. 

Arabia  Deserta. 

Arabia  Felix. 

Arabia  Felix. 

PERSIA. 

PERSIA. 

1.  Choraasan. 

1.  Pan  Uyrcanias  et  SogdianB. 

2.  Balk,  Sablustan,  Candahar. 

2.  Bactrania. 

3.  Sigistan. 

3.  Drangiana. 

4.  Makeran. 

4. 

5.  Kerinan. 

5.  Gedrosia. 

6.  Faraigtan. 

6.  Persis. 

7.  Chuseatan. 

7.  Susiana. 

6.  IrakAgem. 

8.  Parthia. 

9.  Curdestan. 

9.  Para  AasyriB. 

10.  Aderbeitzeiu 

10.  Media. 

11.  Georgia. 

11.   ) 

12.  Gangea. 

12.   >  Iberia,  Colehia,  et  AlbuMk 

13.  Dagestan. 

13.   S 

14.  Mazanderam. 

15.  /Gilan  TaberiaUn. 

15.  Para  Hyrcania. 

16,  ParaAlbanie. 

16.  Chirvan. 

INDIA. 

INDIA. 

MogoL 

IniU  intra  Qan^tm, 

Delhi. 

Palibothra. 

Agra. 

Agora. 

Cambaia. 
Bengal. 

India  mtkm  tk$  Gangat, 

Regna  Pori  et  Taxilia. 

Decafli. 

Daehanoa, 

Gi/lconda. 

Prasii  vel  Gangarids. 

Biai^agar. 

Malabar. 

Male. 

Island  of  Ceylon. 

India  heybnd  tks  Qangf, 
Pegn 
Tonquin 
Cochinchiaa 
8iam. 

Niuelio. 
(Corea. 


Taprobena  Insola  zd  Salioe^ 
India  ntra  QmageaL 


Sinanim  Regio. 
CHINA. 


y  Google 


ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  OCOCaAPHT.  I 

MODERN  ASIA.  ANCIENT  ASIA. 

^otoof.  Sins. 

(ami.  Serica. 

(eosi. 

(anlum.  CatluM. 

bonking. 

Thekitm. 

fonan. 

luquam. 

(iamii. 

^okien. 

>nton. 

Suchuan. 

^ueckatt. 

funam. 

CHINESE  ISLANDS. 

'  OfUlOM. 

iinan. 
»Iacao. 
laabaa  Ulanda. 

RUSSIA  iN  ASIA. 

.  Afltracan.  1.  Sabsatia  Aaiatica. 

L  Orenbarg.  8.   ^ 

;  SibTrii— Tobobk,  JeoiteU,   It-     4.  ^  ^ythia  inlia  Imaum. 
kuuk,  Kamtehatka.  j 

INDEPENDENT  TARTARY. 
.  Great  BttcharU.  1.  Bactriana,  Sogdiana 

L  Karaim.  2.  Aria. 

ALUTH  TARTARS.  8CYTUIA  aitrm  IMAUM 

.  Little  Bucharia.  1. 

.  Caspar.  2. 

.  Tarkeatan.  3. 

.  Kalmac  Tartan.  4. 

.  Thibet.  6. 

.  Litde  Thibet.  tf. 

CHINESE  TARTARY.  BOM 

iaikaa.  ^^ 

f  ongol  Tartan. 
f  aotchoo  Tartan. 
Torea. 

LANDS   OF   CHINESE  TAR- 
TARY. 

taxalieji-Ula-bata. 
edso. 

ISLANDS  OP  JAPAN. 
apan  or  Nipbon. 

ilCOCO. 

limo. 

PHILIPPINE  ISLES. 

.neon  or  Manilla, 
f  indanao,  Ac. 

MARIAN   OR   LADRONE. 
ISLANDa 
*iaian.  ^  j 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


mi  OOHPABATIYE  VIEW  OF 

MODERN  ASIA.  ANCIENT  ASIA. 

ISLES  OF  SUNDA. 
Borneo. 
Sttmatra. 
J«VAi  dec 

HOLUCCA  ISLES. 
Celebes. 
Amboyna. 
Ceram 
Timor. 
Flores,  &e. 
If  ALDIVA  ISLES. 


MODERN  AFRICA. 

BARBART. 

L  Morocco. 
8.  Algiers. 

3.  Tunis. 

4.  Tripoli 
&.  Bares. 

1.  EOTPT. 

2.  BlI.D0I.OSRtD. 

3.  Zaara,  or  the  Desert 

4.  NlOROLiSD. 

5.  GuivxA. 

6.  Upper  Etbiopia- 


Nubia,  Abyssinia,  Abes. 
Lower  Ethiopia 


ANCIENT  AFRICA. 


1.  Mauritania  Tingitaaa. 
8.  Mauritania  Cosariensis. 

3.  Namidia,  Afirica  Propfia. 

4.  Tripolitana. 

6.  Cyreaaica,  Lib]ra  Superior. 

I.  AOTPTUS. 

8.  Libya  IirrxwoR,  Gstuua 

3.  SoLiTunins. 

4.  AOTOLOMS. 

6.  JBtaiopib  et  Libya  pw 

7.  .Athiopui  pm. 


8«  Lower  GuiNKA- 

Loongo,  Congo,  Angolai  Ben* 

guela,  Matanan. 
9.  Ajan. 
to.  Zakouxbar. 

11.  MoffOMOTAPA. 

12.  MONOEMUOI. 

13.  SOFOLA. 

14.  Terra  de  Naial. 

16.  Capraria,  or   countiy  of  the 
Hottentots. 

NORTH  AMERICA. 

BRITISH  AMERICA 

I.  The  countries  on  the  east  and  wast  side  of  Baffin^  and  Hodsott**  Bi^a 

8.  Labrador,  or  New  Britain. 

3.  Canada. 

4.  NoYR  Scotia. 


Newfoundland,  Cape  Breton. 

British  hlands  t»  th§  West  tndUs. 

Bermndaa,  Bahama  Islands,  Jamaioa,  St.  Christo^er's,  Neris,  ^m^^^^ 
Antigua,  Dominica,  St.  Vincent,  Tobago,  Grenada,  Barbadoes,  Ac 

Digitized  by  V^OOQIC        • 


ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  GBOGRAFIIT.  tm 

UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA. 

Hew  England-  Maine,  New-Hampabire,  Vennont,  MaaaaehuiaCti,  Cooneal- 
icnty  and  Rhode-IalaDd. 

State  of  New*Yorky  New-Jeraer.  P^nnajrlvania,  Delcware,  Man^d,  Vii^ 
mia,  North-Carolina,  South-Carolina,  Georgia^  Tennaaaee.  jCentiMicf , 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Louiaiana.  Alabama^  Miaaouri.  MiaaiaaiDpi,  luboia. 

Fbe  diatfiel  of  Coliimhia,  the  larritonaa  of  Micnigan,  Ananaaa. 

SPANISH  AMERICA 
Iffasieo  or  New  Spain,  New  Meiieo. 

NORTH  AMERICA. 

3Ubn,  Auto  Rieo,  weat  part  of  St.  Doniingo,  Trinidad,  Maigaiiba,  Oibn- 

glM^  Ac 

JhUck  I$Umd9  M  tU  Wut  IUm#. 

Put  of  8t  Martln'a  lale,  EoaUtiaa,  Area,  Baenoa  A jrea,  Curaeoa,  Aniba. 

Fnmk  I^mmds  m  (A«  ITaif  lUica. 
flaaelon»  8l  Pierre,  part  of  St.  Martin'e  lale.  St  Bartholomew,  Martidani 
tf  ondalonpey  Deaiada,  Mariegalant,  St.  Lneia,  part  of  fit  Doaingo. 

H.  Tkoana,  Santa  Gnu. 

SOUTH  AMERICA. 

FRENCH. 
^Mt  of  the  Pkofinee  of  Chuana,  Cbyenna^  Ac 

SPANISH. 
?^wi»  flMM,  Oonntfy  of  the  Amanoa^  Vmrn^  CUBf  Virtn 


DUTCH. 
Mter< 


FORTUOUE8B. 
(partofl 


ANCIENT  EMFIRBa 


of  AaavsiA,  under  Ninoa  an . 

i  e,  iifiiiliiiiiliil,  Aain  Maer,  CalnWa,  Ai^jiia, 
Bgypt. 


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0S  '  COMPARATIVE  VIEW  OF 

The  Empire  of  Amyria,  as  dhided  about  820  before  J,  C.,f<mDed  three 
Kingdoms,  Media,  Babylo-Chaldee,  (S>Tia  and  Cbaldea,)  Lydia,  (all 
Aeia  Minoi.) 

The  Empire  of  the  Pjersiai^a,  nnder  Dariiw  Hyetaspen,  528  before  J.  C, 
eompiehended,  Persia,  Susiana,  Chaldea,  A««yna,  Media,  Battriana, 
Armenia,  Asia,  PartUia,  Iberia,  Albaniar,  Colchie,  Aaia  Minor,  Egypt, 
part  of  Ethiopia,  part  of  Scythia. 

The  Empire  of  Almander  thk  orkat,  330  before  J.  C,  «>nsirted  of. 
1,  all  Macedonia  and  Greece,  except  Peloponnwna ;  2,  all  the  PerFiaa 
Empire,  aa  above  described ;  3,  India  to  the  banks  of  the  Indue  rtn  ii» 
east,  and  the  laxartes  or  Tana'is  on  tlie  north. 

The  Empire  of  Alexander  wee  thus  divided,  306  before  J.  C,  httvnm 
Ptolemy  Cassander,  Lysimachus,  and  Seleucus 

Empire  of  Ptolemy. 

Lybia,  Arabia,  Ccnloeyria,  Palestine. 

Empire  of  Caa9ondw. 
If  aoedonia,  Greece. 

Empire  of  LysimaekuM, 
Thrace,  Bithynia. 

Empire  of  SeUwMS* 

Syria,  and  all  the  rest  of  Alexander**  Empire. 

The  Empire  of  the  Partbiahs,  140  before  J.  C,  comprehended  Paitha, 
Hyrcania,  Media,  Potsis,  Bactriana,  Babylonia,  Mesopotamia,  India  to 
the  Indus. 

The  RoHAM^mpire,  under  the  Kings,  ivaa  cimfined  to  the  city  of  Kostt, 
and  a  few  miles  round  it. 


Illyria.  Istna,  JLjibumia,  uaimniia,  Acooia,  jnaceaonia,  mj 
Thraaa,  Pon^os,  Armenia,  Judiea,  Cilicia,  Syria,  Egypt. 


Under  the  Emperors  the  'following  countries  were  reduced  into  Roaiu 
Provinces. 

An  Spain,  the  Alpes  Moritima,  PiedmoQl*  Stc.    fUaelia,  Nenoiait  Piab^ 

nia,ana  M<b8ia,  Pontus,  Armenia,  Assyria,  Arabia,  Egypt 

Gonstantias  Chlorus  and  Galerins  divided  the  Empire  into  EAinas  aa^ 
WxsTXRir ;  and  under  Conatantine  each  Empire  had  a  distinct  capital  cr 
Mat  of  government 

The  extent  of  each  divunon  was  fluctuntins  from  time  to  time ;  bat,  in  g^ee- 
etal,  the  Western  Empire*  cowprehenaed  fialy,  IHyria,  Africa,  Spat 
the  Gauls,  Britam. 

The  Eastxrh  Empire  comprehended  Asia  Minor,  Pontm,  AroMflia,  Am^ 
Media,  dfcc.  Egypt,  Thraeei  Dacia,  Macedonia. 

Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  GEOGRAPHY. 


«? 


The  Ehpiiib  of  Chamlzuaqmk,  A*  D.  800,  compraheiided  Fraoco,  Marea, 
Uupanico,  (or  Navono  aad  Catalonia^)  Maiorca,  Minorca,  and  Ivka, 
Conica,  Italr  as  hr  touth  ••  Naplea,  Jatria,  Liburnia,  Dalmatia  Rluetiay 
yindelica,  Noricum,  Gennany,  nom  Ce  Rkine  to  tho  Odor,  and  to  tJie 
banka  of  the  Baltic. 

Franco  contained,  I,  Neostria,  comprehending  Brntanr,  Nonnandj,  ble  of 
Pranee,  Orleannoia;  2,  Auatrta,  cooiprohendhig  Picardy,  and  Cham* 
pagne;  3,  Aquitania,  comprehending  Guienne,  and  Gascon^;  4,DaiguD- 
dia,  comprehending  Burgundy,  Lionnoia,  Languedoc,  Dauphme,  Provenire. 


NAMES  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL   RIVERS  IN  EUROPE. 


ANCIENT. 

MODERN. 

1.  Rha. 

1.  Wolga. 

2.  Tanaia. 

2.  Don. 

3.  BofYstenea. 

3.  Nieper. 

4.  Tyraa. 

4.  Nieater. 

5.  Dantihiua  or  later. 

5.  Daqube. 

6.  Padoi. 

.       6.  Po. 

7.  Rhone. 

8.  Ibems. 

8.  Ebro.       . 

9.  DoBtia. 

10.  Anaa. 

10.  Goadiana. 

II.  Tagoa. 

11.  Tayo. 

12.  Durioa. 

12.  Dooro. 

13.  Gamrona. 

13.  Garonne. 

N.  Liger. 

14.  Loire. 

15.  Sequaoa.  * 

15.  Beine. 

16.  Saaaia. 

16.  Somme. 

17.  ScaldiiL 

17.  ScbeldL 

la  Moea. 

la  Maeae.      . 

19.  RJieoua. 

19.  Rhine. 

(0.  yiamgiaL 

90.  Weaer. 

n.  AUm. 

21.  Elbe. 

Bl  Viadraa. 

fBL  Oder. 

TM  ffal^  the  DvvIm  at  Rl 

n,  and  tke  DiHna  ai  AfehHM 

y  Google 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


QUESTIONS 


BXAMINATION  OF  SCHOLARS 


TITLEB'S  ELEMENTS 


oasTasASi  xssvosvt 


n  AN  EXPERIENCED  TEACBOUL 


cajfcOBB^  jr.  A 

fOBUSHED  m  HORATIO  HILL,  4k  Ob^ 

•••••••••• 

189a 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


DISTRICT  OF  NEW-HAMPSHIRE,  fo  uk 

Dktria  CUrk^M  tf^ 

BE  IT  REMEBIBERED.  that  on  the  foorth  daj  of  SepUaber.  A  ? 
1,823,  and  in  the  forty-eignth  year  of  the  Independenee  of  the  r:::^' 
States  of  America,  ISAAC  HELL,  of  the  said  District,  hath  6epom*^i  i 
this  office  the  title  of  a  book,  the  right  whereof  he  claime  aa  prophet^:  c 
the  words  following,  to  wit : — 

'*  Elements  of  ueneral  History,  ancient  and  modem.    By  Alnt*  '• 
Fraser  Tytler,  F.  R.  8  E.  Professor  of  History  m  the  Vniremtj  c4  T 
burgh.    With  a  continuation,  tenninatinc  at  the  demise  of  Kins  Geofr-  'S^ 
1,8^.    By  Rev.  Edward  Nares,  D.  D.  Professor  of  Modern  Histon  ? 
Univenity  of  Oxford.    To  which  are  added,  a  succinct  History  of  tb- 1  ' 
ad  States;  an  improred  Table  of  Chronology;   a  comparativt  ▼k'V 
Ancient  and  Modem  Geomphy ;  and  <^uestions  on  each  aeciion.    A<u  .  - 
for  the  use  of  Schools  and  Academies.    By  an  experienced  Teacher 

In  conformity  to  the  act  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  Staiai.  ^r  • 
**  An  act  for  the  encouragement  of  learning,  by  Becurinjr  the  copiM  c-f : 
charts,  and  books,  to  the  authors  and  proprietors  of  such  copi«s.  - 
the  times  therebi  mentioned  ;*'  and  also  an  act,  entitled,  "  An  ac:  • : 
mentaiy  to  an  act,  entitled  an  act  for  the  encouragement  of  lean.  : 
securing  the  copies  of  maps,  charts^  and  books,  to  the  authors  is-  ' 
prietors  of  such  copiea  during  the  tunes  therein  mentioned,  and  ccr.  v 
the  benefits  thereof  to  the  arts  of  designing,  engraTing,  and  acdaag  h:>'    ^ 
■•d  other  prints.*' 

WILLIAM  CLAGGETT,  CUrk 
of  Ike  DigtriU  of  jr€W'HampU' 
A  tnw  eopT  of  Raoord. 

Attest. .WILLIAM  CLAGGETT,  CM 


yGoogk 


QUESTIONS. 


PART  FIRST. 

SECTION  1. 

I.  WsATlm^  afford  the  earliest  authentic  hiatory  of  the  trei  i 

diately  following;  the  delude  ? 
I  When  were  Babylon  and  Nineveh  built  ? 
I.  By  whom  were  they  built  ? 

1.  Who  are  said  to  have  raised  Assyria  to  a  hii^h  degree  of  splendour  f 
>.  What  is  aie  condition  of  the  early  parts  of  &yptian  history? 
K  Who  was  the  first  king  of  Egypt  ? 
r.  How  was  Egypt  divided  ? 

SECTION  II. 
\»  What  is  the  earliest  mode  of  government  ? 
>.  Of  what  description  were  the  first  monarchies  ? 
K  What  was  the  rank  of  the  kings  of  Scripture  ? 
I.  What  was  the  character  of  the  first  penal  laws  in  human  society? 
^  What  were  the  earliest  laws  formed  for  the  benefit  of  society  ? 
I  What  siDgular  usages  prevailed  among  the  ancient  nations  relatift. 

to  matrimony?  f' 

I.  What  laws  next  succeeded  in  order  to  those  of  marriage  ? 
».  What  were  the  earliest  methods  of  authenticating  contracts? 
J.  What  nation  used  hieroglyphics,  and  for  what  purpose  were  they 

used? 
^  What  were  the  methods  for  recordmg  historical  facts,  and  publishinf 

them  among  the  ancients  ? 
I  What  are  among  the  earliest  institutions  that  have  existed  ? 
I.  How  was  the  priesthood  anciently  exercised  ? 
^  Of  what  are  useful  arts  the  offspring  ? 
!•  Of  what  are  some  of  the  earliest  of  them  ? 
t-  What  wefe  the  first  sciences  cultivated  ? 

SECTION  III. 

^  To  what  nation  is  most  of  the  knowledge  of  ancient  nations  to  1b 

traced? 
I.  How  did  that  knowledge  descend. to  modem  nations? 
^*  What  presumption  does  the  country  afford  of  the  antiquity  of  tfat 

l^gyptian  empire  ? 
••  To  what  are  the  inondationtf  of  the  rl<rer  Nile  owing  ? 
^  What  was  the  government  of  Egypt  ? 

'•  What  was  the  character  of  their  penal  laws  ?  * 

'•  ^liat  was  the  manner  of  conferring  funeral  rites  in  E^jptf 
^  What  regulation  was  there  concerning  the  borrowing  ofnioney  f 
•  In  the  knowledge  and  cultivation  of  what  useful  arts  and  ufimem 

were  the  E^jptians  distinruished  ? 
I  What  samples  of  their  architecture  itill  remain  1 
^  When  were  the  pyramids  built  ? 
L  For  what  were  they  probably  built  ? 

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4   .  QUESTIONS. 

56.  What  was  the  national  character  of  the  Egyptiant? 

30.  What  circmnstances  served  to  debase  them  in  the  opinioii  oicoaiam' 
porary  nations  i 

SECTION  IV. 

57.  By  what  name  were  the  Phoenicians  known  in  Scriptmf 
88.  For  what  ara  we  indebted  to  them  ? 

39.  What  is  said  of  them  in  the  time  of  Abraham? 

40.  What  is  the  antiquity  of  .their  writings? 

SECTION  V. 

41.  To  what  early  nations  were  the  Grecians  indebted  (or  their  Unt  laik 

ments  of  civilization  ? 

42.  Who  were  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Greece  ? 

43.  What  colony  settled  in  the  country  about  the  time  of  tfoMtf 

44.  Who  settled  Attica  and  at  what  time? 
46.  Who  established  the  court  of  Areopagus? 

46.  Who  established  the  Amphictyonic  Council  ? 

47.  Who  introduced 'into  Greece,  and  at  what  time,  tlphabfltto  wMogf 

48.  How  many  letters  did  the  alphabet  then  contain? 
40.  What  was  then  the  mode  of  writing .' 

SECTION  VI. 
90.  What  is  said  of  the  Pelasgi,  of  Ancient  Greece? 

61.  What  was  a  predominant  characteristic  of  the  early  Greeks? 

62.  What  were  the  names  of  their  four  solemn  Garnet,  as  ihmf  mtm 

termed  ? 
tS.  Of  what  did  they  consist  ? 
M.  What  good  political  effects  did  these  games  hare  ^ 

SECTION  VIL 

65.  Who  instituted  the  Eleusintan  mysteries  ? 

66.  What  was  the  nature  of  these  mysteries  ? 

67.  Who  laid  the  foundation  of  the  grandeur  of  Attica  ? 

68.  When  and  how  did  he  do  it  ? 

69.  What  was  the  object  of  the  Argonautic  expedition? 

•0.  What  was  the  character  of  the  attack  and  defence  ia  tte  al^fet  ol 

Thebes  and  Troy  ? 
il.  On  whose  authority  rest*  the  detail  of  the  war  of  Troy  f 
•2.  What  are  the  principal  facts  recorded  of  that  war  by  Homer  f 
^3.  How  were  military  expeditions  then  conducted  ? 

SECTION  vni. 

04.  When  did  the  Greeks  begin  to  colonize  ? 

66.  Who  was  elected  the  first  chief  magistrate  of  the  Athenian  icpeftlic ' 

66*  What  caused  the  Greeks  to  aecik  refuge  in  other  countriet  bj  ctti^ 

lishing  colonies  ? 
17.  What  caused  Greece  to  abolish  the  r^gal  and  estabUsh  a  tep^bBcaa 

government  ? 
#8.  What  distinguished  civilians  arose  in  Sparta  and  Athena  at  1 

SECTION  IX. 
69«'  What  period  was  Lycnrgus  invested  with- the  powtr  at 
new-modelling  the  coostitation  of  hif  ceuntry  ? 

70.  What  was  the  goverMnent  of  Sparta  as  new-moddled 

71.  To  what  did  he  particularly  bendlmatteaikia? 
Tt.  How  did  he  divide  the  terrUoiy? 


y  Google 


QUEBTION&  I 

73.  What  regolalSon  did  be  make  ooDcerning^  the  use  of  aMmey  I 

74.  By  whom  were  the  neeeiaiiry  arts  practised.' 

75.  What  was  the  coutse  of  Bpaitan  edacation? 

70.  Bj  what  was  the  general  excellence  of  the  institutifli  of  Lyeinpi 
im|»ired? 

77.  How  were  the  slares  treated  ? 

78.  What  was  the  end  of  the  institutlone  of  Lycorjgtis  ? 

SECTION  X. 

79.  Mliat  was  the  nature  of  the  change  in  the  Athenian  oowrtHiitte 

when  the  regnal  office  was  aboUibed  ? 
tV).  What  was  the  tenure  by  which  the  Archonship  was  held  ? 
SI.  Who  attempted  a  reform  in  the  coa»titutioo,  6t4  B.  C.  ? 

82.  When  did  Solon  attain  the  Archonship? 

83.  What  was  bis  character? 

84.  How  did  he  divide  the  cttisens? 

US,  How  did  he  coonterbalance  the  weight  of  the  popular  assemblies? 
H6,  How  did  thfe  particular  Uwf  of  Athens  compare  with  her  jonn  ei 

eovemment  ? 
87.  What  was  the  nature  of  the  laws  relating  to  debtors  and  slaves  ? 
38.  What  was  the  condition  of  women  at  this  time  in  Athens  ? 
t>9.  ^Vhat  was  one  of  the  most  iniquitous  and  absurd  peculiarities  of,  the 

Athenian  and  some  of  the  other  Grecian  governments  ? 

90.  How  were  the  arts  viewed  in  Athens  ? 

91.  How  did  the  character  of  the  Athenians  compare  with  that  of  the 

Spartans? 
f>2.  To  whom  were  the  liberties  of  Athens  surrendered^  550  B.  C.  ? 
SC^  W  ho  afterwards  restored  the  democracy  ? 

SECTION  XI. 
94.  Under  whom  did  the  6r8t  empire  of  the  Assyrians  tcnninate? 
9i>.  What  three  monarchies  arose  from  its  ruins  ? 
06.  What  king  of  Assyria,  led  the  Jews  into  captivity,  look  Jeraialefli 

and  Tyre,  and  subdued  F^pt? 
97.   Who  was  the  successor  of  Cambyses  in  the  throne  of  Persia  ? 
^f!.  What  countries  did  Cyrus  annex,  to  his  empire? 
09.  What  was  the  government  of  Persia  ? 
( ( ^.  To  whose  care  was  the  children  and  youth  of  Persia  oomaittcd  §m 

education  ? 
I  r»  I .  What  was  the  nature  of  the  law*  in  Persia  ? 

•  »!2.  What  was  the  religion  of  Persia  ? 

« »X  What  was  the  sacred  book  of  the  Persians  called  ? 
04.  On  what  is  the  theology  of  the  Zendavesta  founded  ? 

SECTION  XII. 

•  »'>.   What  king  ofPerdaiBTaded  Greece? 

•  'r*.  Where  was  the  Persian  army  defeated  ? 

k  >7.  Who  commanded  the  Greeks  in  the  battle  of  Marathon  ? 
a.  Wtei  reward  did  Miltiades  receive  in  hit  eminent  lenricet  fpdA  the 
Athenians  ? 
'rS.  Wii9  were  the  aiicceseors  of  Miltiades  in  the  war  with  the  PeniaM  ? 
1 4 1.   Who  succeeded  Darius  in  the  command  of  the  Persians? 
I  1 .  With  what  fbree  did*  Xentet  attempt  the  oonfaett  of  Greece  ? 
1 12.  Who  was  i<eonidaa  i 

3.  With  what  force  did  LeonidM  coateDd  wllh  the  Tait  amy  el 

Xerxetf 

4.  At  what  place  was  it? 
d.  What  was  the  refuU? 


!• 


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e 


6  aUESTIONS. 

116.  What  was  the  success  of  Xerxes  with  his  fleet  at  sea? 

117.  Where  were  the  Persians  totally  defeated  on  land,  by  the  cambiacd 

army  of  the  Athenians  and  Lacedsemonianfl  ? 

118.  What  was  the  end  of  Xerxes? 

119.  What  was  the  national  character  of  the  Greeks  at  this  time  ? 

SECTION  xm. 

120.  Who  governed  Athens  after  the  Persian  war? 

121.  In  what  manner  did  he  govern  it? 

122.  What  gave  rise  to  the  war  during  the  reiga  of  Perides  belweeo 

Athens  and  Lacedaemon  ? 

123.  On  what  account  was  Alcibiades  condemned  to  death  for  treasoo? 

124.  By  whom  did  the  Lacedaemonians  reduce  the  power  of  the  Athe- 

nians ? 

125.  What  eminent  philosopher  was  then  in  Athens  at  this  time  ? 

126.  What  was  particularly  disgraceful  to  the  Athenians  in  regard  to 

him? 

127.  What  is  the  subject  of  the  history  written  by  Xenophon  ? 

SECTION  xrv. 

128.  On  the  decline  of  Athens  and  Sparta,  what  other  Grecian  R^bllc 

rose  to  a  high  degree  of  eminence  among  the  contemporaiy  states' 

129.  What  led  to  the  war  between  Thebes  and  Sparta  ? 

130.  What  two  distinguished  Generals  did  Thebes  en^)loy  in  oondnctm^ 

this  war  ? 

131.  How  did  this  war  terminate? 

SECTION  XV. 

132.  Who  at  this  time  attempted  to  bring  the  whole  of  Greece  imderSia 

dominion  ? 

133.  What  caused  what  was  called  the  Sacred  War  of  this  period  ? 

134.  What  distinguished  Grecian  orator  exposed  the  arUul  desigss^ 

Philip?  ^^ 

135.  la  what  battle  was  the  fate  of  Greece,  so  that  all  her  states  heasx 

subject  to  PhUip  ? 

136.  What  great  enterprise  did  he  attempt? 

137.  Did  he  complete  it? 

138.  Why  not? 

SECTION  XVI. 

139.  Who  was  the  successor  of  Philip? 

140.  At  what  age  did  Alexander  ascend  the  throne  of  Macedonf 

141.  How  large  was  his  army  at  this  time  ? 

142.  What  was  his  first  enterprise  ? 

143.  Who  was  king  of  Persia  at  this  time  ? 

144.  With  what  force  did  Darius  meet  Alexander? 
«45.  Where  did  they  meet  ? 

146.  What  was  the  result  of  the  battle  of  Granicus  ? 

147.  What  were  the  respective  losses  of  the  Greeks  and  Penians  is  ths 

battle  of  Issns  ? 

148.  What  opportimity  did  Alexander  have  for  the  display  of  generosr* 

after  the  battle  of  Issus  ? 

149.  What  was  the  consequence  of  the  battle  of  Issns  ? 

150.  What  caused  Alexander  to  storm  and  subject  the  cHy  of  Tyre? 
161.  What  was  the  fate  of  its  inhabitants  ? 

152.  IMiat  was  disgraceful  to  Alexander  in  his  capture  of  Gasa? 

153.  What  opened l^ypt  to  Alexander's  victorious  arms? 
164.  What  city  did  he  build  in  his  return  from  £^t? 

Digitized  by  VjOOQlC 


auEsnoffs. 

155.  Who  met  Alexander  at  Arbela  with  an  army  of  700,000  menf 
150.  What  wa«  the  result  of  the  battle  at  Arbela? 

157.  When  was  Persia  conquered  by  Alexander? 

158.  What  project  did  he  attempt  after  the  conquest  of  Persia? 

159.  What  prevented  his  conanest  of  India  ? 

160.  What  became  of  Alexander  on  finding;  a  limit  to  his  rictories  ? 

SECTION  xvn 

161.  What  wish  did  Alexander  express  as  to  a  sucoeitor  ? 
1 63.  What  became  of  his  family  ? 

163.  Which  were  the  most  powerful  monarchiei  foimed  from  hk  vail 

empires? 

SECTION  xvm. 

164.  What  distin^ished  orator  of  Greece  attempted  to  arouse  his  coun- 

trymen, to  shake  off  the  yoke  of  Macedon,  on  the  death  of  Alexan- 
der? 

165.  What  empire  arose  in  Europe  on  the  decline  of  the  Macedonian 

power  ? 

166.  How  was  Greece  added  to  the  Roman  empire  ? 

167.  When  was  the  conquest  of  Greece  completed? 

SECTION  JOX. 

168.  What  is  said  of  the  nature  of  the  Republican  goTemment  of  Chreece  ? 

169.  What  was  the  condition  of  the  people  under  Uiem  ? 

170.  In  what  periods  of  the  Grecian  history  ue  we  to  look  for  splendid 

examples  of  patriotism  ? 

171.  What  is  the  most  remarkable  circumstance  thatstrikee  us  on  com- 

paring; the  latter  with  the  more  early  periods  of  the  history  of  the 
Greeks? 

SECTION  XX. 

172.  In  what  description  of  the  arts  did  the  Grecians  excel  ? 

173.  Which  of  the  Fine  Arts  did  they  cany  to  the  greatest  degree  of  per- 

fection ? 

174.  In  whose  reign  did  the  Tint  Arts  flourish  most  ? 

175.  What  were  their  three  orders  of  architecture  ? 

176.  What  other  orders  of  architecture  are  there  ? 

177.  What  was  the  state  of  sculpture  in  Greece  ? 

178.  How  did  the  paintines  and  music  of  the  Grecians  compare  with 

thoee  of  the  iMdemsl 

SECTION  XXL 

179.  How  does  poetry  compare  with  prose  as  to  antiquity  ? 
1  BO.  When  did  Homer  flourish  ? 

]  :j  1 .  Who  are  some  of  the  other  principal  poets  of  ancient  Greece  ? 
Ib2.  When  was  the  origin  of  dramatic  compoailion  among  the  Greeks? 

SECTION  xxn. 

183.  What  eminent  historians  of  Greece  were  oontemporariet? 

184.  When  did  they  flourish  ? 

1 85*  Who  were  some  of  the  latter  dutiqguished  historians  of  Gre«Oi  ? 
186*  What  is  said  ofPlutarch^sLiTes  of  Illustrious  Men? 

SECTION  xxm. 

L07*  What  waa  the  most  ancient  school  of  philoeophyfaiOfeeotf 

Digitized  by  V^OOQlC 


aUESTIONS. 


188.  WI10  foonded  the  tt&liaii  sect  of  phUoeopben  in  Qttem  i 
\  189.  When  did  Socrates  flourish  ? 

L  190.  Who  founded  the  Academic  sect.' 

r  191.  Who  founded  the  Peripatetic  sect  f 

192.  Who  are  some  of  the  other  Greek  philosophers  i 
!  193.  What  is  the  effectof  the  Greek  philosophy  on  monOitj  and  Hit  pHf 

[  ress  of  useful  knowledge  ? 

I  SECTION  XXIV. 

194.  After  the  conquest  of  Greece  what  Power  became  an  ol^eci  of  pah 

ticular  importance  i 

195.  What  was  the  character  of  the  first  inhabitants  of  Italy? 

196.  Who  were  they  ? 

i  197.  What  is  the  opinion  of  Dionysius  concerning  the  origin  of  Rome! 

'  198.  What  is  the  vulgar  account  of  the  origin  of  the  city  built  by  Ros* 

uhis? 
199.  At  what  time  was  it  founded  ? 
too.  Who  were  the  most  formidable  enemies  of  the  early  i 
fOl.  Who  was  the  second  king  of  Rome  ? 
102.  Who  added  100  Plebeians  to  the  Roman  Senate  ? 
903.  Who  pemoved  the  poorer  citizens  from  all  share  in  the  \ 
Rome? 

504.  What  became  of  Senrius  TttUius  ? 

505.  Who  succeeded  him  on  the  throne  f 

506.  What  caused  the  expulsion  of  Tarquinius  f 

C07.  What  was  the  first  retrenchment  in  the  power  of  the  Roman  8c» 

ate  ? 
SOS.  What  use  did  the  early  Romans  make  of  their  victoriea  ! 
S09.  How  long  did  the  regal  government  of  Rome  oontinae  ? 

210.  How  many  kings  were  there  ? 

21 1.  What  is  said  of  the  wars  in  which  Rome  was  almost  coffitiniiany  en- 

gaged? 

SECTION  XXV. 

212.  What  govermnent  succeeded  the  regal  one  in  Rome  ? 

213.  Who  were  the  two  first  consuls  ? 

214.  What  law  is  mentioned  that  was  made  vnder  the  ditectkui  of  Vtlt- 


rius 


? 


215.  What  gave  rue  to  the  office  of  Dictator  ? 

216.  What  was  the  power  of  the  Dictator  ? 

trt.  What  gave  rise' to  the  office  of  TVibune  ;  and  iprhat  ipere  iktjtrmm 
of  that  office  f 

SECTION  XXVI. 
tlJ9.  What  efiect  had  the  office  of  Tribune  on  the  powers  of  the  Se&atal 

219.  Under  what  circumstances  was  Valero  made  Tribune  ? 

220.  When  did  the  Ronum  constitution  become  a  complete  deniocfacyf 

sECnofN  xxvn. 

221.  For  whM  purpose  inei'e  the  Decemviri  dieaen  ? 

222.  What  were  the  laws  called,  which  they  Uramed? 

223.  At  what  time  were  they  made  ? 

224.  With  what  powers  were  the  Decemviri  intuitu? 

225.  Who  was  at  the  head  of  the  Decemvirate  f 
826.  What  caused  the  abolition  of  this  office  ^ 
227  l{Dwl«BgdMlite«isfc? 


yGoOgfc 


e 


QITEBTIOM.  9 

8BCTION  XXVin. 

Its.  What  two  barrien  separated  the  patrician t  and  plebeianiF 

W9.  What  two  officf  8  were  created,  437  B.  C-  ? 

230.  What  successful  expedient  did  the  senate  adopt  far  tihing  tht  Rcv> 
man  armies .' 

!31.  What  city  wa?  taken  by  Camillus  > 

)'32.  At  what  period  aud  after  how  lon^  a  siege  ? 

t33.  To  what  ev(>nt  do  the  Roman  writers  attribate  the  low  of  all  the  rec- 
ords and  monuments  of  their  early  history  ? 

!34.  What  is  there  singular  in  regard  to  most  of  the  refclntions  in 
Rome? 

SECTION  XXIX. 
35«  How  long  after  the  foundation  of  their  city  did  Roma  become  mktrais 

of  all  Italy? 
96.  What  was  *he  policy  obser^'ed  by  the  Romans  with  reepect  to  the 

nations  they  had  conquered  ? 
37.  What  gave  rise  to  the  Funic  wars  ? 

SECTION  XXX. 

!^.  By  whom  and  when  was  Carthage  founded  ? 

19,  How  many  smaller  cities  were  under  the  dominioB  of  Carth^pa  vl 

the  time  of  the  Punic  wars  ? 
to.  What  was  th<  form  of  ^iivernment  ? 
U.  To  what  was  the  wealth  and  splendour  of  Carthage  owing  ? 

SECTION  XXXI. 

\2,  Who  founded  Syraciis**  ? 

\X  What  was  the  ^nrernment  of  it  ? 

SECTION  xxxn. 

14.  Where  did  the  war  between  Rome  and  Carthage  commence  ? 
>5.  What  Roman  consul  waa  taken  by  the  Carthaginiaai  in  the  iSril 
Punic  war  ? 

6.  What  patriot!!^  act  did  Regulus  perform  when  a  prisoner   to  the 

Carthaginiari«  ? 

7.  How  did  the  tii«t  Punic  war  terminate  ? 

B.   How  long  did  Oic  in-ace  between  Rome  and  Carthage  oositiaoe  ? 

9,    How  did  the  s»  rornl  Punic  war  begin  ? 

ii.   Who  was  the  *   vrilipjfcfinian  reneral  in  this  war  ? 

I.   How  did  Ham  .'al  coi.«iuct  this  war  ? 

i.   Where  did  tht-  K.^nwns  meet  with  complete  defeat  ? 

X  How  many  wi  <    "laii;  in  the  battle  of  Cans  .' 

I.   What  is  suppo^    i  \rc\i\  \  have  been  the  consequence  had  Hannibal 

lAiproTed  thi?  rl<  t^-y  ? 
».   In   what  way  (!t<l  the  Romans  compel  the  Carthaginians  to  sne  kt 

jKsace? 
;.  What  Roman  c  r.^ml  carried  war  to  the  gates  of  Carthage  ? 
^   At  what  time  <!  f  thi-  second  Punic  war  close  i 
I.    Wlian  did  tne  iniid  cnmrnvncef 
I.    Wliat  waalhe  t^iue  cf  thi«  war? 
.    WKen  was  Caf  \',k* .-»•  •  !r Jlroyed  ? 
.   Whmt  other  sucu^  %t  :ca« tided  the  Romaaa  this  foar  t 

SECTION  xxxni. 

,   lYltaA  two  per;>rns  at  tttf  time,  undertook  to  reform  the 
oi  Um  Ramaiis : 


y  Google 


10  QUESTIONS. 

363.  What  circnmstancea  attending  the  'war  of  Jugnrtha  gave  dedsTc 
proof  of  the  corraption  of  the  Roman  manners  ? 

264.  What  became  of  Jugurtha  f 

265.  Between  what  two  rivals  did  a  civil  war  now  break  oat  in  Rome? 

266.  What  became  of  Marius  ? 

267.  To  what  office  was  Sylla  afterwards  elected  f 

268.  What  magnanimoas  act  characterized  the  latter  part  of  hb  life? 

269.  Between  whom  was  the  civil  war  revived  after  the  death  of  SyUa  f 

270.  What  conspiracy,  at    this    time,  threatened    the  destrac^  U 

Rome  ? 

271.  By  whose  provident  zeal  and  patriotism  was  it  eztingniahed  f 

272.  What  distinguished  individual  now  rose  into  notice  f 

273.  Under  what  circumstances  was  the  first  Triumvirate  fonied? 

274.  What  Roman  general  invaded  and  conquered  Britain,  54  BL  C« 

275.  W^o  procured  the  banishment  of  Cicero  f 

276.  Who  effected  his  recall  from  exile  ? 

277.  What  dissolved  the  Triumvirate  i 

SECTION  XXXIV. 

278.  What  proposition  was  made  at  this  time  by  Cmm  ? 

279.  Did  Pompey  accede  to  it? 

280.  Did  war  ensue  between  them  ? 

281.  What  decree  did  the  senate  pronounce  ? 

282.  Where  was  a  decisive  battle  fought  ? 

283.  What  became  of  Pompey  ? 

284.  In  what  war  was  the  famous  library  of  Alexandria  burnt  ? 

285.  What  was  the  character  of  Csesar^s  administration  of  the  gortfa- 

ment,  after  the  complete  overthrow  of  Pompey^s  partisans  ? 

286.  To  what  offices  was  he  appointed  ? 

287.  What  was  the  end  of  Csssar  ? 

288.  Under  what  circumstances  was  the  second  Trtamvirate  fyaattAl 

289.  For  what  did  Antony  summon  Cleopatra  to  appear  before  hm  ? 

290.  What  caused  the  overthrow  of  Antony  ? 

291.  What  became  of  him  ? 

292.  What  induced  Cleopatra  to  destroy  herself? 

SECTION  XXXV. 

293.  What  power  was  given  to  every  head  of  a  famOy  ? 

294.  What  were  reckoned  the  highest  points  of  femaie  merit  ? 

295.  What  qualifications  contributed  most  to  elevate  persons  to  the  hi|% 

est  offices  and  dignities  of  the  state  ? 

SECTION  XXXVI. 

296.  What  was  the  state  of  literature  in  the  early  aget  of  the  RoBftn  » 

public  ? 
297    Who  were  the  principal  Roman  historians  1 
298.  Who  were  the  principal  Roman  poets? 

SECTION  xxxvn. 

199.  Was  much  attention  paid  to  the  study  of  phOoMphyin  ths  ev* 
periods  of  Rome  ? 

900.  At  what  time  did  philosophy  become  an  object  of  attentioii  with  %* 

Romans  ? 

901.  Who  first  diffused  a  'taste  for  th:  study  of  phiUwophy  a»a^gft» 

Romans  ? 
IOC.  Who  may  be  reckoned  their  most  smlnent  phllocopber  ? 


y  Google 


aUESTiONS.  II- 

SECTION  XXXVnL 

303.  What  were  tome  of  the  moat  disting^oishiDg  tndts  of  chinLCter  in  the 

early  Romans  ? 
904.  What  contributed  chieJBy  to  their  chan^  of  character  and  maa- 

nen? 

305.  What  were  lome  of  the  amoBunenta  of  the  Romans  ? 

SECTION  XXXIX. 

306.  To  what  may  he  ascribed  the  extensive  conquests  of  the  Romasa' 
307   What  was  the  number  of  soldiers  in  a  Roman  le£;ion  i 

^8.  When  is  it  supposed  that  the  tactic  of  the  Romans  was  at  its  he%h - 
of  excellence  ? 

309.  By  whom  was  the  art  of  entrenchment  carried  to  great  perfection  ? 

310.  When  was  the  naral  military  art  first  known  among  ^e  Romans  ? 

SECTION  XL. 
ill.  When  did  the  most  material  change  for  the  worse  in  the  national 

character  of  the  Romans  take  place  ? 
112.  What  were  the  morals  of  the  Romans  in  the  last  ages  of  the  com* 

monwealth  ? 
tl3   From  what  circumstances  did  Roman  Tirtue  so  rapidlT  decline  * 
(U.  To  what  did  the  Roman  republic  owe  its  dissolution  f 

SECTION  XU. 

15.  What  battle  decided  the  fate  of  the  commonwealth  and  made  Octa 

Tina  master  of  Rome  ? 

16.  By  what  name  was  he  now  caOed  ?   • 

17.  What  event  said  to  be  productive  of  universal  joy  distinguished  his 

reign? 
id.  What  methods  did  he  practice  to  keep  himself  in  the  iavomr  of  the 

people  ? 
19.  When  did  Augustus  die  and  at  what  age  f 
JO.  How  long  did  he  reign  ? 
•2 1 .  Who  succeeded  him  ? 
I^,  What  was  the  character  of  Tiberius  ? 
:3.  In  what  manner  was  he  related  to  Augustus  i 
U,  Whatwas  the  end  of  Tiberius? 
?5.  In  what  year  of  his  reign  was  Jesus  Christ  crucified  ? 
:0.  ^Vho  was  the  successor  of  Tiberius  ? 
r7.   What  was  his  character  ? 
.'».  What  became  of  him  ? 
t9.  Who  succeeded  Caligula? 

SECTION  XLU. 
{0.  By  what  acU  of  violence  was  the  reign  of  Nero,  the  soocesibr  of  Om" 

dins,  characterised  ? 
tl.  Who  were  the  three  next  Roman  emperors  ? 
(2.  Under  whkh  of  the  emperors  was  Jerusalem  taken  i 
t3.  Who  succeeded  Vespasian  ? 

4.  What  wasthediaracter  of  Titus? 

5.  Uow  was  it  suspected  Titus  came  to  his  death  ? 

fi.  What  three  emperors  next  in  order  succeeded  DonltiaB? 
7.  What  was  the  character  of  Tnjan  and  Adrian? 

SECTION  XLm. 
3.   For  what  length  of  thne  did  the  Antoninesre^ga? 
9.  WJttvl  via  their  character? 


y  Google 


jM  QUESHONS. 

940.  What  len^  of  time  wai  th«i«  fimn  the4cath  of  the  AatiauMt  to 

the  accession  of  Diocletian  ? 

341.  What  was  the  character  of  the  emperors  that  re!g;iied  In  this  period? 

342.  What  change  in  th^.  government  did  Diocletian  introduce  ? 

343.  Under  whom  was  the  seat  of  the  Roman  empire  removed  aiid  vbeaf 

344.  What  was  his  religion  ? 

SECTION  XLIV. 
845.  What  was  the  general  character  of  the  government  of  Rome  vtodet 

Censtantine? 
346.  In  what  way  did  he  injure  the  army  ? 

34T.  What  was  the  policy  pursued  hy  the  emperm^  Julian  towards  Cbn- 
tianity  ? 

348.  Who  were  the  three  emperors  that  succeeded  in  order  to  Jiiliani  * 

SFXTION  XLV. 

349.  In  whose  reign  did  Christianity  become  the  established  religiosscf  ths 
Roman  empire  ? 

350.  Why  were  the  Romans  less  tolerant  towards  the  Christian  than  they 

were  towards  the  different  pagan  religions  of  other  nations? 

351.  When  were  the  books  of  the  New  Testament  collected  into  a  rcA- 

ume  f 

352.  When  was  the  Old  Testament  translated  into  Greek  from  fbe  ofigi- 

nal  Hebrew  ? 

353.  In  what  way  did  Christianity  sufier  in  the  third  centnry  ? 

354.  Did  Christianity  become  more  or  less  pure  as  it  received  &vov 

from  the  civil  powers  ? 

SECTION  XLVI. 

465.  When  and  by  whom  was  the  city  of  Rome  sacked  and  plundered  ? 

366.  What  is  the  length  of  time  from  the  buildhig  of  Rome  to  the  eztin*' 
tion  of  the  empire  ? 

357.  What  may  be  considered  the  ultimate  cause  of  th^  rain  of  the  Ro- 
man Empire  ? 

^8.  Who  was  the  last  emperor  of  Rome  ? 

359.  When  was  he  compelied  to  resign  the  throne  ? 

360..  By  whom  was  he  compelled  to  do  it? 

SECTION  XLVIL 
381.  From  what  country  is  it  supposed  that  the  Gotfat  wefe  ofiginaSy  d»> 
rived  ? 

362.  What  was  the  character  of  the  ancient  Scythians? 

363.  Of  what  nation  were  the  Germans  a  branch  ? 

364.  What  effect  had  the  religion  of  the  Goths  upon  them,  as  a  warfikt 

people? 

SECTION  XLVm, 

365.  Were  the  Roman  laws  retaiaod  after  Italy  was  conqnerod  by  th< 

Goths? 

366.  What  character  does  Tytler  give  the  oonqueroni  rf  Ilaly? 

367.  What  government  did  the  Goths  establish  in  Italy  after  4ttoao^e«t' 

368.  Was  it  electee  or  hereditary  ? 

SECTION  XI.IX. 
389.  What  are  the  most  ancient  books  of  history  in  existence? 
870.  Who  are  some  of  the  eairliesl  writers  of  profaae  ^tsiofjr  1 
are  still  extant' 


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auEsnom.  ^ 

971    What  modern  hiatorics  of  Greece  and  Rome  an  mcMt  vorChy  of  |»> 

_  ratal  to  the  pen  on  who  has  attended  to  original  works  named  ? 

379.   What  may  be  considered  the  greatest  mag^ne  of  hMtorical  knovV 

eAge  ever  collected  ? 
373.  What  are  esteemed  the  lights  of  history  ? 


PART  SECOND. 

MODERN  HISTORY. 

SECTION  I. 

374.  At  irhat  sra  is  the  commencement  of  profane  history  dated  ? 

375.  What  new  and  powerful  domiuion  arose  in  the  latter  part  of  the 

century  ? 

376.  To  whom  do  the  Ambians  traco  their  descent? 

377.  When  and  where  was  Mahomet  bom  ? 

378.  What  was  his  descent  and  education  ? 

379.  What  is  the  sacred  book  of  the  Mahometan  religion  called' 

380.  By  whom  and  imcler  what  circumstances  was  it  written? 

381.  What  are  the  nature  and  stibstance  of  Mahometan  relirionf 

382.  What  caused  the  banishment  of  Mahomet  from  Mecca? 

383.  What  U  his  flii^ht  called  > 

384.  When  did  it  take  place  > 

385.  Did  the  Mahometan  religion  have  a  rapid  increase  ? 

386.  What  was  the  title  of  the  bead  of  this  empire? 

SECTION  II. 

887.  Who  were  the  Franks  ? 

388.  From  what  did  they  receive  this  name  ? 

389.  Under  whom  and  wliat  circumstances  were  the  fVaaks  converted 

Christianity  ? 

390.  Who  delivered  France  from  the  ravages  of  the  Saracens? 

391.  At  what  time  did  this  take  place  ? 

392.  With  whom  and  inuler  what  circumstances  commeaced  the 

race  of  kio^  in  1  Vance  ? 

393.  Who  succeeded  Pepin  in  the  sovereignty  of  France  ? 

SFXTION  Ul. 

394.  How  was  the  power  of  the  government  divided  and  exercised  in  tlm 

early  parts  of  the  Frt-nch  monarchy  ? 

395.  What  was  the  n'li«:tou9  chanKter  of  the  ancient  Germans* 

396.  What  new  svr-tem  of  poliry  ar:>ce  at  this  time  amon^  the  nnited 

Germans  and  Franks,  which  extended  itself  over  most  nations  «f 
Europe  ? 

397.  What  is  to  be  understood  hy  the  Feudal  System  ? 

398.  What  effect  hail  the  Feudal  System  on  the  power  of  the  soverclpif 

399.  Bf  what  name  is  the  second  rare  of  French  kings  called  ? 

SECTION  IV. 
490.  How  cane  Charlemagne  into  possemioo  itf  the  undiTided  eeipere%illy 

of  France  ? 
401.  Wkntr^as  his  private  character  i 
40S.  When  did  he  die  ? 
403.  Who  was  hit  successor?       ^ 


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14  QUESTIONS 

SECTION  V. 
404.  What  iff  said  of  Charlemagpie  in  relation  to  conuneroe  f 
406.  How  did  he  view  literature  ?  n 

406.  What  style  of  architecture  was  snccessfallj  stttdied  and  coltiTatcd 

in  that  a^e  ? 

407.  What  sanguinary  and  most  iniquitous  custom  of  the  present  time 

may  be  traced  to  the  age  of  Charlemagne? 

SECTION  VI. 

408.  What  great  heresies  existed  in  the  Christian  church  about  this 

time? 

409.  By  whom  and  when  was  the  Arian  heresy  condemned  ? 

4K).  What  was  a  source  of  the  most  obstinate  controyersy  in  those  ages? 

411.  What  ^ve  rise  to  penances  and  other  religious  Toluntary  safferisg? 

412.  What  effect  had  the  conquests  of  Charlemagne  on  Christianity? 

SECTION  vn. 

413.  Who  was  the  immediate  successor  of  Charlemagne  ? 

414.  Did  his  empire  remain  entire  under  his  successors  ? 

415.  What  was  the  character  of  his  successors  ? 

SECTION  vni. 

416.  What  was  the  condition  of  the  Eastern  empire  during  the  eighth  and 

ninth  centuries  ? 

417.  What  was  the  character  of  the  emperors  ? 

418.  What  religious  dispute  prevailed  at  this  time  ? 

SECTION  IX, 

419.  Under  whom  did  the  Pope  begin  to  acquire  temporal  power? 

4S0.  What  i«  said  of  the  religious  character  of  the  temporal  prinoee  of  this 
period  f 

421.  TMiat  check  was  there,  at  this  time,  to  the  increasing  power  of  the 

church  of  Rome  ? 

422.  What  is  the  character  of  the  clergy  of  this  period  ? 

SECTION  X. 

423.  By  whom  was  the  empire  of  Morocco  founded  ? 

424.  When  did  the  Saracens  overrun  and  conquer  Spain  ? 

425.  Was  the  Mahometan  religion  extensively  professed  ? 

426.  What  prevented  the  Saracens  from  raisiog  an  exteAsire  empire  ? 

SECTION  XI, 
4X7«  What  had  become  the  condition  of  the  empire  founded  by  Charle* 
magne,  in  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries ' 

428.  How  were  the  emperors  at  this  time  elected  ? 

429.  Who  were  some  of  the  most  distinguished  monarchfl  of  Genaaoy  fai 

the  middle  ages  ? 

450.  Were  there  frequent  disputes  between  the  Popes  of  Rome  and  C«r* 

man  emperors  ? 

SECTION  XII. 

451.  From  whom  is  it  probable  the  British  isles  derived  their  tot  inhib^ 

tants? 
482.  What  was  the  condition  of  the  country  when  invaded  by  the  Bo^ 

mans? 
4S$,  When  did  JuUuf  Caiar  enter  Britain? 


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QUESTIONS.  ^  IS 

134*  When  did  a  complete  reduction  of  the  island  take  place,  and  pot  it 
under  the  Roman  power  ? 

435.  When  did  the  Romans  abandon  the  country? 

436.  What  led  the  Saxons  into  Britain  f 

t37.  How  lon^  were  the  Saxons  in  conqaering  the  Britons  ? 

438.  What  was  the  goyernment  called,  established  by  the  Saxons  ? 

439.  When  and  by  whom  was  the  Saxon  Heptarchy  brought  under  one 

sovereign  ? 

440.  What  piratical  people  for  a  long  period  subsequent  to  this,  desolated 

the  coasts  of  Britain  ? 

441.  What  relationship  was  there  between  Alfred  the  Great  and  Egbert? 

442.  What  is  the  character  of  Alfred  ? 

443.  When  did  he  die? 

444.  Who  were  the  immediate  successors  of  Alfred  ? 

445.  What  people  invaded  and  obtained  the  government  of  England  sub- 

sequent to  the  time  of  Alfred  f 

446.  When  was  William  duke  of  Nonnandy  put  in  possession  of  the  throne 

of  England? 

SECTION  xni. 

447.  What  was  the  character  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  government  ? 

448.  How  many  ranks  of  people  were  there  ? 

449.  How  did  the  Anglo-Saxops  compare  with  the  Mormans  in  point  ol 

civilization  ? 

SECTION  XIV. 
460.  Who  was  elected  to  the  throne  of  France,  A.  D.  987? 

451.  What  was  the  prevailing  passion  among  the  nations  of  Europe  dur- 

ing the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries  ? 

452.  What  was  the  state  of  the  Northern  powers  of  Europe  in  point  of  dv^ 

ilization,  at  this  time  ? 

453.  What  was  a  subject  of  dispute  between  the  Popes  and  the  Emperon  f 

SECTION  XV. 
45^  What  was  the  consequence  of  the  battle  of  Hastings  ? 

455.  What  was  the  end  of  William  the  conqueror  ? 

456.  What  important  law  did  he  introduce  into  England  ? 

457.  Which  part  of  his  subjects  were  treated  with  most  favour? 

458.  Who  were  some  of  the  immediate  successors  of  William  the  conquei^ 

or? 

459.  Who  effected  the  conquest  of  Ireland  ? 

460.  What  clouded  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Henry  11.  ? 

461.  What  was  the  character  of  this  monardi  ? 
469.  Who  succeeded  him  on  the  throne  ? 

463.  How  came  Richard  I*  to  be  imprisoned  in  Germany  ? 

464.  Under  what  sovereign  was  the  Magna  Charta  produced  ? 

SECTION  XVI. 

465.  What  two  factions  were  there  in  Italy  in  the  thirteenth  ceutoy  ? 

466.  What  occasioned  them  ? 

467.  What  was  the  political  state  of  Europe  at  this  time  ? 

SECTION  XVIL 

468.  Who  was  the  first  promoter  of  the  Crusades  ? 

469.  What  was  the  object  of  the  Cnisadei  ? 

fl^n  What  was  the  number  of  Peter^s  army,  and  when  did  he  ""■«■»—'*• 
his  cTQsada  to  the  Holy  Land  ? 


yGoOgl 


e 


IS  OUESTIOKS. 

471*  WlAtbeaune  of  this  army  > 

472.  When  vai  a  secocd  crusade  andertakeo  and  how  miay 

it? 

473.  What  was  the  fate  of  this  expedition  ? 

474.  Who  headed  the  third  cfasade  ? 

475.  When  was  the  fourth  fitted  out  ? 

476.  What  particular  success  attended  one,  and  what  was  ila  kraef 

477.  Who  undertook  the  last  crusade  into  the  East? 

478.  What  became  of  Lewis  IX.  ? 

479.  How  many,  is  it  supposed,  of  the  persons  who  engaged  is  tl«e 

tades,  perished  ? 

480.  What  benefit  resulted  from  the  crusades  ? 

SECTION  XVIII. 

481.  How  was  the  profession  of  arms  esteemed  among:  ^^e  Genmoii^ 
48S.  What  is  said  to  have  been  characteristic  of  the  Gothic  maiiBen 

483.  When  did  chivalry  attain  its  perfection  ? 

484.  What  writings  accompanied  the  adventures  of  cbivatry.^ 

485.  Are  works  of  Action  capable  of  producing:  S^^d  moral  effects? 

SECTION  XIX. 

486.  When  did  the  crusaders  take  Constantinople? 

487.  How  long"  did  the  French  emperor?  govern  it?  .^ 

488.  When  may  the  rise  of  the  house  of  Austria  be  dated? 

489.  How  did  the  states  of  Italy  compare  at  this  time  with  moat  of  CIm 

other  countries  of  Eurojje  ? 
400.  What  severe  and  bloody  measure  was  adopted  in  relation  ta  tta 
Knights  Templars  ? 

SECTION  XX. 

491.  When  did  Switzerland  become  independent  ?  * 

493.  By  what  name  was  it  then  called  ? 

403.  To  what  government  had  it  been  subject  ? 

494.  What  was  the  number  of  buttles  fought  before  it  became 

dent? 

SECTION  XXI. 

495.  What  prince  imposed  a  tribute  on  all  the  Italian  states  f 

496.  In  whose  time  was  the  Popedom  removed  to  Avignon  ? 

497.  How  long  did  it  remain  there  ? 

498.  What  act  distintjuished  the  reign  of  Charles  IV.  ? 
499*  Who  summoned  the  council  of  Constance,  1414? 
£00.  What  martyrdoms  were  the  consequence  of  this  council  f 
¥>U  By  whom  was  the  wealth  of  the  Germanic  states  posteited? 

SECTION  XXII. 
504.  What  charaoter  is  given  of  Ilonry  III.  > 
*08.  By  whom  was  he  made  a  prisoner  ? 

04.  Who  succeeded  Henry  III.  on  the  throne  of  England? 

05.  When  and  by  whom  was  Wales  conquered  ? 

SECTION  XXIII. 
606.  What  it  the  state  of  the  Scottish  history  before  the  time  of 

in.  ? 

17.  Who  were  the  two  next  succeeding  kings  of  Scotland? 
1.  Wtio  became  competitor;  to  the  crown,  1385. 
h  How  wa»the  dispute  decided^ 


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auESTioNa  '  n 

klO.  Whmt  diifin|rniilie<i  warrior  vote,  at  thlt  tkaei  Co  asiert  tho  OlNttiM 

of  to  coontiy  i 
>1 1.  What  became  of  Wallace? 
^12.  Who  finally  auoc^eded  in  delirertn^  Scotland  iirom  the  Eqgliah  aai 

was  crowned  aovereig^n  of  it,  1306  ? 

SECTION  xxrv. 

^1^  What  statute  was  passed  bj  Edward  I.  which  related  to  tamts  and 

imposts  ? 
^14.  How  many  times  in  bis  reig:n  is  he  said  to  hare  ratified  the  Magti^ 

Ckarta  f 

>  1 5.  With  how  lar^  an  army  did  he  invade  Scotland  ? 
>I6.  With  what  force  did  Bruce  meet  himf 

>17.  Who  dethroned  Edward  IT.  and  under  what  circumstances? 

>  18.  In  what  manner  did  Edward  HI.  re  venose  the  murder  of  his  father? 
» 19.  On  what  did  he  found  his  claim  to  the  Ihrone  of  France  ? 

>20.  When  are  the  Eng^lish  said  for  the  first  time  to  have  used  artillery  »■ 

batUe? 
V21.  What  king  of  France  was  carried  captive  to  England,  and  by  whom? 
>'2i.  What  hecame  of- the  captive  king  of  France  ? 
>!23.  Who  succeeded  John  in  France  and  Edward  III.  in  Eogland  ? 

SECTION  XXV. 
»24.  What  became  of  Richard  II.  and  who  succeeded  him  ? 
>25.  What  was  the  origin  of  the  quarrels  between  the  houses  of  La|ica»- 

ter  and  York  ? 
1^6.  What  induced  H^nry  V.  to  invade  France  ? 
>-27.  What  was  the  result  of  this  expedition? 
1^8.  On  what  terms  did  Henry  V.  receive  a  right  to  the  throne  of  Fiance 

during  the  life  of  Charles  VI.  ? 
>29«  By  what  aid  was  Charles  VII.  enabled  to  secure  the  throne  of  Fraaae 

to  himself? 
>30.  What  became  of  the  Maid  of  Orleans  ? 
>3l.  What  was  the  state  of  society  in  Europe  at  this  period? 
r  JC  What  circumstances  show  that  it  was  in  a  low  state? 

SECTION  XXVI. 
>33.  At  what  time  did  the  Turks  cross  over  into  Europe? 
»34.  What  Asiatic  conqueror  arose  in  the  14th  century,  who  for  a  !!■• 

checked  the  Turks  in  their  career  of  tonquest  and  OMweseion  ? 
>35.  What  effect  did  the  death  of  Tamerlane  have  on  the  Turks  ? 
'^36*  What  prince  subj««cted  Constantinople  to  the  power  of  the  Turfci? 
>37.  When  did  this  ti^ke  place,  and  how  long  had  the  eastern  empire 

then  subibted  ? 
t3S»  Did  this  terminate  the  empire  of  the  East,  as  it  was  tenaed  ? 

SECTION  xxvn. 

»39«   What  is  the  government  of  Turkey  ? 

»40.   What  limits  and  restraints  are  there  upon  a  Torkiih  Sultan? 

A  I.   What  is  the  character  of  the  people  ? 

>4S«   With  what  officer  are  the  principal  functioos  of  the  ^OPSfettl  m^ 

trusted? 
43.  How  are  the  revenues  of  the  government  obtained  ? 

SECTION  XXVHI. 
^^  What  greatly  increased  the  power  of  the  F^rench  crown  in  the  16lk 
century  ?  «• 


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18  •  QUESTIONS 

546.  What  was  the  character  of  Lewis  XI.  ? 

546.  Who  were  the  two  immediate  successor*  of  Lewis  XI.,  on  the  throoe 

of  France  ? 

547.  In  what  foreign  enterfMise  did  Charles  VIH.  of  franoe  ODgagv  f 

SECTION  XXIX. 

548.  What  circumstance  united  the  kingdoms  of  Arragon  and  CasdSe 

under  the  same  sovereigns  ? 

549.  What  institutions  were  formed  in  this  period  for  the  discovery  ani 

punishment  of  crimes  i 

550.  When  did  Ferdinand  take  the  title,  king  of  Spain? 

551.  How  long  time  did  the  dominion  of  the  Moors  continue  in  Spain  f 
^52.  On  what  account  and  when  did  Ferdinand  ei^el  the  Jews  froa 

Spain  ? 

553.  How  numerous  were  the j  ? 

554.  What  memorable  ducovery  was  made  in  this  reign  ? 

SECTION  XXX. 

555.  What  was  the  character  of  pope  Alexander  VI.  ? 

556.  What  became  of  him  ? 

557.  Who  conspired  to  deprive  Lewis  XII.  of  Navarre  ? 

558.  When  did  he  die  f 

SECTION  XXXI. 

559.  How  did  the  partisans  of  York  and  Lancaster  distingoisli  thoDselns 

from  each  other  ? 

560.  Which  party  triumphed? 

561.  Hdw  many  of  the  Lancastrians  were  slain  in  the  battle  near  Toatoo ! 

562.  To  whom  was  Edward  IV.  in  the  first  instance  indebted  lor  his 

throne  ? 

563.  What  caused  Warwick  to  turn  against  Edward  ? 

564.  What  epithet  was  given  to  Warwick? 

565.  Who  was  the  queen  of  Henry  Vh  and  what  is  said  of  her  cfaanctez? 

566.  What  of  Henry  VI.— H>f  his  queen  Margaret— and  of  the  PrifiCf, 

their  son  ? 

567.  Who  was  Richard  III  ? 

568.  How  did  he  come  to  the  throne  ? 

569.  What  became  of  him? 

5T0.  What  became  of  Edward  V.  ? 

571.  How  were  the  Houses  of  York  and  Lancaster  united,  which  pot  a 

period  to  the  civil  wars  between  them  ? 

572.  What  is  said  of  the  government  of  Henry  VII.  ? 

SECTION  xxxn. 

573.  What  was  the  state  of  the  feudal  system  in  Scotland  ? 

574.  What  was  a  constant  policy  of  the  Scottish  kings? 

575.  What  Scottish  king  Was  prisoner  in  London  in  compway  with  J(^ 

king  of  France  ? 

576.  How  long  was  he  held  in  captivity  there  ? 

577.  How  long  was  James  I.  held  in  captivity  by  the  English  ? 

578.  What  advantage  did  he  derive  from  this  captivity  ? 
^qa'  ^«  '^^^  ^^^  *^*^  ^®  fi^®  Jameses  come  ? 

680.  With  what  English  sovereign  was  James  V.  contemporvy,  a&d  w 

^:aged  m  warl 

SECTION  xxxm. 

681.  What  was  the  constant  poUcy  of  the  Scottish  king»? 

Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


QUESTIONS.  It 

58f .  What  rendered  this  policy  necessary  ? 

583.  In  whom  resided,  the  leg;i9]atiye  power  ?  * 

iS4.  Of  what  did  the  reFenue  of  the  toTereign  consist? 

SECTION  xxxrv. 

585.  Who  were  the  first  restorers  of  learnings  in  Europe  ? 

586.  What  soverei§;ns  in  this  a^  encoura^d  the  reviral  of  leanung  S» 

Europe  ? 

587.  What  distinguished  genias  appeared  in  the  siiddle  of  the  thirteenth 

centory  ? 

588.  In  what  did  the  genius  of  Bacon  discover  itself? 

539.  What  led  to  a  discovery  of  many  of  the  ancient  authors,  during  the 
fifteenth  century  ? 

590.  What  contributed  most  to  the  dissemination  of  knowledge  at  this 

period? 

591.  To  what  is  to  be  traced  modem  dramatic  composition? 

SECTION  XXXV. 

592.  What  was  the  boldest  naval  enterprise  of  the  ancients  1 

593.  What  parts  of  Europe  were  unknown  to  the  ancients? 

594.  To  what  sea  was  the  commerce  of  the  ancients  mostly  confined  ? 

595.  What  cities  of  modem  Europe  first  became  commercial  ? 

596.  When  and  where  was  first  established  a  national  bank  ? 

597.  What  were  the  Italian  merchants  called  in  the  middle  ages? 

598.  What  give  rise  to  bUls  of  Ezchanre  ? 

599.  When  did  commerce  extend  itself  to  the  north  of  Europe  ? 

600.  For  what  purpose  was  the  League  of  the  Hanse  towns  formed  ? 

601.  When  did  the  woollen  manufactures  of  England  become  important? 

602.  What  English  sovereigns  in  these  ages  particularly  encouraged  com- 

merce and  the  useful  arts  ? 

SECTION  XXXVI. 

603.  When  was  the  raariner^s  compass  first  used  ? 

604.  What  nation  became  particularly  distinguished  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 

tury for  naval  enterprise  ? 

605.  When  and  by  whom  was  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  doubled  ? 

606.  How  extensive  did  the  Portuguese  possessions  in  India  become  at 

this  time? 

607.  What  effect  had  these  discoveries  on  the  commerce  of  Europe  ? 

608.  Who  made  repeated  attempts  to  destroy  the  trade  of  the  Portuguese? 

609.  What  besides  the  Portuguese  discoveries  produced  a  spirit  of  suc- 

cessful enterprise  in  England  ? 

610.  What  has  been  the  increase  of  population  in  Britain  since  the  reign 

of  Elisabeth? 

611.  What  proportion  of  the  population  is  supposed  tebe  employed  in 

manufactures  and  commerce  ? 

612.  How  does  it  appear  that  there  has  been  a  great  iocreMe  of  national 

wealth  in  Britain  ? 

SECTION  XXXVU. 
61S.  Who  were  the  parents  of  Charles  V.  ? 

614.  When  did  he  come  to  the  throne  of  Spiun? 

615.  Who  was  the  competitor  of  Charles  V.  for  the  throne  of  Amtria  on 

the  death  of  Maximilian  ? 

616.  Who  was  king  of  England  at  this  time  ? 

6 17.  How  did  the  war  terminate  between  Charles  and  Francis  ? 

«;  18.  With  whom  did  Henry  VIII.  take  part  on  the  renewal  of  the  war? 
6 1 9.  What  induced  Charles  to  conclude  a  treaty  with  Fhm^  hi  1544  * 


m  auESTioNs. 

690.  When  and  by  whom  wae  the  order  of  Jeioita  lennded? 

621.  What  waa  the  principle  of  the  order  ? 

622.  What  gpave  Charles  perpeCaal  disquiet  in  Genn»ny  ? 
633.  At  what  a^  and  where  did  he  resign  his  domiaic^u? 

SECTION  XXXVIIL 
624.  What  waa  the  condition  of  the  Germanic  empire  previoaa  to  tbsn%D 

■     of  Maximilian  1.  ? 
626.  What  emperor  acquired  the  greatest  power  in  Germany  f 

SECTION  XXXIX. 

626.  What  important  events  distingaisfaed  the  ag^e  of  Charles  V.  ? 

627.  Who  was  a  leading  character  in  producing  the  Refoimatioii  ? 

628.  Who  was  Roman  rontiff  at  this  time  ? 

629.  What  practice  of  the  Romish  charch  did  Luther  first  attack? 

630.  What  procured  Henry  VIII.  the  title  of  Defender  of  the  Faith  ? 

631.  What  distinguished  reformer  arose  in  Switzerland? 

632.  What  sovereign  at  this  time  was  upon  the  thrones  of  Sweden,  Dea* 

mark,  and  Norway  ? 

633.  Who  was  Gnstavus  Vasa  ? 

634.  What  act  of  Leo  X.  and  of  Chr;stiem  11.  contributed  to  the  Mfanna* 

tion  in  the  north  f 

635.  From  what  drcamstance  did  the  Lutherans  derive  the  nana  of  PnA- 

estants  ? 

636.  Who  became  a  distinguished  convert  to  the  doctrinei  oC  the  fdbr* 

mation  in  Geneva  ? 

637.  What  is  said  of  the  dbamcfaer  of  Calvin  f 

SECTION  XL. 

638.  What  reformer  arose  in  England  in  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  ee»- 

tury  ? 

639.  In  what  way  had  WickliflTe  prepared  the  minds  of  the  people  of  Eag- 

land  for  the  reformation  f 
«40.  Who  was  the  immediate  cause  of  it  ? 

641.  What  led  Henry  VIII.  to  declare  himself  head  of  thechorch  m£i^ 

land? 

642.  When  did  he  die,  and  by  whom  was  he  succeeded  ? 

643.  What  checked  the  progress  of  reformation  in  England^  hi  the  year 

1553? 

644.  How  many  Protestants  suffered  martyrdom  daring  the  re%n  of  Maiy« 

In  England  ? 

645.  In  whose  reign  did  the  Protestant  religion  become  establiahed  aoooi^ 
« ing  to  its  present  form  in  England  ? 

SECTION  XLI. 

646.  Who  diieovered  America? 

647.  To  whom  did  he  apply  in  vain  for  aid  In  making  discoveriea  ? 

648.  Who  finally  furnished  him  forthe  voyage? 

^49.  How  long  after  Columbiu  led  the  Canaries,  before  he  ditcovcntf 
land  ? 

650.  In  which  of  his  voyages  did  he  discover  the  continent  of  Amerieaf 

651.  Fmm  whom  was  the  name  of  America  received  ? 

652.  How  did  the  Spaniards  treat  the  inhabitants  of  the  newly  disoovcntf 

countries  ? 

653.  When  and  by  whom  was  the  continent  of  America  eiqploi«d  ? 

654.  How  long  had  the  Mexican  empire  been  founded  at  this  tone  ? 

655.  Wha  was  the  sovareign  of  it  ? 

Digitized  by  V^OOQ  IC 


QUESTIONS.  m 

IS5.  Wiimt  was  tbe  result  of  the  expedition  againtt  the  BfeKicmtf 

167.  Who  and  with  what  saccess  attempted  to  tupenede  Cortei/ 

{58.  What  became  of  Mod  tetuma? 

>59.  Who  vas  hii  sncceasor,  and  what  became  of  him  ? 

^60.  When  and  by  whom  was  an  expedition  undertaken  against  Peru  f 

i^l.  What  are  some  of  the  most  important  circumstances  thatatteadid 

this  expedition  ? 
MS.  What  became  of  D^Almag^  and  Pisarro? 
(63.  What  constitated  the  principal  value  of  the  Americaii  Spttrish  po»> 

sessional 

SECTION  XLU. 
(64.  What  effect  had  the  success  of  the  Spaniards  on  the  other  aatiotti  of 

Europe? 
;6S.  Who  first  settled  Brazil,  Florida,  and  Canada  i 
i66.  From  what  did  Eng^land  derive  her  rig;ht  to  her  Aatricao  settl*- 

ments? 
167.  Who  first  planted  an  English  colony  in  America  ? 
48.  How  do  those  parts  of  America  at  first  settled  by  British  'nrliTniilt 

compare  in  natural  richness  with  the  Spanish  possessions? 

SECTION  XUII. 
169.  What  was  the  state  of  the  fine  arts  in  Europe  in  the  time  of  Leo  Tmf' 
;70.  What  was  their  progress  i 
i71.  In  what  arts  did  the  Italians  excel  ? 

•72.  Who  were  some  of  the  most  distinguished  Italian  painters  i 
>T3.  Who  were  some  of  the  most  distini^uished  Italian  sculptors? 
i74.  When  is  the  inTention  of  engraving  on  copper  dated  ? 

SECTION  XLIV. 

75.  What  is  the  character  of  the  Turks  in  the  fifteenth  century? 

76.  From  whom  did  the  Turks  take  the  island  of  Rhodes? 

77.  From  what  ancient  nation  are  derived  the  principles  of  maritfae  J^ 

risprudence  existing  among  modem  nations  ? 

78.  What  conquests  did  the  Turks  make  in  the  sixteenth  ooatoy? 

SECTION  XLT. 

79.  What  occasioned  a  revolution  in  Persia  in  the  latter  part  of  tba  fl^ 

teenth  century  ? 
SO.  What  is  the  government  of  Persia  ? 
81.  From  what  country  have  proceeded  the  conquerors  who  oocasioaetf 

the  principal  revolutions  of  Asia  ? 
eSL  What  singular  phenomenon  does  the  kingdom  of  Thibet  odAill 

SECTION  XLVI. 

85.  Who  has  fomiahed  the  earliest  accounts  of  India  ? 

84.  How  do  those  accounts  compare  with  the  present  condWea  of  ttn 

Hindoos  r 

85.  When  did  the  Mahometans  begin  an  establbhment  hi  India? 

86.  What  was  the  condition  of  the  Mogul  empire  in  the  bq;iniiinf  of  Ihfe 

eighteenth  century  ? 
8T«  WIm  conquered  and  obtained  possession  of  the  Mogul 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  ccntuiy  ? 

SECTION  XLVIL 

88^  Bowbnretheremahiaoftiieaneient 


yGoogk 


n  QUESTIONS. 

689.  How  has  the  boily  of  Hindoo  people  been  dirided  ? 

690.  What  inference  is  to  be  drawn  from  this  classtfication  of  the  Hindooi, 

as  to  their  early  civilization  ? 

691.  "What  was  the  civil  policy  of  the  Hindoos  in  the  time  of  Alexander 

the  great  ? 

692.  What  is  the  antiquity  of  some  Hindoo  cojnpositions  lately  trans- 

lated ? 

693.  What  is  the  antiquity  of  some  numerical  tables  lately  obtained  from 

the  Bramins  by  M.  Gen  til  ? 

694.  What  do  the  writings  of  the  Hindoo  priests  demonstrate  ? 

696.  What  is  the  religion  of  India  generally  ? 

SECTION  XLVin. 
696w  What  is  said  of  the  laws  and  system  of  government  in  China? 

697.  When  did  the  Tartars  establish  Ibemselves  permanently  in  the  sov- 

ereignty of  China  ? 

698.  When  and  by  whom  was  the  empire  of  Japan  discovered  ? 

699.  Who  carried  on  a  beneficial  trade  wi^h^the  people  of  Japan? 

700.  What  caused  this  trade  to  be  broken  off? 

701.  Why  is  it  that  the  Dutch  are  still  allowed  to  trade  with  the  iwf^ 

nese? 

SECTION  XLIX. 

702.  To  whom  does  Sir  William  Jones  trace  the  origin  of  the  Chmete? 

703.  What  is  the  government  of  China  ? 

704.  How  are  honours  bestowed  in  China  ? 

705.  What  is  the  state  of  the  sciences  in  China  at  this  time  ? 

706.  What  arts  in  China  are  carried  to  great  perfection  ? 

707.  What  are  the  morals  of  the  Chinese  ? 

708.  What  Chinese  writer  is  said  to  have  produced  a  good  sytiem  of  mo* 

raUty? 

709.  What  is  the  religion  of  the  emperor  and  the  higher  mandarins  ? 

SECTION  L. 

710.  What  was  the  opinion  of  Mr.  BatUy  concerning  the  arta  and  tcieacei 

among  the  nations  of  the  east  ? 

711.  How  long  have  they  been  stationary  with  the  Chinese? 

712.  At  how  early  a  period  are  the  Chaldeans  represented  to  buve  beea 

an  enlightened  people  ? 
71S.  Is  the  ophiion  of  Mr.  Bailly  well  founded  ? 

SECTION  LI. 
714«  Who  took  Calais  from  the  English  for  the  French  ? 

715.  How  long  had  it  been  in  possession  of  the  English? 

716.  What  was  the  character  of  Philip  11.  ? 

717.  The  government  did  he  confer  on  the  Prince  of  Oraoce? 

718.  For  what  purpose  did  he  establish  the  Inquisition  in  Uiose  proTinoBs  f 

719.  What  led  to  Uie  establishment  of  the  republic  of  thfl  seven  united 

provinces  ? 
790.  What  is  the  chief  magistrate  called  ? 
721.  What  became  of  the  Prince  of  Orange  ? 
7tS«  Who  ai4«d  tbi»  republip  m  obtaining  independence  ? 

SECTION  UI. 
723.  What  wai  the  government  of  the  seven  united  proyincei  ? 
7S4.  What  important  evil  is  there  in  the  constitution  of  the 
72fr.  What  was  the  authority  of  the  chief  magistrate  ? 


y  Google 


auEsnoNs.  n 

rM.  Who  timott  annihilated  the  republic  ? 

r27*  When  waa  the  Stadtholdenhip  made  hereditarj? 

SECTION  Lin. 
r28.  How  was  the  lois  of  the  Netherlands  compensated  to  Philip  II.  ? 
729.  When  did  he  take  possession  of  Portugal  ? 
r30.   What  naval  enterprise  engaged  the  attention  of  Philip  ? 
r3l.  What  was  tLe  result  of  it? 
r32.  Whatisthecharacter  of  Philip? 

SECTION  LIV. 

r3S.  What  accelerated  the  progress  of  reformation  in  FVance  i 

734.  What  two  parties  were  engaged  in  a  civil  war  In  the  latter  part  of 

the  sixteenth  century  ? 
r35.  When  was  the  massacre  of  St*  Bartholomew  ? 

736.  What  was  the  character  of  Charles  IX.  of  France  ? 

737.  Who  were  his  two  immediate  successors  f 

738.  What  became  of  them? 

739.  What  great  project  was  Henrj  IV.  meditating,  when  anasslaated  ? 

SECTION  LV. 

740.  %Vhen  did  Elizabeth  come  to  the  throne  of  England  ? 

741 .  What  was  the  state  of  the  kingdom  during  her  reign  ? 

742.  What  fixed  a  stain  on  Elizabeth^s  character  ? 

743.  Under  what  pretence  did  Mary  of  Scots  assume  the  arms  and  title  of 

queen  of  England  ? 

744.  What  form  of  religion  became  established  in  Scotland,  in  the  reign  of 

Elizabeth? 

745.  Who  was  a  distinguished  reformer  in  Scotland  ? 

746.  Who  were  the  two  husbands  of  Mary? 
74*7.  How  came  Mary  in  the  hands  of  Elizabeth  ? 

748.  Under  what  pretence  was  Mary  condemned  and  ezecnted  f 

749.  How  long  was  she  a  captive  in  England  ? 

750.  At  what  age  and  when  did  ElizabeSi  die  ? 

SECTION  LVI. 

751.  Who  succeeded  Elizabeth  on  the  throne  of  England? 
75S.  What  rendered  James  unpopular  with  his  subjects  ? 

753.  What  was  the  object  of  the  gunpowder  treason  ? 

754.  By  whom  was  the  conspiracy  formed  ? 

755.  What  was  a  &voarste  object  with  James  f 

756.  Who  was  his  successor  ? 

757.  What  were  some  of  the  principal  snbjecti  of  dispute  betWMD  Charlei 

and  his  parliaments  ? 

758.  What  caused  the  Scots  to  rebelaad  take  up  anna  agalnit  tlMforem- 

ment  of  Charles  ? 

759.  What  tvro  dbtinguiihed  individaali  at  this  tiBA  were  impeftdied  bf 

the  commons  and  beheaded? 

760.  What  In^portant  occurrence  was  there  at  this  time  in  Ireland  ? 

761*  When  the  civil  war  commenced,  who  vrere  on  the  side  of  the  kingi 

and  sHio  on  that  of  the  parliament? 
76<.  Who  directed  the  measures  of  the  army  of  parliament  f 

763.  In  what  way  was  Cromwell  able  to  procure  the  death  of  Ch«let  f 

764.  When  was  he  beheaded  ? 

766.  How  fv  were  the  proceedings  of  the  oommooajostlflablef 


Digitized  by  V^OOQIC 


M  QUEsnom. 

SECTION  LVa 

^65.  What  part  did  the  parliampnt  of  Scotland  take  in  lesanS  tff  flwkaipf 
1^67.  On  what  condition  was  Charles  II.  proclaimed  kin*  of  Scolteadl 

768.  Who  were  the  Corenaniers  of  Scotland  ? 

769.  What  became  of  Charles  II.  when  overcome  by  Croowett? 
>70.  What  was  the  title  of  Cromwell  ? 

771.  Whatwaa  the  character  of  his  g^oremment? 

772.  At  what  age  did  he  die,  and  who  was  his  succenor^ 

773.  What  was  the  parliament  called  that  put  to  death  king  Cbultif 

774.  Under  what  circumstances  and  when  was  Charles  II.  rettflced? 

SECTION  LVni. 

775.  What  was  the  character  of  Charles  11.  f 

^r>6.  When  were  the  epithets  of  Whig  and  Tory  first  knows,  and  hov 
were  they  applied  ? 

777.  Who  was  the  successor  of  Charles  II.  ? 

778.  What  made  him  unpopular  with  his  subjects? 

779.  By  what  means  was  Charles  removed  firau  the  thraao  I 

780.  On  whom  was  the  crown  then  settled  f 

781.  WImI  became  of  James  ? 

SECTION  LIX. 
78S.  To  what  period  may  the  rudiments  of  the  English  oonstilatioA  Is 

traced  ? 
78S.  In  whose  reign  was  instituted  the  trial  by  jury  ? 

784.  In  whose  reign  did  the  Mugna  Charta  originate  ? 

785.  In  whose  reign  was  the  act  of  Habeas  Ccrpui  passed? 

786.  Of  what  does  the  parliament  of  Great  Britain  consist  f 

787.  Of  what  does  the  house  of  lords  consist  ? 

788.  Of  what  does  the  house  of  commons  consist  ? 

789.  What  is  the  act  of  Habeas  Corpus  f 

SECTION  LX. 

790.  Row  are  the  pecuniary  supplies  of  the  soTereign  ohtalntdf 

791.  Wh^n  did  the  English  national  debt  arise? 

792.  What  constitutes  the  Sinkitig  Fund  f 

703.  Is  it  probable  the  debt  will  ever  become  extinct? 

SECTION  LXI. 
7M.  To  what  minister,  was  France  indebted  for  much  of ktr  food,  mmnm 

in  the  reign  of  L^^wis  XUI.  ? 
795.  What  was  the  character  of  Lewis  XllL  I 
796*  What  became  the  condition  of  the  Protestants  in  the  f«te.«f-  Uvb 

XUI.? 
799*  Whendidhedie? 

SECTION  LXn. 
798«  What  weak  and  despicable  act  did  Philip  III.  commit  f 
799.  When  did  Portugal  beeomo  «9'indepettdeot  sovereigiityf 
800*  Who  became  her  first  king  ? 
^t.  Whafe  i»  said  of  Spain  in  the  reigns  of  Ph%  II1«  mA\%*l 

SECTION  LXIil. 

WL  What  was  the  condition  of  Germany  when  Charley  V.  rtidlcilad  At 

throng  ? 
•93.  What  tkas  th^n  and  foe  a  long  period  aftenmds  a  sal^ceC  titmtStm 

tion  In  Gennanyf 


by  Google 


QUESmONB.  n 

104.  What  peace  put  a  period  to  this  contention? 
i05.  TVhea  did  the  peace  of  Westphalia  take  place  ? 

SECTION  LXIV. 

06.  When  did  Lewis  XIV,  come  to  the  throne  ofFltBce? 

07.  At  what  a«^? 

08.  What  led  to  a  civil  war  in  the  early  part  of  hii  reign  ? 

09.  When  did  Mazarin  die? 

10.  What  chancre  took  nlaoe  in  the  affiun  of  fVance  at  this  time  f 

11.  What  wai  reckoned  one  of  the  weakest  and  most  impolitic  measures 

of  Lewis  XIV..' 

12.  What  was  the  state  of  the  finances  of  France  in  the  latter  part  of 

there^oflxiwisXIV.f 

13.  What  character  is  g^iyen  of  Lewis  XIV.  ? 

14.  At  what  age  and  when  did  he  die  ? 

SECTION  LXV. 

15.  What  change  took  place  in  the  goremment  of  France,  under  the 

Capetian  race  of  kings  ? 

16.  What  power  arose  to  limit  and  check  the  royal  prerogative,  in  and 

from  the  reifn  of  Lewis  XII] . 

17.  What  made  the  powers  of  parliament  a  constant  subject  of  dispute  i , 

18.  In  what  way  was  the  crown  of  France  to  descend  ? 

19.  What  was  the  established  religion  of  France  ? 

20.  What  took  place  in  the  assembly  of  the  Galilean  church,  in  1682  f 

SECTION  LXVI. 

21.  What  two  distinguished  characters  in  the  north  of  Europe  ware 

conteaqKirary  with  Lewis  XIV.  ? 

22.  When  is  Russia  said  to  have  received  Christianity  ? 

23.  What  sovereign  first  published  a  code  of  laws  in  Russia? 

24.  When  was  Siberia  added  to  the  Russian  empire  ? 

i25.  When  and  how  did  Peter  become  master  of  the  Russian  empire  ? 

26.  How  was  the  early  part  of  his  life  spent  i 

27.  What  method  did  he  adopt  to  improve  himself  in  the  sciences  and 

useful  arts  ? 

28.  When  and  at  what  age  did  Charles  XII.  come  to  the  throne  of  Sweden? 
t9.  At  what  age  and  with  what  success  was  his  first  campaign  made  ? 
X).  What  change  did  he  effect  in  the  government  of  Poland  ? 

11.  Bv  whom  was  he  defeated  ? 

)2«  riow  many  of  his  army  remained  to  him  after  this  defeat  f 

13.  To  what  means  did  Charles  then  resort  to  regain  his  lost  power  ? 

U.  What  became  of  Charles  XII.  ? 

IS.  When  did  Peter  the  Great  die? 

SECTION  LXVII. 

t6.  Wlm  wen  themindpalphiloeDphersintheaevesteeiithcratviy? 

r7.  For  what  was  Galileo  imprisoned  ? 

^,  What  institutions  were  formed  which  contributed  to  the  admce- 

ment  of  science  and  the  arts  i 
9.  What  work  of  Newton  contsuns  the  elemenU  of  aQ  phaloeephj  ? 
4),  What  was  Lockers  theory  conceiauig  the  human  mind  ? 
;i.  What  are  sooie  «f  the  moet  distinivished  poetical  pfpdnffti^^s  «! 

modem  times? 

2.  Who  are  some  of  the  most  eminent  English  Poets  ? 

3.  Who  were  distinguished  writers  in  history  during  the  16th  and  170 

ccntnries?  g 


y  Google 


W  QUESTIONS. 


APPENDIX 

HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS. 

SECTION  I. 

844.  What  constitutes  the  basis  of  the  first  historical  records  ? 

845.  How  can  we  account  for  the  fabulous  relations  of  the  first  hi<t> 

rians  ? 

846.  From  what  period  are  the  details  in  profane  history  to  be  notiyti 

as  facta  ? 

847.  What  historical  records  are  the  most  ancient  as  well  as  the  most  rv 

tional  ? 

848.  What  historical  facts  do  they  contain,  not  found  in  other  history? 

SECTION  11. 

849.  Who  were  the  Israelites  ? 

850.  Why  were  they  suffered  to  be  subdued  by  the  Romans  ? 

851.  In  what  condition  do  their  descendants  exist? 

852.  What  circumstance  illustrates  the  truth  and  inspira,tioii  of  the  [fiy- 

phetic  writings  ? 

SECTION  m. 

853.  How  long  before  Herodotus  did  Moses  live  ? 

854.  Wliat  acknowledg-meut  did  Porphyry  make  as  to  the  antiqoitT  d 

the  writings  of  Moses  ?      . 

855.  What  pagan  traditions  confirm  the  truth  of  the  Pentateuch  ? 

856.  What  is  said  of  Zoroaster  ? 

857.  What  Jewish  historian  successfully  vindicates  the  antbority  of  tbf 

Jewish  scriptures  I 

SECTION  IV. 

858.  What  are  the  principal  facts  recorded  in  the  book  of  Genesis  ? 

859.  What  remarkable  prophecy  of  Isaiah  is  there  concemimg  Cynu' 

860.  And  what  one  concerning  Babylon  f 

861.  What  was  the  length  of  time  from  the  giving  of  the  law  to  Mosef  !^> 

the  reformation  in  worship  and  goyemment  of  the  Jews  by  Nebe 
miah? 
962.  What  hereditary  distinction  of  rank  existed  among  the  Jews? 

863.  What  is  said  of  Moses,  El:sha,  and  Gideon  ? 

864.  What  internal  undoubted  characteristic  of  truth  is  therein  die  scrip- 

tares? 

SECTION  V. 

865.  When  was  the  creation  of  the  world  accomplished  ? 

i66.  What  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  circumstances  of  the  ante^- 

lavians  ? 
867.  How  long  did  some  of  the  oldest  of  them  live  ? 
868*  Why  did  the  Almighty  dc  Mroy  the  world  by  a  deluge  <^  water  ? 

869.  Who  were  saved  from  '{  htM  by  what  means? 

870.  Who  w«re  some  of  tb>  fim  in  venters  of  the  useful  arts  ? 

MXTioN  n. 

m.  What  is  said  of  the  thi        ^ofNoahf 


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QUESTIONS.  n 

072.  ^\liat  Is  the  most  important  event  between  the  deluge  and  the  ec// 

of  Abraham  i 
fl73.  Of  what  city  was  Babel  the  bcg^inning^? 

SECTION  VII. 
[>74.  From  whom  do  the  Jews  derive  theii  origin  f 
[P7>.  What  relationship  was  there  between  Jacob  and  Abraham? 
:76.  How  came  Joseph^  the  son  of  Jacob,  to  be  in  Kg^rpt  ? 
^77.  By  what  means  was  he  made  governor  of  Kgypt  ? 
^78.  How  came  his  father  and  brethren  to  remotre  thither? 
:r79.  How  long  did  the  Israelites  remain  in  Kgypt  ? 
iUO.  What  were  some  of  the  circumstances  connected  with  their  leaTiqg 

it? 
381.  How  long  after  leaving  Egypt  did  Moses  die  ? 

SECTION  VIII. 
^.12.  ^Vhat  caused  a  league  to  be  formed  between  the  Syrian  chiefs? 
>h3.  Who  was  the  successor  of  Moses  in  the  government  of  Israel  ? 
':'i4.  How  were  the  Israelites  governed  after  the  death  of  Joshua? 
:fJ5.  Who  were  the  two  last  Judges  of  Israel  ? 
>tf6.  What  change  took  place  in  the  government  on  the  death  of  Samuel? 

SECTION  IX. 
^S7m  What  was  the  original  government  of  Israel  called  ? 
iti&.  What  moral  and  political  change  took  place  on  the  death  of  Jothoa, 

in  the  condition  of  Israel  ? 
^9.  Why  was  the  regal  govemmest  introduced  ? 

SECTION  X. 

'i90.  How  long  did  Saul  reign  over  Israel? 

^91.  By  what  means  was  David  raised  to  the  throne  as  his  successor  ? 

S9^.  What  prosperous  events  characterized  the  reign  of  David? 

)93.  What  adverse  ones  characterized  it  ? 

$94.  How  long  did  David  reign,  and  who  succeeded  him  ? 

^95.  What  is  the  most  remarkable  event  in  the  reign  of  Solomon  ? 

.96.  What  books  are  ascribed  to  him  ? 

j97.  Under  what  circumstances  was  the  kingdom  divided  ? 

{98«  By  what  names  were  the  two  kingdoms  subsequently  to  this  divisioa 
called? 

^99.  What  became  of  the  ten  tribes  who  constituted  the  kingdom  of  Is- 
rael? 

no*  Whence  spang  the  Samaritans? 

Ml*  When  and  in  what  manner  ended  the  kingdom  of  Jodah? 

SECTION  XI. 
NX.  Bow  long  were  the  Jews  held  captive  in  Babylon  ? 
N>3.  By  whom  were  they  released  ? 

K>4.  From  wtiai  time  and  circumstance  were  the  Israelites  called  Jews? 
I0&*  What  caused  Alexander  the  great  to  march  lo  Jerusalem  with  hoe- 
tile  intentions  ? 

106.  By  what  means  was  he  appeased  ? 

107.  What  &Tours  did  he  then  bestow  on  tbem  ? 

lOQL  What  advantage  did  Ptolemy  take  of  the  regard  wfaidi  the  Jewt  paid 

to  the  Sabbath? 
i09v  In  what  manner  did  the  Ave  brothers  nanied  MaocabMi  baooflM  die- 

tioguished? 
no.  Who  was  their  father? 


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S8  QUESTIONS. 

91 1.  When  and  bj  whom  were  the  Jews  aubjected  to  the  Romani  ? 

912.  Who  was  then  placed  on  the  throne  of  David  under  the  protectioB 

of  the  Romans  f 

913.  By  what  memorable  event  was  the  reigfn  of  Herod  distiBg^iualied  I 

914.  By  whom  and  when  was  the  Jewish  nation  extinguished  ? 

915.  How  many  Jews  are  supposed  to  hare  perished  in  their  laaf  war 

with  the  Romans  f 

SECTION  xn. 

916.  What  is  the  period  of  scriptural  history  ? 

917.  Where  is  it  supposed  that  the  Jews  obtained  their  knowledge  oC  tke 

arts  and  sciences  ? 

918.  What  was  the  state  of  commerce  among  the  Jews  ? 

919.  With  what  inference  does  Tytler  conclude  his  work  on  histofy  ? 


CONTINUATION,  OR  PART  THIRD. 

SECTION  I. 

950.  What  was  the  age  of  Lewis  XV.  when  the  crown  of  France  deaoend- 

ed  to  him  ? 

951.  When  and  what  heirs  to  the  crown  of  France,  died  vitfaai  a  iew 

months  ? 

922.  What  made  it  necessary  for  France  on  the  death  of  Lewis  XIV.  to 

preserve  peace  with  foreign  states  ?  

923.  Who  was  regent  of  France  during  the  minority  of  Lewis  XV.  i 

924.  What  distinguished  minister  was  at  the  court  of  Spaio^  m  thJ 

period  ? 

925.  What  was  the  character  of  the  duke  of  Orleans^  the  icgeat  of 

Fraoce  ? 

926.  By  what  means  were  the  duchies  of  Lorrain  and  Bar  m^ude  to  revsrt 

to  France  ? 

SECTION  n. 

927.  Who  succeeded  queen  Anne  on  the  throne  of  Britain  ? 

,  928.  What  acts  of  parliament  had  passed  connected  with  Qie  ftcoeniaa 
of  George  I.  concerning  religion  ? 

929.  When  did  he  enter  his  new  dominions  ? 

930.  How  did  the  rebellion  of  1715  in  Scotland,  terminate? 

931.  By  what  name  were  the  adherents  to  the  FreUndmr  called  f 

982.  By  what  name  was  the  party  called  to  which  Ckorge  I.  oomiiuttt^ 
the  goremment  of  the  realm  ? 

933.  Who  was  king  of  Sweden  at  this  time  ? 

934.  For  what  purpose  and  by  whom  was  he  nearly  instigated  to  ioradc 

Britain  ? 

935.  What  rumed  the  prospects  of  Alberoni? 

936.  In  what  way  did  he  attempt  obtaining  revenge  ? 

937.  Why  did  he  not  succeed  f 

938.  At  iKdiat  age  and  when  did  George  I.  die  ? 

SECTION  m. 
989.  When  did  Charles  VI.  beoome  emperot  of  Anttria  a&d  Gcnnaagpt 
940.  Who  was  the  Auitdan  coBunon^gr  in  the  flnl  war^  fTipflri  Vi 

vith  the  Turks? 


yGoogk 


QUESTIONS.  m 

941.  Wltat  tfnuag^ment  did  he  make  for  the  descent  of»the  Aaithaa 

crown? 

942.  What  was  this  arranrement  or  hit  act  in  making  it  called  i 

943.  When  did  Charles  VI.  die,  and  who  sacceedcd  him  ? 

944.  Was  she  permitted  to  ei^oj  unmolested  the  dominions  descended  to 

her? 

945.  What  circumstances  were  calculated  to  raise  up  competitors  for  dif- 

ferent parts  of  her  estates  ? 

946.  Who  was  the  most  forward  and  active  of  the  queen^s  opponents  ? 

947.  What  prevented  the  competitors  of  the  queen  from  succeeding  la 

obtaining  their  claims  f 

948.  Which  one  of  them  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  imperial  crown  ia 

1741  ? 

949.  How  long:  after  this  did  he  live  ? 

950.  On  his  death  who  obtained  the  imperial  crown  ? 

951.  When  did  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  take  place  ? 

SECTION  IV. 

952.  At  what  time  and  age  did  6eor;^e  II.  come  to  the  throne  of  Cuf* 

land? 

953.  Who  was  his  queen  ? 

954.  Who  was  prime  minister  of  £D«;land  at  this  time  ? 

955.  What  caused  him  to  resig^n  ? 

956.  Upon  what  two  occasions  had  his  views  been  thwarted  ? 

957.  When  did  he  die  ? 

958.  What  interesting  event  occurred  in  Scotland  the  same  year  ? 

959.  What  was  the  object  of  the  insurrection  in  Scotland  ? 

960.  In  what  battle  were  the  hopes  of  the  Stuart  family  for  ever  blasted  ? 

961.  What  became  of  the  heir  of  this  family  after  that  battle  ? 

9C*2.  What  is  considered  the  most  melancholy  circumstance  attending 

the  Scottish  rebellion  ? 
9^3.  What  smgular  act  of  parliament  was  passed  in  the  year  1751  ? 
064.  When  and  at  what  age  did  George  11.  die  f 

SECTION  V. 
n65.  By  what  treaty  was  the  hous«  of  Hanover  efTectually  established 

on  the  British  throne  ? 
966.  How  was  the  British  naval  force  left  by  this  treaty  compared  with 

the  naval  forces  of  other  European  nations  ? 
907.  What  did  Austria  lose  by  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  ? 
9rJ8.  What  did  Prussia  ^in  by  it  ? 
^o9.  How  did  it  effect  Holland  ? 
970.  By  what  means  was  Russia  introduced  into  the  southern  states  of 

Europe  ? 

SECTION  VI 
f.n  J .  What  became  a  subject  of  jealousy  and  future  warfare,  after  th« 

peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  between  France  and  England  ? 
972.  In  what  respect  did  the  p<'ace  of  Europe,  in  1748,  extend  to  Asia 

and  America  ? 
QTtS.   What  French  governor  in  the  East  Indies  attempted  to  bring  the 

Mogul  empire  under  the  dominion  of  France  r 
974.  In  what  way  did  the  French  in  America  gain  an  advantage  over  the 

English? 
5^75.   When  did  the  French  war  in  America  commence  ? 
V'7(/,  What  number  of  French  merchant  vessels  was  captured  and  car- 

ricd  into  the  Iln^lish  ports  the  first  year  of  the  war? 

^        le 


y  Google 


30  QUESTIONS. 

977.  Whei^  the  war  was  extended  to  Europe,  what  powen  ananged 

themselves  ag^ainst  each  other  ? 

978.  Who  was  king  of  Prussia  at  this  time  ? 

979.  What  is  his  character  ? 

980.  What  has  this  war  been  termed  ? 

981.  How  many  men  have  been  supposed  to  have  perished  annually  ia 

the  campaigns  of  it  ? 

982.  What  advantage  did  the  English  gain  in  America? 

983.  What  new  ally  did  Prance  obtain  in  the  year  of  1761  ? 

984.  What  induced  him  to  join  the  league  against  England? 

985.  What  advantages  did  Eii^jlaud  gain  by  this  war  ? 

986.  What  change  in  the  ministry  of  England  contributed  to  the  peact' 

SECTION  VII. 

987.  When  did  Goorge  III.  succeed  to  the  throne  of  Britain? 

988.  W  hat  was  onu  of  his  first  acts  which  showed  him  to  be  the  frin-l 

of  liberty  ? 

989.  What  gave  rise  to  distressing  tumults  in  the  year  1762? 

090.  How  did  the  measures  of  lord  Bute  differ  from  those  of  Mr.  Pitt' 
91)1.  What  contribuUd  to  make  the  first  years  of  George  III.  imquict? 

992.  What  b(  ?id<  s  public  addresses  and  remonstrances  contributed '«  the 

popular  iVrvi'iir  and  agitation  of  public  feeling  at  tins  peri  ^  1  ■ 

993.  Wliut  constitutional  qu*  stion  came  under  discusaioii  at  thi»  tiac' 
^J'J'i.  For  "what  is  the  year  17G4  remarlciible  ? 

SECTION  ,V1II. 

9Q:».  Wh.'it  was  the  pn.'ttmce  for  taxing  the  American  colonies  ? 

990.  Wliat  was  the  lii:>t  instance  of  imposing  direct  taxes  without  th  l- 

conbent  f 
997.   Vi'heu  v/as  this  im]->osed  ? 
Or'S'.   Whs-'n  v.'as  it  form  tUy  r'.'pei\led  ? 

999.  What  n  ason  i.>  thtre  lor  bupr^osing  that  the  Americans  did  net  iV-- 
ttniplat.'  ije.l'']).iKl«  ace  whi.n  they  lirst  made  oppoaitlcm  to  '.f 
Tritish  govenuncnt  ? 
10' '"v).   How  long  was  it  aiu  r  the  pasting  of  the  stamp  act  before  the  c'=:- 
nijort  .i-ent  of  iiostiiiti(  s  ? 
.  lOiVI.   ^^  lien  and  where  wa?  American  ind<  peudence  declared? 
I01»2.  A\  ii)  were  !r.  nt  to  rrance,  and  when,  to  solicit  aid  for  the  A:?.    .- 

cau=  ? 
WXi.  V\  liat  othi  r  powers  b  sides  that  of  Fraiice,  united  against  E.jZ:3    ' ' 
1004.   Wa.n  di.l  Gr(  ;'l.  I  ritain  ratify  the  treaty  which  admitted  the  Ai...  '- 
icau  iiidepcud-_nce  ? 

•  SECTION  IX. 

lOO^v.   Who  laid  the  foundation  for  the  French  revolution  ? 

1(*0^.  \\'Iiy  were  the  J-  3uil>'  ua'ii^hed  from  P<3rtu^al  in  the  year  n3*'»^ 

l()J7.   What  cbargc   was  attempted  to  be  fixed  on  them  at  TariS,  :u:  •- 

q-uent  to  tlii.^r 
10  ".:.   ^Vhfcu  wa.<«  the  ordrr  of  .Tesuits  aboliyhed  in  Fra:ice  ? 
lOS'^.   from  wliat  o'Jit  r  coin-.trie«  were  tluy  expelled,  and  when? 

1010.  \''hom  di'\  the  d.iuiy.iin  of  rrance,  after vr.irds  Lovis  XIV.  marrj 

1011.  AVlu  u  did  lie  CO.ue  U*  the  thmiU:  ? 

\0\2.  ^V]len  w;.^  an  alljunci-  rcnned  between  the  court  of  Versail!t.3  r.i  ? 

Aini-rica? 
lOlo.   Who  we  It  t!u;  most  eu/ment  frimds  of  libt.ty  in  the  Brlti=:i  p'.ir.i  • 

nient? 
1014.    Wlnt.  at  this  ti:*iu,  vroducf  d  an    iAtr:u<r<^'i'i'-y  fir^ct   rn   i:  ..  i\... 
siaiis,  i.^-;iin-"  the  c-Nt-awigo.iiCc  ol  the  i  i-ench  court?. 

Digitized  by  V^OOQiC 


I.  .  >.    Uiiut,  i^  the  T.  tr  n.  ;,  t      '.    i  :»  h,.«.  ..  i.w  ^i.iivU  n  toIuIkmi 

u..  i  :  r..  ;  :..ultt  r«  :.>  .-i  vi.-i-  ? 
:  M7.   V»jj  >  f.rst  rti  •  .1  Kc  thr  -t    •     -^.  •    t\\  : 
1  •!  ..   V»U  .  wi*  iu  iLt:  Ffcvli  M.^i.-.iv  uluu  the  5t.itt  ^-(rnt  i;ll  w««  inll- 

srcTroN  \. 

i  •/>.   Wliut  inco.-M«t-  nry  was  th-Tt-  iu  Viv  ^  m,  liirt  ul  M.iUa  riK'ri-«i  ron. 

c«  rtj...j  i'uJuu'i : 
I  -.'O.   ^^  l.'.t  1.  .i  ti»  :i  w:\r  I-  tw.'ci  Au-1:;.»  :iik(i  i'ru  -i  i,  in  tl\.  )i.»r  I77i;  ' 
i.  -Jl.    \\I..U  I  .irt  .1.  I  Auilria  t..kv   iu   r. .;  irU   tn  tin   i^.ii  »..r  Ann  ru  m   in 

ill  I ... ;  .ic.  r 

'-J.*.    \\'.\K-u  and  ut  whit  :«  /•  li!  i  '  l.ili  TIut*  "U  ila 

i  ::.  fl«;w  i\'i,' !  ti-T- til- .1.  .I'll  «•! '      •■   -i.r,  \T,,r.  'I  I,  f  ...  t,.i  f, 

»•  ,»h  il.  « .  .:i'  t  I  ;:..   im  i    .  i  i       «.     <i  '.n  '  1 1 
.     Jl.    !  .  t^.i-it  .  .  .....  r(i;  il.     i.         .1.        ,    .1.    f-M-  «•.!  ..I.,  .fi ..."(nil,, 


:•  .    \'    ..'  i  •      •  .     .'t  V.  ..    .-. 

.7.   Uu  ...:.;  :»>.?....... 

'.  t     ^  I  ... 


y  Google 


auEsnoNB. 


SECTION  xm. 

1049.  What  change  ta>k  place  in  the  miniBtry  of  Great  Britam  after  thf 

peace  with  America  ? 

1050.  IVho  aacceeded  Mr.  Fox  in  the  British  miniatty  ? 

1051.  What  U  the  Sinking  Fund  of  Great  Britain  ? 

1052.  What  important  prosecution  was  undertaken  at  this  time  bj  the 

British  parliament  ? 

1053.  How  long  did  it  last,  and  what  was  its  result  ? 

10^4.  When  was  the  attention  of  the  hooie  of  commons  first  called  to  the 
slave  trade  ? 

1055.  When  was  it  abolished  ? 

1056.  What  event  compelled  the  British  parliament  to  meet  oa  tlie  SCKh 

of  November,  1788? 

1057.  What  occurrence  arose  to  threaten  war  between  England  and 

Spain,  in  the  year  1790  ? 

1058.  What  led  to  the  declaration  of  war  against  the  king  of  Great 

Britain,  by  France,  in  the  year  1793  ? 

1059.  With  what  success  was  the  war  prosecuted  ? 

1060.  What  important  occurrence  took  place  in  Ireland,  1798  ? 

1061.  What  important  event  to  Ireland  succeeded  the  sopfHreMioa  of  the 

rebellion  ? 

1062.  What  took  place  in  India  during  the  last  year  of  the  eig^iteefith 

century  ? 

1063.  What  led  to  the  peace  of  Amiens,  between  France  and  fiigland. 

October  1st,  1801  ? 

SECTION  XIV. 

1064.  What  was  the  situation  of  France  towards  the  close  of  the  yew 

1793  ? 
1005.  What  took  place  on  the  17th  of  November,  1793? 

1066.  What  alteration  was  there  made  in  the  calendar? 

1067.  When  and  where  did  Napoleon  Bonaparte  first  distinguish  himseh'* 

1068.  What  became  of  Robespierre  ? 

1069.  What  was  the  government  of  France,  established  and  proclaimed 

in  1795? 

1070.  What  were  the  aflbiirs  of  France  externally  at  this  time  ? 

1071.  Who  were  some  of  her  most  distinguished  generals  ? 

1072.  What  territories  were  added  to  the  French  republic  ? 

1073.  What  became  of  Lewis  XVII.  ? 

SECTION  XV. 

1074.  When  did  Bonaparte  receive  the  chief  command  of  the  FVench 

army  in  Italy? 

1075.  What  was  his  age  at  that  time  ? 

1076.  On  the  reduction  of  Mantua,  what  did  he  state  to  his  eoldsen  had 

been  their  success  ? 

1077.  Why  were  the  Venetians  unwilling  to  take  part  either  with  the 

Austrians  or  French  ? 

1078.  Of  what  dishonourable  conduct  was  Bonaparte  guilty,  in  relation 

to  the  Venetians  ?  __^ 

1079.  What  took  place  on  the  4th  and  5th  of  September,  1757  ? 

1080.  Upon  what  expedition  did  Bonaparte  enter,  in  the  year  1758  i 

1081.  What  success  did -he  haive  in  this  expedition  ? 

1082.  What  lessened  his  triumph  and  gave  a  new  turn  to  the  war  f 

083.  What  change  took  place  in  the  French  get^rnment  od  Bonapaftc^ 
return  from  Egypt  ? 


yGoogk 


QUESTIONS.  33 

1084.  When^  by  whom  and  with  what  re<iilt  was  the  battle  of  Maieiifo 

fOQ'ht? 

1085.  Wben  and  between  whom  was  the  treatj  of  Lnneville  signed  f 
i(»86.  When  and  between  whotn  was  the  treaty  of  Amiens  signed? 
10B7.  What  was  the  French  power,  and  what  were  her  possessions  at  this 

time? 

SECTION  XVI. 
1088.  What  regulation  did  Bonaparte  make  for  religion  in  France  ? 
1 089   What  took  place  on  the  2d  of  Au^at,  1802  ?  • 

k)90.  What  led  to  a  renewal  of  hostilities  between  IVance  and  England. 

1803? 
;<>91.  On  the  renewal  of  hostilities,  what  seoority  did  Bonaparte  take  for 

the  future  good  conduct  of  England  ? 

1092.  What  military  enterprise  did  he  project? 

1093.  What  took  place  on  the  18th  of  May,  and  the  2d  of  December, 

1804? 

1094.  Why  did  general  Moreau  come  to  America  ? 

1093.  What  induced  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria,  to  unite  in  hostilitiM 
against  Napoleon  ? 

1 096.  What  took  place  on  the  21st  of  October,  1805  ? 

1097.  After  what  battle  did  the  emperor  of  Austria  solicit  peace  ? 

ii»98.  What  appeared  to  lead  to  the  exaltation  of  Joseph  Bonaparte  to 

the  throne  of  Naples  ? 
1 1)99.  What  change  took  place  in  the  government  of  Holland,  In  1806  ? 

1 100.  What  change  took  place,  in  the  same  year,  in  the  political  condition 

of  Germany? 

1 101.  How  came  Bonaparte  to  be  in  Berlin,  in  November,  of  this  year  ?    . 
1 10^2.  What  extraordinar)'  decree  did  he  dictate,  while  there? 

1103.  What  concessions  did  the  emperor  of  Russia  make  to  the  Frendl 

emperor  in  the  treaty  of  Tilsit  ? 

.  SECTION  XVIL 

1 104.  When  did  Charles  IV.  cofne  to  the  throne  of  France  ? 

i  105.  What  caused  the  Spaniards,  in  1793,  to  invade  France  ? 
1 106.  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  invasion  to  Spain  .' 

107.  By  what  means  did  St.  Domini,'©  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  French  ? 

ion.  What  led  to  the  wnr  betwv  en  Kn^^land  aud  Spain  in  1805? 

109.  Why  did  the  royal  family  of  Portu^  remove  to  America,  and  when  ? 
1  no.  On  what  account  was  Ferdinand  arresteii  and  imprboned  by  the 
Spanish  authorities  ? 

1111.  By  what   means   was  th«>  Spanish  throne   declared  vacaat  and 

Joseph  Bonaparlr  prrclai'ned  king:  of  Spjun  ? 

1 112.  What  forei^  power  aM»  d  J^pain  and  Portugal,  a^inst  the  French  ? 
113.  In  what  battle  were  the  I-Vcnch  beaten  and  compelled  to  evacuate 

Portug:al  ? 
1 1 14.  When  aud  under  whom  did  the  British  army  enter  Spain? 

115.  What  became  of  ^ir  ,'<>hw  Moore  ? 

116.  When  did  Sir  Arthnr  Wt^ilt  sley,  with  fresh  troops  from  England' 

enter  Spain  ? 

1 17.  For  what  service  wa«  he  rai?i  d  to  a  peerage  ? 

:i  18.  What  battle  cant*  •)  the  ^^nies  of  Madrid  to  be  thrown  open  to  tha 

Spaush  patriot'  in  V\W^  ' 
119.  When  was  the  b*t?:.-  of  Vittofia fought? 
1 120.  What  were  the  con-t  ^u*  n«<.s  of  it  to  the  French  ? 

SKCTIOX  XVIH 
lltl.  What  wit  the  p»rti' .  n  treaty  between  Franca  and  Spaia  ? 


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]\Cl.  Wluil  was  the  >'^iu  licut  ' 

1  iSJ.  Who  wa?  crci'ttil  ki)j,-  of  Xajk?  \vh«-n  .los'ph  Bonaparte  removed 

to  S['ain  f 
1124.  How  Ion;;  did  t\v  v.iir  cf  An.>trla  li*?*,  Trhich  comnienced  in  18»D9  ? 
112:>.   O.'  \\'h:\l  coiii'.it;  -i  -vvi-s  Ai.5-tri;i  :  l-Ie  l-  ohi-uri  j'f.-ace  ? 
112:1.   V>h(;n  diii  lioii;.;..t.  *  ;"..  b  cmiu  'nanic.ir    t:ikt;  1>1  tce  ? 
1127.   '^Vju  n  \va-  Iht.  war  rtii-  v,  r-  v/iih  liii  -ia  ? 

112J.   With  liov,'  lur.':'  an  c.i.uy  (li'i  Tji.i.noai tc  iiivatle  Russia,  in  1812? 
li::).  Whot  A^-:.e  Ih    t-c-  -  'Vtl.i-  (■>,vdition  ? 
1130.   Wilh  what  lV:ce  d,  '  he  ouiir-  Jj   i-  tr.^stihtirs  in  1813? 
tl.'il.  Wiiat  I'i  ■.-t  COM!}',  t'-ly  (li^tonirjtcd  tiie  IVeuch  (imperor? 
UJ2.   '^^■lvn  (ii  '  thr.  c.Vw  ?  r:ur  l!u-  JlMne  :      • 

1133.  Vvli.  :i  ui1  th  •>•  re.ch  I'uris  ? 

1134.  ()ji  what  coiid'fion-  v.as  1'.  >na]'ar'u'  jicnnitted  to  abdicate  tht-  French 

thi  >iL   :■ 
il35.   Wh^ii  did  I'.L  i.  HI.1.C..-:  rctuni  to  Parisj;' 


113G.  rro;:i  \v]>a^  rausr  hul  i  (j'i  -d  5.u!T<  red  much  ? 

1137.   ^Vlla'  Ci.  lUT^-  dl  :  (  '   .lUi^  XU.  i:  a):,   in  Ih-  state  of  Poland  f 

113{;.  Fy  tl  J  '.''A  »  fwh  •  ^-  jiv'W"'-  w.u.  ti.^   fi'iiiv  of  Auirus-tus  kept  up.--a 

Hi.-  Twiuii  ■  of  ''.>l;..ivi  dnriii.:  th.lu-t  iiaU"  of  the  eightecDlh  ct-L- 

ti-iy;' 

1139.  V.'lio  Mice*  <•  «  -  y.\^'U^['u  5»'.aii.'  x.ut-n  ? 

IMO.   ^Vhal  inl'  i-:'a'  .'.i  ;.'.(.•  <:•  -at-y  r,A-:\i  d  Polaiul  at  this  time? 
11-11.  ^^'Ifn  v.'h'v.ri  (i;  1  ,lv  yi^o,  .  \  d'l     ■.  lul  .TinLr  roland.  originate  ? 
1142.   "\'.  Ikk  rtfi -Mv  wfTr   -i'-a.   '-y  'i.-    ]  •  rLiiioinu^  powcis   lyr  tlie  i!-- 

m*'iiit  I  i.i  '  .;'l  of  ^\..i\..(\  : 
ll^:>.  Dill  tl.e  l'<"!t  '  a.- ." ■.!;;'*'"  :,•._!•!   ^lo  in  tlic  mcafun- ? 
IMl.  ^^'in■M  v.tr  111'   G^il  -u  :.(  .u'«Vv  u.  r.Lci  upon  and  sanctioned  dt  ttc 

Toii'i  '■:'•:? 

1140.  A"  1     :;  ^'"  1  a  a  '"O/.  /  p:H:i'J'  ii  t  .J    ]Virr,  and  v.lirn  a  third? 
IMiJ.   AVh:.t  -.-.,..    ol  :-!.. -li.   .     ..  di.    1..  ..  .ei'i-of  lolaiid? 

11-17.   Win.  '  ai   '  ly  \  \it\  -.  \\'a<  i    r  \i'r  '   ^.  «;•  clart'd  rc-eMablished? 
ll-:8.   \M:  .'  is  LIl.  ]T^.   1  '  1  .;:ii(.:d  CO    iir:.norii? 

SrCTK  •?,  XX. 

1140.  Winn  v.-.-r-  }■  ■:.'i;U.  -  »-.  iirv,'(  tl  ^y  •":  rlaiid  a:r:rui?t  France? 
1150.  ^\'liat  ("AV-  1  "^T^  u"i  ;  ic--"  t  >  I'c  iuw-lv  1  v. 'ih  iirxid.  Liituin  ? 
1161.  Il')w  d\A  til  •  L    .  ■  '.  vi  •;  :•■.'.  I'l.'  r'^'  s  .•'JMstiCf  in  r-  uaiii  to?-p.v'  ' 

Whaf    ^y\' r    '.  '  »!■ 'i  M' (.id  lh(  K:'.--ir!i  cLdaJn  owr  the    FrMa' 

and  H   :u.:-'',  i.-  1.   - j  r 

1152.  Of  whaf  1 '  r  oj  i.j'Hjre  v.  cie  the  Kn  if  liiiii  judged  iTuilty  to\^:LTdi\\\' 

lJai)«  ♦•  .•■ 

1153.  What  C'u-  -i  1  ',»■  r..yvJ  family  ofl'rancc  to  take  r€'fu:;"e  in  EngliL-', 

ia  U'  '7  r 

1154.  ^^"hat  were  t"  "  1*i  ■  h.^h  ordf/s  in  cu-nicil  issued  in  Januar>'-aud  .^  - 

1155.  When  wr^  •;  *  .     ..n  .  o^'.Trli  d  appHuttd  rt';:eut  of  Great  Britf-ii. 

1156.  ^Vhy  ivi'^  ".  .    .    .;•  -h'     L: 

1157.  Whatili'li'  '  i*  ..<     "»  fso-.)aiif(Mvas  a^>a«sinated  in  themontb  of  M"  r 

rjl2r     ,  . 

1158.  What  int  '"  ;    ^    ut  t  >r.::  yA-.u- _■  in  Kriijland.  in  May,  KUC? 

1159.  l>y  vhat    -  '    >'y  ci    «<'   T.ui  it  5iiC(  ^.a;dt(l  in   ^'ovcln^L•r  of  tt^ 

followi,' . 

1160.  When  did  C'  ^  i.  d\'> 


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«*;  :  y\'r*  •>.  aft 

-•      '.'N  vvr. 

lU.U  H  \-.'  Mil.   I'r-    -V-r     •    i     .  :•    •»•    .    :.r  N.^k- Icon,  after 

n»\{.  w         i       . 

►  l«. ;.   \    .    .',.1    •:       !'.!  '•        .V«'   .        .:..    •,•..'     [i  I  :  • '. I  r  ttrminat- 

•  1  h.-  ,ir« 

i:  .;..    V        .,  ri-  '.:■..  it  ".     •       ..:..  '..  '.'..'.     \     ^  *     :  i«]..  1? 

1  !•>•/.    '».,.:.          il  -  .    .»  .J   '    ■    ••    I'   '  ;     lit  ..  y    ,      .    ..I. .:•/«»  ID 

•■.'"•'.    Av  .«  \     :•...».    V   .    Ill  •   *  .      ^ ..   I.     ■  I    .'i  tit  c!  in 

f !  ..  •  x.iw.  *; 

11'. 7.   \'«  ...it  ,      I    •    .  a       '.  tl»i   .    ..•  •  '.I     yr  \.!.ll'  '.ui  •   iivi'luli'^nt 

i.i  tn  .1  <  ^      :ry  ? 

-V.CTl   >N   .\   J  I. 

II- 'i.  \M   .  v»  I  th     ♦' r.  !■   ■  1      .♦         .      '  .',4  of  r  Sr  I.   upon  Ih*- 

X  '. ,'    ..:  ir     M. ' 

1.  ■'».  II    ^    !    ,,-      ■•  r    I  '.  .'  ..I  1.  ;  J  ♦•'.  .  .:   '  (1.    jrino -.-   MizaUth 

«  o    '    '  ♦'      '.  : 

1'T".    I!     .       I.  .1  ...  :•.'  V.  ..ri.    •.  .  !.  llui? 

r:i.    '.    1..C  ....     I     I  •  I.  . 

;]':.   \»     .'  \.  .«  :  ic  • '..  (  .    '1  i      •  .  i      r  Iuh  ni  1o'.v,  ^ho  ?ncc€ed 

1 17.».  "V".       '       '   a:.  V  ■    ••  r,  !'.     i  .•  •   •  t   I  1  I    r   r  rf  llu«Ma,  comti  to  tin 


:.-  kIpj'  -in  t'>  t:.    • 
'\u:  lei.  n  i>f  Lr«  ■!■  ri  \ 


i\  .    I..   .»..  .    .«     'J'.     I,r  .  '  .' 
:       -ui     .    ,       -    ,  :.  .1? 
.     t     M»-  :»•'.  !     : 
'  I'  •    f  .    .    '  III  '''  11"  .r!i  tluro  the  close  of  the 

1  W-'n.   lb  V.;,  ,t  \;  .1  w  ,«     .,.!•  i  I  ,  \  II.  c«':.ii  '  t  •)  \.  ilW  (fror^r  III.  of  E2b^ 

]l.'t;»  U 'ir      ilii*  ',' •    !,  Car. I       ^!  '  '  ia,  ri'ircto,  aod  end  her  daja 

Ili.*7.   Wh.iilb    I..     ••!.•.,.--!  I'M.  «rV> 

si:rnr»N  xxiii. 

I1:j3.  Id  what  .'•>;'?  •  ^\\  :.'    *  ..t  it. v  »ived  Muring  the  first  p»rt  ol 

the  V.'i   f 
linX  WhUU  riV.M'  ,    ;       .  :  »:  .  I.     •  ir '..•,!  tho  onUr  of  Jetuitt? 
1  1^.  \\|io  wui  ru- •     '    I'     ,    iMi  .  I  t     iinT'i? 
IIDI.   At  whatl  airt,  V  ..  p,   .       wti.n    .iMi*  tin' 

1195.  How  cani'-  ht    ('  \  •  ■ 

1 193.  Wht-a  vai  lii«  •   ■  i .       ,  • !  .   *  r.  rr  cHv  what  n:i*ir  t*  h**  called* 

1104.  %Mitn  djdh'    I  ; :  ii     •..•!.  :•'  n    ^ku  ia  Franc*? 

1 106.  What  injury  ci..i  h«'  :«  '.      **r..-  r.  c  ,\»-  tnuii  rrmer"? 

.i^ri  rjo\  \xiv. 

1 196.  Who  iras  Ibe  rclg*..i  z  \"  '^  ^^    '  ''>  ^'  •  ^-^i^^^'inr  <*f  ^  IMl 

ccatmy? 


!  ■'  '. 

V  ' 

}\    V    ! 

'  1 '  •'. 

\     r- 

.  ::. 

\;   .  • 

!  .     1. 

\'           • 

t  I     J. 

\-. 

:i   ;. 

v    . 

...A, 

Hon    . 

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.'W  QUESTIONS. 

1 197.  To  -vhat  ag^e  did  he  live  h 

1 198.  In  what  manner  did  he  come  to  the  throne? 

il99.   What  singular  fact  U  mentioned  as' eTidence  of  the  cooteiilicNii 

common  for  the  throne,  with  that  semi-barbarotu  people  ? 
1:^00.  What  chartered  priyilege  has  the   En^liih   East  uulia  Cm&pwj 

with  this  people  ? 
1^1.  When  did  the  Company  receirc  this  privileged 
1 202.  What  description  of  this  people  is  called  Sepoys  ? 
lt^03.  Who  is  reg^arded  a£  the  founder  of  the  Britiih  empire  in  India' 
lfi04.  When  did  the  British  parliament  make  provision  to  prevent  abuses 
of  power  in  India  ? 

1205.  What  distin<!:ii^l^ed  individuals  were  instrumental  in  the  first  re- 

forms under  the  new  system  ? 

1206.  What  is  the  reason  why  this  system  wa«  not  scmptiloiisly  adhered 

to? 

1207.  W'hat  was  the  object  of  Tippoo  in  regard  to  the  English  ? 

1208.  For  what  object  was  the  East  India  College  establuhed  ? 

1209.  What  ia  the  population  of  British  India? 


STATE  OF  ARTS,  SCIENCES,  RELIGION,  LAWS,  GOVERN- 
MENT, &c. 

1210.  What  countries  have  been  particularly  distinguished  in  literatue, 

arts,  and  science,  in  the  18th  century? 

1211.  Which  of  the  sciences  in  particular  have  been  much  coItiTated  and 

advanced  in  that  time  ? 

1212.  In  what  particulars  has  chemistry  undergone  important  changes  ia 

the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century? 

1213.  W'ho  claim  to  be  the  autliors  of  the  new  theory  of  chemistry? 

1214.  What  is  now  ascertained  to  be  the  nature  of  atmospheric  air? 

1215.  By  whom  was  the  discovery  of  vital  air,  or  oxygen  gas,  made  ? 

1216.  To  what  branch  of  chemistry  is  the  discovery  of  the  decoaqxMttioa 

of  water  owing? 

1217.  Who  discovered  the  constituent  parts  or  principles  of  water? 

1218.  What  are  tlity  called  ? 

1219.  W  ho  are  some  of  the  most  distinguished  chemists  of  the  18th  cen- 

tury ? 

BOTANY. 

1220.  Where  and  when  was  Linn«us  bom  ? 

1221.  What  is  the  foundation  of  his  systematic  botany  ? 

1222.  With  how  many  species  of  plants  are  botanists  now  said  to  be  ao 

quainted  ? 

1223.  W'hat  French  botanist  has  done  much  for  the  benefit  of  the  soeoce  ? 

1224.  What  is  the  diB'erence  betwet^n  the  system  of  Linnasus  and  that  oi 

Jusaiea  ? 

ELECTRICITY. 
i225.  Who  were  some  of  the  persons  who  first  wrote  learnedly  on  the 

subject  of  electricity  ?  • 
1226.  Who  proved  that  the  electric  fluid  and  lightning  are  the 

thing  ? 
1237.  To  what  practical  purposes  did  be  apply  this? 

1228,  Of  whom  was  Galvanism  the  discovery  ? 

1229.  What  is  Galvanism  calJe  d?  ' 
W30.  What  English  philosopher  has  become  much  ce1ebr»tedforbii « 

tro-chemical  researches  ? 


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MINERALOGY  AND  GEOLOGY. 
1931.  When  did  the  modem  ■cientific  arrangemenU  of  minenlthegiBi* 
occof  7  the  attention  of  naturallstB  ? 

1232.  Who  has  the  credit  of  reducing  the  icience  lato  dauet  and  orden  « 

1233.  From  what  did  geology  ssrise  ? 
1334.  What  ii  geology  > 

GEOGRAPHY. 

1235.  What  two  new  quarters  of  the  world  haye  been  presented  to  off  ia  < 

the  last  century,  according  to  the  French  geographers  i 

1236.  What  does  Australasia  include  i 

1237.  What  does  Polynesia  include? 

1238»  What  took  place  in  1761,  in  eYidence  of  the  improrements  in  ciTiU* 
zation  i 

1239.  What  eminent  Prussian  traTeller  has  contributed  to  the  perfectioa 

of  geographical  knowledge  ? 

1240.  From  what  period  have  the  Russian  sovereigns  made  laudable  c( 

forts  to  obtain  correct  geographical  information  i 
1S41.  Hat  the  science  of  astronomy  undergone  as  great  changes  as  the 
other  sciences  named  during  the  last  century .' 

1242.  How  many  planets  have  been  discovered  in  that  time  ? 

1243.  What  fact  is  stated  from  which  we  can  form  some  conjecture  of  the 

number  of  fixed  stars  ? 


1244.  What  French  writer  did  much  to  unsettle  the  minds  of  his  country- 

men on  religion  and  politics  f 

1245.  From  whom  has  it  been  supposed  that  Voltaire  imbibed  his  delstical 

sentiments?  ' 

1246.  Who  Were  the  principal  deistical  writers  of  England  ? 

1247.  What  counteftcted  the  tendency  of  their  writings  ? 

1248.  What  other  eminent  French  philosopher  visited  England,  besidee 

Voltaire,  about  the  same  time  ? 

1249.  To  what  did  he  principally  confine  his  views? 

1250.  What  were  the  political  opinions  of  Rou99<  an  f 

1251.  What  was  the  origin  of  the  French  Encyclopedia  ? 

1252.  What  courts  of  Europe  were  thrown  (']>en  to  the  French  phfloe^ 

phers? 

1253.  Is  it  to  be  supposed  that  the  French  philr>«ophers,  to  whom  there^ 

olution  has  been  imputed,  contcaipLititd  tho  awful  catastrophe 
of  that  event  ? 

1254.  Who  was  chiedy  instrumental  in  introducing  the  improvements  of 

the  18th  century  into  Russia  ? 

DISCOVERIES  AND  INVENTIONS. 

1255.  What  are  the  principal  dijcovtries  and  i'lvmtions  of  xrf^  \"rn  times? 

1256.  What  effect  hskd  the  French  revolution  ou  tl.c  people  oi  ..lu  r  coun- 

tries  ^ 
1^5/7.  What  moral  improvements  have  taken  place  in  the  cni'i'^m  of  r«« 
riotti  civiliied  nations  i 

RELIGION. 

1258.  In  what  countries  does  paganism  prevail ' 

1259.  What  is  the  present  condition  of  the  Jews? 

1260.  ^Vhere  does  Mahometanism  pn-\'ail  ? 

1261.  V^htX  are  the  principal  sects  of  the  Christian  rcligio 
\iG2.  What  sects  hsive  be«n  most  active  as  mi«sionarici  * 

4 


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3!i  aui:s'j'ioxs. 

12G3.    \^'l;^.t  rban*t;  }in<  thepnj.:il  aullinrity  t.xp;:rienced  in  the  time  un- 
ci, r  co*j:j'JLraiioii .'' 

HISTORY,  POLITE  LITIKATT'IIf-,  rjyK  ARTS,  &c. 
1264.  What  Gurinaus  have  ht^LVi  vlir'.!:\^i.  r '.'..1  iti  literature,  and  the  fiuc 

artri? 
M'C).  AVIio  in  Trail ce  ? 
1  J6!7.  AN  bo  in  (rrtat  l]rltain  ? 
V2{il,  AVho  ia  Italy? 

rPvEATV  OF  v:r:  XA,  i-i.\ 

li2Go.  Vi'hat  adrUUna  of  teriilory  v. as  ^i^ni  ti    i.ui^ia,  and  what  new  tif 

tie  tu  tm-  Czar  : 
ie^9.   AVluit  it  tob?  Ihr  roiv]it:on  oi^^icor;? 
rJTU.   llow  a;  I  tl.is  trcatv  aii.M.,  .-.t^   j,j  ? 
1271.   li.  wdia  it  alilct  i^rus.-i.t? 
1:27;^.  \\  iiat  chaiijje  took  j  lace  m  th-  IW  t])jil.i!'(!«  ? 


PAiiT  For.n;rH. 

u:;iTi:D  estates. 

STCTKW  I 

1273.  AVlicn  aL»]  by  whom  ^\i,■i  .\in«  ri"a  ^'i-r  .\»  n  i  r 

1274.  I'lul.-r  v•l^'5f^  |.atr<>n:^;-;i'  w.-"  it  u'-.  .vy.  ,,  ,(  * 

1275.  ^\hiii  ]-r[  <A  ]i  v:is  ui.-r.  vcit-.l  i\.  \  :' 

1*271).  'S'.  liy  w-  Lc  t'lc  i'-/r.   :.  Ci^i  '.'..-(\>\k  v-t  ■  <";.   1  :'i,«  W   -.i  p.^i  s> 

1277.  'Way  \./.^  \\n-  i,  i.'  ia  .i  r  ^l    a    \  «      !<  a 

1278.  llo'vv  loi;;,  lit:  v  tiii'  r  '. '  'iKn'-us  -ai^.i  J.  -hi  f!u    •' ".-i  ,.  .;   .   b  f'.re  he 

rcacltt  (1  ^'t.  h'ah  ado:  r 

1279.  To  v.hat  i^o\y  r.iiwn'.s  u\d  h?  a}>;'ly  ior  /at.  ■;-..:  •  ■.  !♦.!.  )uL  iU'-«  rss  ? 

i<i:rTi':r;  ii. 

1280.  Kv  vhfjn  and  wh  n  was  the  conti-ant  i  '  rr^ih   .'.^1).  r:.-a  .'i«r:->ver- 

■  C(l  r 

1281.  On  wliaf  a'-coiMit  did  N'ir-i-'.Ia  dtMlv;.  \\^i/.  .n>-{  < 

1282.  Who  .'iiadf  the  la-t  rittcaipt  to  col.»iji/.<-  (h:.-  j-,r*.  ..ff/v^  c.^i.t-'i'tnt  ? 
1233.  To  Avhuni  did   ^'^iir  \Vait«  r  KaUigli   aftt  m-,  :  .1  ..ji  .^^n  hi?  iuU-r.st  in 

the  ccTiiifiy  ? 

1284.  F'-om  ivliat  liid  Jntnos  rivrr  take  it§  iianu'? 

1285.  On  wliat  accouiit.  did  capt.  Joiiii  Smitl)  c»i-tain  Ids  5r?t  rclraj»e  frnia 

the  Indians-  ? 

1286.  Who  effcctcrd  his  srcond  releasi'  from  Uu»m  ? 

1287.  On  what  acrouut  was  the  cultivation  of  th«;  soil  nrglfctrd  by  the 

first  colonists? 

1288.  What  is  the  history  of  Focabontas  substqucnt  to  ?;;\  I'l*  the  life  of 

capt.  Smith  ? 

1289.  WTio  first  brou-rbt  Ihp  African  neproe?  into  this  part  of  tht-  country? 

1290.  What  part  did  the   Vir-iniajis  tula-  in  relation  to  tht  revoh.tienof 

the  mother  country  under  (>om\v(  11  ? 
"*?91«  What  was  the  population  of  \ir^iiiia,  in  1CP6' 


yGoOgl 


e 


ui  I  ri  lu.Nj.  ad 

l-l-./TInN  HI. 

1   •'.'.  V.''j:U  n.i-t'A.  r  :  ^  I  in  i  ■••  I '  ••  i.»  Mi.  o«I'  iiy? 

1       ;.  \.  .■  »  u  .»  I  ..    •-  I'.-.  :  ■  i.t    .       •  ? 

;.     '.  '      n    A    .11    .   !    I    "  '  .'.  .  '..t   ' '\   !.;■   *♦  lirrt  c  ri'i^t  ? 

1      #.  t  .  ';  •  A'  !    .  .r  ■'.  .  4*  <    I    .-'-  'v<  .  ><  .'■  •  .'..■>  I  .v  .I'U  r 

1  .  <...  li    w-.  »      ■    ••••.i.r...    •..    .;..-    ..    .ir.  M-.  m  Ihr-  y,  ar  lr>"'i  r 

U'.-7.  \.n.-l     .    il  T  J    J        h.-t    Sl"jt  I.L  «•!    Sim-..'     hlil.d    a:.. I    1  f  -Vl  !t  ;*C»- 

ri  .  t.,t.    li 
IJ'' ;.    \".  ;      I      .  :»«      .    ..   '.I'*  i»  of  Ii  .  ,.j:  !,  .  p.iii^i:.  Iil,   au  1  \.<.  .  !»•  rt« 

J 
1.  •  '.    '.     I-    .   .     1  »  V  »  *.     ,1  T%  .-»  ^'    '.•-(..-•  .i;,    111   t  mUIi  i? 
;.,ii'.    r,  ,.  .  «•■  .  .1    »:  •  .  i.c   r...-.   *  c- .1....V.K-   1  Liw  en  tlie   K;'^li=Ii 

'.  .  .  .  # 

1     »!.   Wii.'    .  I     .   j'  .'.'.I  <•.    ;«    '    !  .»  I  ?•  ll!i  .1  in  Nt  w-I-n.;! .    ]y  uj» 

I,.  1  ..   : 
1   "jj.   '• .     u     .-!  I  If,        !.    ,.     -.     .']•<.   '    'k  1  \\rf  in  ^iatiadi  :»*' Ui» 

a     '  .•  •    e-     I  .1    ii-    .  «    .  1 1  :  t     y  : 

r     ►.   V.  I,    .  .V       .'•  \    :...,.     •        ,    -  <  4  ;i  V  >..u  m  >ii'<  acraltf 
I.      .   ^.  .1    I  •  ,•    J''-   .      *  -'  •  . 

I  jt  I.  I  .     »'.,..!       1   .-.^   .  ■....».    il«..:i.',  :ua\  by  wli.-^^in  was  it 

i  .  *7.    '    '  •  ■'  \^  .    !'     I ■  I  .  '  ■•   .     .  .    ■  r 

1       '.   \   :.  '1  .1  .1  .  y  V       a  •/  .ui  • .     .     t    «  ■  .    . . 

S;,«  'i  1     A  iV. 
1    :  •.   'M.   •  :   '.••.         ••  ^     :  .       .  ■        ..  ...    \      ^'.»? 
lal  i.   Ill  i\..  it    V    \        • .  •      ;     I  ...<..•  1"  .j!.  'i  i\:'hin 

t .     '   A  ,  or  ;  i  •       • .  '...'..  t 

1    ::.    ^     i*     ,   •.        M  t..'      .        :    tt        \    .     .    .   :■    V        :.   'hI   jll-sup- 

,    .:  •       '".         ...       ,   '     1  ..  •    .        '      '.     .    . 
i  ,   J.    V.  ii   a   »     '   ..      I  .   .1      '      "I        .1    1  .  I  ,     '.   V  '.  ..i  *»\    :  to  IUI>- 

j    -M..     ^  <■ .  I 

1  :i.i.  '  '    :  \..»-  t.  '• .  ,c  .  -. .  . .     *..:*...»'  i;... ' 

1  ;;  J.    .!     •       »    ••  <  1-,   •  ..  i'-     .     .......  ^I    "  *   •*>•  i   '.i?ap- 

'   '•         •  .l'  '-^  '.. 

'  •••:.  '...  .1 .  .   . .' .    .       i!         ■  s  I  -«'  r    * 

I.,., 7.    '.    h'*    (    .     :  I*    I    I     ^  «.    .\        i.    !«  '.    .i  t!.i     <:iit'::f    of 

1  " .  ^'   .•  ■■  r.  •■'•.<:•■:  ^  f-    : ',  ;.i  :\.*  r  m.  h  w  ir? 

IM  '.    W        .  V  .'   ••..•  I    .'    '.    •        .  .•.•.- 

1   :  •.  ^^       •      I.,    c   .       .  \      .        :      '      .1  .' 

1.  .i.    \...'.  ,    .  f  '  •■    '       .,.      ...  .11    ;.•....  ..al  Lo.     "..Iw     'hll.  n 

at  -N.  '.T-V     ..  r 
r,.\  V     .n  '  a    •'  .   1'.  w    -    •■  •? 
1    .  ',   \      «•'.!-  t    r    .  ,     ,     !       r  ^.  ,1.  J  •.  •    • 
;ji.    N' »  il  •'!*;  i:.  a..*       I    'U  f  <       :»:    *'■      n.  h.  II  "  '  * 
I  ..'  •.   \. .  it  <  M.ii.,'    I'    k  )    I  •  . .»  l:.'   I .  '  I'H'  I  .ii  1    .  '.  \     "^  ' 
I  ^J  ..   ^'  '  it  ili-t'.»'4  liK'  ^  I''    .  i  .u  c  in  i'  .*'   .,  iu  '«.  '.;■  I  i".*,«'r 
|.,J7.   V.'  ,♦  t.W:  j.lin  in  17;.. 
lJ*ii.   V>:».tl  n  M**.  t:if  •!  w.i-  tn  .  ?■  ,  1773,  iil  Uoi'oj,  to  tl»«-  I»riil-h  :;overa- 

mv  )t  t.i  r«  litti  •,)  t*»  t(  A  : 
1.'..*'^.  V.  h..>  ^\  i«  Ihu  Urili'ii  f  c'.-.oi*u.l«  r-I»-i  M.  i  i.i  f*  •*  «i.,  '»f  thi?  lime*? 
IJ  ;j.  \M.  a  too  5c  |.l.ui'  .'it  the  c.  J.«ici«  <.i  17.1,  !»>'  I»  ii  i;.  I .   '  i  I«  .;     .» ? 
IJJt.  Whvrc  auM  uificr  wh:it  circtiJi>t:iiM^cft  wai  »}  tit  Im  '...-It        1  of 

the  rcvolutioiiaiy  witt  ? 
1232.  \S  hat  led  to  the  bumiu^  of  CliArU&tuwn  i 


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40  auEsnoNs. 

J 333.  Who  Ueaded  an  expedition  into  Canada.' 

1334.  With  what  success  was  it  made  ? 

1335.  By  whom  was  general  Gage  superseded? 

1336.  When  did  the  British  evacuate  Boston  f 

1337.  When  was  published  the  declaration  of  American  Independence? 

1338.  What  tended  mach  to  raise  the  desponding'  hopes  of  America  m 

the  latter  part  of  1776  ? 

1339.  What  splendid  advantages  did  the  Americans  gain  In  1777? 

1340.  When  was  a  treaty  of  alliance  formed  between  the  French  and 

Americans  ? 

1341.  Who  took  the  command  of  the  English  army  on  the  return  of  gea* 

eral  Howe? 

1342.  Why  was  general  Lee  suspended? 

1343.  What  took  place  on  the  15th  July,  1779? 

1344.  Where,  and  nnder  what  circumstances  was  count  Pdaski  mortally 

wounded  ? 

1345.  What  prevented  West  Point  from  falling  into  the  possession  of  the 

English? 

1346.  Wliat  distinguished  French  military  and  naval  commasden  were 

sent  to  the  aid  of  America  ? 

1347.  What  event  is  reckoned  to  have  decided  the  contest  between  Eng- 

land and  America  ? 

1348.  How  much  money  did  En^rland  expend,   and  how  many  lives  did 

she  sacrifice  in  this  war  ? 

SECTION  V. 

1349.  When  did  the  convention  meet  to  form  a  new  constitution? 

1350.  When  and  where  did  the  first  congress  meet  under  the  new  consti* 

tut  ion  ? 

1351.  What  produced  an  insurrection  in  the  western  part  of  PennsylTa- 

nia? 

1352.  What  was  the  state  of  affairs  between  the  United  States  and  Fnnct* 

during  the  revolution  in  the  latter? 

1353.  When  did  congress  first  meet  in  the  city  of  Washington  ? 

1354.  What  are  the  principal  particulars  of  the  war  with  Tripoli? 

1355.  When  and  for  how  niucn  was  Louii^iaua  purchased  ? 

SECTION  VI. 

1356.  What  were  the  particulars  that  led  to  the  suspension  of  commodore 

Barron  ? 

1357.  What  led  to  the  declaration  of  war  on  the   18th  of  June,  1812,  be- 

tween the  United  Slates  and  ("Treat  Britain? 

1358.  What  wore   some   of  tiie  principal  disKsters  on  land,  which  the 

Americans  ex])erienced  durin»  th«  war? 

1359.  What  were  their  principal  and  moi>L  brilliant  successes  on  land? 

1360.  What  naval  victories  did  they  obtain  ? 

1361.  What  naval  losses  did  they  experience? 

1362.  What  American  ofTicers  wire  killed  during  the  war  ? 

1363.  What  British  oncers  were  killed  during:  it  ? 

1364.  When  and  where  was  a  treaty  of  peace  signed  ? 

1365.  Who  were  the  commissionf  ra  ? 

1366.  What  states,  since  the  admission  of  Louisiana  in  1812,  have  beat 

admitted  into  the  union  ? 
1387.  What  accession  of  territory  did  the  United  States  receira  in  iSWf 
1368.  What  was  the  population  of  the  United  States  in  1820  f 


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aiESlMONS, 


IWirr  1 IKTH. 


sncrioN  I. 

I  *«"V  \^'•t  tt  ri,>  lm|^laTJ^'f5  ;i»itutO(i  FraTire  in  18*i0? 

!  .7-:    \\'ii>  ii  <li«I  Uoiiapnrte  tiic,  ana  at  what  ago  ^ 

\  :\.  W!i:i:  i>  said  *  I'  liini  ? 

i:!7*i.  \Vliat  u;ir  ori'sirr»'i1  in  ld2'^  and  vvliat  were  iu  efiecli  ? 

\'\7:\.  Wlirn  did  Louis  Will,  die,  and  who  surcfteded  him? 

1*74.  What  circuiiistnnf:<*9  occurred  in  Portti^pd  in  1820|  in  1 821,  and  ta 

1^23? 
WtTt.  \V1io  Hucceedcd  George  III.? 

J.?7t».  What  remarkable  events  occurred  in  England  in  1620? 
I;J77.  For  whai  wa«  the  Summer  of  1821  remarkable,  and  what  were  iie 

consequences  ? 
1S76.  What  important  decree  wan  is^tled  by  the  Trnperor  of  Rusnia  in  1811  ? 

1379.  What  change  haa  ttince   taken   place    in    tiin  constitution  of  thai 

Empire  ? 

1380.  MHiat  was  tJie  declaration  of  the  Congress  (»f  Vienna  in  1815,  witk 

regard  to  the  slave  trade  ? 

1381.  How  far  were  their  pnrpoiieti  in  this  respect  carried  into  effect? 

1382.  What  circumBtance«  occurred  with  r(>gard  to  the  Jcsuitt  in  1816  andl 

in  1820? 

1383.  When  did  Pope  Pius  VII.  die,  and  %vho  succeeded  him  ? 

1381.  What  were  the  principal  evcuta  in  the  life  of  th«  preient  pope,  pre- 
vioas  to  hit  elevation  to  the  papal  throne  ? 

1385.  What  occurred  in  Naples  and  Sicily  in  1820  and  1821. 

1386.  When  did  tJie  Greeks  revolt  nguinst  the  Turks ' 
1,387.  What  as  said  of  this  war  ? 

SECTION  II. 

1388.  From  what  must  %ve  estimate  the  degree  of  civiltzatioa  to  whieh  tin 

ancient  Mexicans  had  attained  ^ 

1389.  What  is  said  of  the  political  syatem  ? 

1390.  What  of  the  ecclesiastical  ? 

1391.  What  crimes  were  made  capital  ? 

1392.  To  what  was  the  attention  of  government  principally  directed  f 

1393.  What  is  said  of  the  other  govemmenta  in  the  country  ? 

1394.  What  of  the  arts  and  sciences  known  to  them  ? 

1395.  Do  they  appear  to  have  been  less  civilized  than  European  nationi  of 

the  same  period  ? 
J396.  What  occurred  when  the  Spaniards  first  landed,  andJiow  wett  Ihty 
afieeted  by  it  ? 

1387.  What  occurred  in  their  ronte  to  Tenochtitlan  or  Mexico  f 

1398.  When  did  they  arrive  at  the  capital  ? 

1399.  What  force  had  Cortez  at  this  ume  ? 

1400.  How  wore  they  received  ? 

1401.  What  was  the  firat  act  of  aggreasion  ? 

1402.  Wljntmost  excited  the  indignation  of  the  Meikaotf 

1403.  On  what  account  did  Cortez  leave  the  city  ? 

1404.  In  what  state  did  he  find  tilings  on  hia  retam  ? 

1405.  How  was  Montezuma  killed  ? 
I40t{.  Who  was  hia  successor  ? 

4» 


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42  aUESTIONS. 

1407.  Where  did  the  first  battle  occur,  and  what  wai  its  muh ' 

1408.  Wiiat  measures  did  Cortez  adopt  to  strengthen  his  force  r 

1401).  When  did  he  return  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Tenochtitlaa,  anA  % 
measures  did  he  pursue  to  conquer  the  city  f 

1410.  What  number  of  allies  did  he  receive  ? 

1411.  When  was  the  city  conquered  r 

1412.  How  did  Cortoz  (fispose  of  his  ca])tives  ? 

1413.  In  whose  reiqn  did  the  conquest  occur  ? 

1414.  What  is  feaid  of  the  history  of  New  ;:?pain  from  this  per'^jd  t.I'  ♦•• 

revolution  ? 
141f>.  Whose  property  were  these  colonies  ? 
14l(>.  How  were  llicy  divided? 
1417.  What  wn.i  llic'authority  of  the  viccrDV  ? 

14H.  What  aids  h;ul  the  \ireroysin  the  administration  of  government ' 
inn.  On  whom  did  the  Fuprciue  authorily^  devolvo  whin  a  \  ic^roy  'i,«H- 
14'^0.  Wlion  wjn  ihj'  Council  of  llie  Indies  eaiablibhcd,  and  what  i»m    * 

fiinctioii'-  ? 
1421.  What  nlhtr  trihti:ul  was  there? 
UtZ.  \Vi.-i{  orr.im  d  in  J-Os  J  ^ 

14*2o.  II  »\v  did  tlii->  rAYwt  the  Euroj)ran  part  of  the  j  ^'j-ulL'.i-in.  ttl  *;jc 

di.l  ti.-y  dor 
14*7  J.   Vv'li)  v.;i«-  ;!t'»  next  \\r^Tny  ? 

14','-').  \\  lia^  c«>K.>  ,r:  i  y  v.,i    ;•  rinrd.  find  how  did  it  lrr,ii»nale 
I  'rli'}.  W  '.  .  I  (  .•  '■.  u  •,'«!:<  .i-r  u,<  nti'-in  tl  r 
ll'>7.  W'l:  :i  .'id  -  •:.-  /..l  X[-^  jsinvr - 

14'J.V  Vvl.    I.  ;■;.  I  ."i    -r.  v:h:A  (,::U-o,  (^Id  iht  L.-*  r.Vvdt  I'r  ah  llit   :i-  ;    . .-.  ? 

^■;^1;ll   »).-  •    •  f 

iKV\  T^'iiO  r..,\v  n.i.N'fl  \\    'r  inn-u-nre  in  fa\'>Mr  of  a  reV'  liili«  it  - 

1  *.il.  ^^  ho  \;a»-  .'    i'    t   n  \>  t-     .  \;'o  ^'  -  ir  j.l<  n«5  ' 

J-ioi.  \\  Ir.f   liir-Mi.d  did  he  a  :<;/   t)  i  A  \:  i  in\-.  If  t«»  th*  »m   r>  *. 

^  :h...-'v? 
1  <"/^  WI'O  \\   ii  '."  •  f  !«  ••,.'.-.  :;nd  wiio  !  i.>  i>'>pont  u\<  ' 
1  '  il.  \\   ,vu  \%:->|.-  .    .'   -.,:  <     •    •  -r- 
l-::'*).    I'    •^*  V,'.  u   l\  '  i'.   :  :y  ;.  i"  .-t*  m  r 
1      1.  W.  )  li    ,.    r  ■    ••  :«']»:    •i-e  a  ii- w  ro»«>k«::'>r   :.r.  J  \\  •    •   %.»—     • 

I  :    "^r..  ^  / 
n-*r.  T»v  u,;..  ,,  ,      ,  ^'   T..  -r  -->:o,.:? 
14.     .    \.)     I.  '.»    «;        .:•...!    • .  -n  e   pi.-I.  U'll  r 

l-;:-.  y.    :•'     .  '    •  .  •'  I       •'..  r       * 

14   '''.  \'  .  I  .".)...j  ■  .'       •  ;.t  wav  r«»i'r.<l!-hed  ' 

14'1.  V  .....  vv.     -     ..-.    ..  ..     ,..  :.  n.,y   dr 

l'\k2.  "v\  f'  .t  i,  ii    •       .       :  I  .;  (I  r 

1  ).:'>.  \/m  .*.  m       r.  il  r  j  :.-..••;?.;  icni  was  lormi'd  at  the  5;'ni«"  n*noi' 

14  !  ^  V.  '.al  ti.K'  (!      .11  -'it  I.'  r 

114^.  \.\.a  w..^:.  ui.  ^-'.i^.-'.^'d? 

trCTICN   HI. 

I'J  '  V   ...  w    •■    •:.'•  ",  !i.i^   «c  ri^rovrrfd  ? 

14  !7.  \V:j-  ii  was  t'*.'*  ;  •  :  j.    Uitrent  nir -l"  ? 

J*  i-:.  I'.v  uli  'I.I  u.  n-  tl  I'v  •    .11  iii'.er  j  v.<-L»'ed  ? 

Ut».  Who  vv.'.s  i.i..i:  kv  :c.r 

l\7^'\  \»hoha\e  .T.N'  p  .•,^f'>>'d  'lie  I»a!i-irna«  r 

ir.\.  ^\^.:;;  j.  s-   d  r.;' '■„' jdr.  :■  ^ - 

I4'''.*.  \ .  k  .:  \<  '  •' t\  id'  tl  f  ^Mj  irii  '.es? 

ir,:..  u  :.,,;.  •.:,..  a  ...w.       ^ 

i:'j.  i:  .w  V,.  T-  : '  i  .. .'  \  ••  '  •,' ■•^vp 

P"-.  '.V.'.'  I . .   •■       ;  »  -' 

I :   •  •  •    •. 


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QUESTIONS.  43 

I  i.'?  What  became  of  the  inhatTttants  ? 

1  i'>'^  What  fact  is  worthy  of  rccpr4,nfl/v^tHir  of  the  Spaotardf  / 

1  *.'<*.  Who  wcro  the  BuccaBWDrsf    •  V  .'   I  y  ••,  ^ 

i  l«"p4).  Whence  their  namo r     I  •*••  *     I*     ••     •*'•    , 

14t)l.  Give  the  rest  of  ihei1wMsI<Jry?  ;   .  .       •••  •:'  J  '.  •  . 

:••  ••••     •  •  :  ;  •   .'  • 

•  •  ••   ••  •  .       •  •   •    •  • 

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M  QUESTIONS 

1513.  What  in  1814  and  in  1817?.    •  '.    \ 

1514.  How  was  the  patriot  ann^  ren^rgaiuzed  ?  I 

1515.  What  is  said  of  thejf  ^ atsije^  o^er  the^Andes  ?  i 

1516.  What  ww.e  tife'^veiUa  of  1818  ?  •  •  *.  ^    %  . 

1517.  Whitf  ((w^inlkto9t.isre8ta^li8h*ea  ?*•*••*  I 

1518.  Whx  w^tltbir  proj^rM&li^  r^l  knowledge  be  slow  ?  ( 
151d.-.Wbat  is  «aid  oC  i)oii  Xr»se'  ^^  ]Sl«^  f 

ISaO   What  is  said  efl^olWarr'    .  •      \ 


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